Cbe  Hiorarp 


of  thr 


antoersitp  of  Jftortb  Carolina 


From  the  Library  of 

The  Revs. 

•Robert  "Brent  <Urane,  D.  D. 

Father  and  Son 

1933 


<«: 


M 


m 


This  book  must  not 


5 


be  taken  from  the 
Library  building.  J 


Form  No.   471 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2012  with  funding  from 

University  of  North  Carolina  at  Chapel  Hil 


http://www.archive.org/details/profitablefarminOOfitz 


SUNDAY  AFTERNOON   ON   THE  FARM. 


PROFITABLE  FARMING 


IN  THE 

SOUTHERN  STATES. 


THE  FIRST  BOOK  ON  FARMING  WRITTEN  EXCLUSIVELY  FOR  SOUTHERN  FARMERS 

TREATING  THE 

SOUTHERN    FARM 

FROM  A 

SOUTHERN  STANDPOINT. 


BY 

J.  W.  FITZ, 

Virginia's  well-known  agricultural  writer, 


ASSISTED    BY 


JOSIAH  RYLAND,  Jr.,  AND  A  LARGE  CORPS  OF  PROMINENT  AND  SUCCESSFUL  AGRICULTURAL  WRITERS 


WITH    AN    INTRODUCTION    BY 


COL.  ROBERT  BEVERLY, 

EX-PRESIDENT   OF   THE    FARMERS'    CONGRESS    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES.      i 


Profusely  Illustrated  by  about  300  Superb  Engravings  by  the  Leading  Artists  of  the  World. 


THE  R.  D.  ROBINSON  PUBLISHING  CO., 

SUBSCRIPTION  BOOK  PUBLISHERS, 
RALEIGH,  N.  C. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S90,  by 

FRANKLIN  PUBLISHING  COMPANY, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


<£&t  ""\  •  -'JHJ&&  ""s  :>*  to  '''"£> 


OR  many  years  it  has  been  our  earnest  desire  to  place  within  the  reach 
of  the  farmers  throughout  our  beautiful  Southland  an  ideal  farmer's 
book,  one  that  -would  be  helpful  and  suggestive,  and  one  that  would 
benefit  every  member  of  the  household.  Some  five  or  six  years  ago 
we  began  to  get  together  the  material  for  the  preparation  of  such  a 
work.  It  has  gradually  gone  on,  until  now  we  offer  you  in  this 
volume  the  fruits  of  our  efforts,  and  we  leave  you,  kind  reader,  to 
judge  of  the  success  of  our  efforts.  Having  been  raised  on  a  farm,  we 
spent  our  boyhood  days  in  following  the  plow  and  the  reaper,  feeding 
the  stock,  and  ever}rthing  else  that  went  to  make  up  the  round  of  the 
farmer's  life.  We  frequently  look  back  with  longing  eyes  to  the  green 
and  golden  fields  that  were  the  delight  of  our  earlier  years.  While 
working  on  the  farm  and  realizing  the  difficulties  and  disadvantages  that  farmers  and  farmers' 
sons  had  to  labor  under,  we  determined  at  the  earliest  opportunity  to  lay  before  the  world,  for 
the  benefit  of  the  rising  generation,  such  information  in  a  permanent  form  as  would  lighten 
the  burdens  and  increase  the  prosperity  of  the  farmers.  Despite  the  pleasant  recollections  of 
the  past,  and  in  spite  of  the  glowing  words  of  poets,  we  know  full  well  that  the  farmer's  life  is 
not  a  bed  of  roses ;  but  tho  one  point  that  we  wish  to  impress  and  insist  on  is,  that  it  is  easily 
within  the  reach  of  every  farmer  to  very  materially  improve  his  present  surroundings;  that  ir 
is  within  his  reach  to  make  his  farm  and  home  more  attractive,  and  instead  of  young  men  and 
young  women  being  early  tolled  off  to  the  cities  and  business  centres,  for  love  of  pleasure  or 
gain,  they  may  find  in  their  own  homes  the  very  highest  sense  of  satisfaction  and  pleasure. 
One  of  the  things  that  used  to  make  us  sick — yes,  real  sick,  and  in  fact  we  have  not  by  any 
means  gotten  over  the  feeling  yet — was  to  go  to  a  farm-house  where  everything  was  at  "sixes 
and  sevens,"  where  the  work  was  carried  on  in  a  slip-shod  and  half-hearted  manner,  and  where 
it  was  a  constant  struggle  to  make  "buckle  and  tongue  ''  meet.  We  know  that  disasters  come 
to  the  best-managed  places  ;  we  know  that  there  are  many  days  of  cloud  and  gloom  as  well  as 
sunshine;  but  we  do  not  know  (and  we  have  had  an  opportunity  to  look  into  a  good  many 
different  kinds)  of  any  business  or  work  that  will  afford  the  sense  of  solid  satisfaction  that 
may  be  found  in  a  well-regulated  farmer's  life.  One  of  the  old  poets  more  than  two  thousand 
years  ago  longed  for  a  small  piece  of  land  with  a  wood  by  its  side,  and  how  many  sorrowing 
hearts  and  aching  heads  have  throughout  all  the  ages  longed  for  these  same  pleasant  surround- 
ings. Have  you  ever  spent  an  hour  listening  to  the  old-time  farmers  telling  what  a  grand  time 
it  was  to  make  money  "  before  the  war,"  when  Western  grain  and  Western  beef  were  things 
unknown,  and  when  labor  could  be  controlled  and  managed  so  as  to  produce  the  most  profit- 
able results?  How  they  dwell  upon  the  pleasant  things  of  the  past,  forgetting  entirely  the 
disadvantages  of  those  times.  The  fact  of  the  business  is,  there  has  been  much  more  money  made 
in  this  country  by  farming  since  the  war  than  there  ever  was  in  double  the  period  before  the  war.  This 
is  true,  both  of  the  South  and  the  North.  Larger  and  better  crops  have  been  made  than  ever 
before,  and  the  multiplication  of  agricultural  societies,  or  farmers' clubs  and  organizations, 
of  various  kinds,  have  a  tendency  to  elevate  the  standard  of  farming  and  the  farmer's  life. 
For  a  long  time  our  fathers  moved  along  in  the  ruts  that  were  made  by  their  fathers,  and  every- 
thing in  the  shape  of  an  agricultural  paper  or  an  agricultural  book  was  looked  upon  as  an  inno- 
vation, and  men  who  took  any  interest  in  such  things  were  regarded  as  fanciful  and  theoreti- 
cal; but  that  time  is  rapidly  passing  away,  as  it  is  being   demonstrated  that  the  more  intelli- 

(vii) 


viii  PUBLISHER'S  ANNOUNCEMENT. 


gent  and  better  educated  the  farmer,  the  more  successfully  he  pursues  his  calling.  His  friends 
and  neighbors  realize  that  by  the  successful  manipulation  of  the  soil  he  is  able  to  reap  from 
two  to  three  times  as  much  as  would  be  made  under  the  same  conditions  by  others  who  were 
more  careless  or  indifferent.  Now  the  object  of  this  book  is  to  help  men  in  preparing  them- 
selves to  be  the  very  best  farmers  that  the  "world  ever  saw. 

We  offer  in  this  the  most  original,  instructive  and  attractive  book  that  was  ever  issued  in 
this  country.  We  have  endeavored  to  blend  the  useful  with  the  beautiful,  and  we  think  that 
a  close  examination  of  the  Prospectus,  or  the  book,  "will  convince  you  that  we  have  met  with 
marked  success.  The  life  of  the  average  farmer  is  too  cold  and  sterile.  Crops,  crops,  rain, 
rain,  and  drought,  fill  up  by  far,  to  too  great  an  extent,  the  sum  of  their  existence.  To  culti- 
vate crops  successfully  is  of  course  a  very,  very  important  matter,  but  these  things  should  not 
be  allowed  to  entirely  absorb  the  whole  of  the  farmer's  life.  By  an  intelligent  study  of  the 
best  means  and  methods,  by  seeking  to  plant  and  cultivate  the  most  desirable  and  profitable 
crops,  results  may  be  accomplished  that  are  truly  wonderful,  and  at  the  same  time  leave  the 
farmer  an  hour  occasionally  for  recreation,  for  a  change  from  the  laborious  care  that  seems  to 
weigh  so  many  down,  from  day  to  day  and  year  to  year.  There  is  another  class  that  this  book 
is  especially  designed  to  benefit,  and  that  is, 

THE  FARMERS'  WIVES. 

How  often  have  we  been  saddened  by  the  statement  that  there  is  a  larger  per  cent  of 
farmers'  wives  committed  to  the  insane  asylum  than  any  other  class  of  people.  Instead  of 
allowing  their  lives  to  become  one  unvarying  round  of  making  and  mending,  washing  and 
cooking,  milking  and  churning,  they  ought  to  have  a  little  chance  to  get  away,  occasionally, 
from  such  monotonous  things  as  are  likely  to  encrust  their  lives,  and  lead  them  to  a  life  of 
careless  and  indifferent  nonentity.  We  say  this  work  is  especially  designed  to  help  them — to 
show  them  the  advances  that  have  beeu  made  in  the  various  lines  of  work  that  occupy  the 
attention  of  the  thrifty  farmer's  wife,  and,  instead  of  wearing  out  their  lives  and  rusting  out 
their  brains,  they  may,  by  a  little  intelligent  oversight,  greatly  reduce  the  cares  and  responsi- 
bilities that  rest  upon  them,  and  he  able  once  and  a  while  to  get  out  and  see  the  world  beyond 
the  horizon,  which  to  many  is  simply  the  length  and  breadth  of  their  own  homestead.  The 
aim  of  this  work  is  to  lift  the  noble  calling  of  agriculture  into  a  higher  sphere ;  it  is  to 
implant  new  ideas  in  the  minds  of  the  promoters  of  agriculture,  and  help  to  dispense  with  the 
narrow-minded  policies  and  theories,  and  place  the  farmer  before  the  world  in  the  true  and 
proper  place  which  he  should  occupy.  In  the  preparation  of  this  work  we  have  been  greatly 
encouraged  by  the  hope  of  large  sales,  yet  that  is  not  the  highest  motive  we  have  in  view  in 
the  preparation  of  "  Profitable  Farming  in  the  Southern  States."  Three  to  four  times  as 
much  matter  as  the  book  contains  has  been  excluded  from  its  contents,  matter,  too,  which  we 
got  from  the  very  best  sources,  and  yet  threw  it  out  because  we  wish  this  book  to  contain  only 
the  cream.  While  much  of  it  was  good  and  useful  in  its  way,  we  did  not  propose  to  cumber 
the  pages  of  this  grand  work  with  anything  but  what  might  be  considered  the  very  best  in  its 
line.  Large  sums  have  in  many  instances  been  paid  for  a  single  contribution  in  order  to  round 
up  the  book  and  to  get  for  it  the  very  information  that  has  been  the  most  inaccessible  here- 
tofore. In  justice  to  ourselves  we  feel  inclined  to  say  aword  in  regard  to  the  illustrations  which 
have  been  selected  and  reproduced  from  original  drawings  \rith.  the  greatest  possible  care,  and 
a  hasty  glance  at  them  will  at  once  convince  the  most  skeptical  that  they  are  illustrations  that 
do  illustrate,  and  at  the  same  time  beaut  ifyihe  pages  of  the  book,  and  add  new  value  and  interest 
to  the  excellence  of  the  text  that  accompanies  them.  We  propose  to  make  this  the  standard 
book  for  the  farmer,  to  make  it  the  brightest  and  best  that  ever  has  been  issued  or  that  it  will 
be  even  possible  for  many  years  to  procure.  Not  so  much  attention  has  been  paid  to  theories 
and  fancies  as  to  solid  facts  and  useful  experiments.  With  these  thoughts  and  feelings  we 
send  this  book  forth  on  its  mission  for  good,  hoping  and  believing  that  it  will  help  to  bring 
about  a  new  era  in  the  agricultural  interest  of  our  country,  that  it  will  add  brightness  and 
eunshine  to  many  a  home,  and  that  it  will  bring  new  thoughts  and  aspirations  into  many  a  life. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  our  pleasant  duty  to  acknowledge  our  indebtedness  to  all  of  those  per- 
sons who  have  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume  and  whose  names  will  be  found 
elsewhere  in  this  book. 

THE  PUBLISHERS. 


CHAPTER  I. — Agricultural  Organizations. 

History  of  the  Pendleton's  Farmers  Society — Berkeshire  County  Agricultural  Society — First  dawning 
— National  Society  for  Agriculture — Agricultural  clerkship — Protect  me  and  let  me  alone — The 
voice  of  the  Granger — Patrons  of  husbandry — The  Wheelmen — Farmers'  Alliance — Farmers' 
League — Secretary  of  Agriculture 17 

CHAPTER  IL—  Agricultural  Implements. 

Plows— Primitive  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  plows— Plows  with  mould  board — Thomas  Jefferson's 
plow— Hezekiah  Harris's  plow — Daniel  Webster's  plow — Electric  and  steam  plows — Gang 
plows — Wheel  plows — Harrows— Primitive  hand — Primitive  log— Harrow  teeth— Rotary  har- 
row—Spring-tooth  harrow— Disk  harrow — Planters — Drills — Seeders — Dibbler— Jethro  Tull — 
E.  Spooner — Checkrow  planter — Primitive  seeder — Modern  drill — Cultivators— Primitive  culti- 
vators —  Reapers  —  Binders  —  Mowers  —  Grain  cradles  —  Harvesters— Threshers— Reaper  and 
thresher— Head  cutter — Steam  harvester 39 

CHAPTER  III.- -Classification  of  Soils. 

Difference  in  adaptation — Description— Composition — Exhaustion  of— Mixed  farming— Texture  of — 
Physical  properties  and  characteristics— Absorbent  and  retentive  powers  of — Light  soils — Heavy 
soils — Sandy  soils — Clay  soils— Sandy  loam— Clay  loam SC 

CHAPTER  IV.— Manures  and  their  Application. 

'Deposit  l)y  overflow — Elements  of  plant  food — Organic  elements — Inorganic  elements— Proposi- 
tions concerning  plant  food — Time  and  method  of  applying  manures  and  fertilizers — Barn-yard 
manure — Making  manure — Compost  heap — How  to  save  manure  at  home — Value  of  liquid  ma- 
nure— Composting — Wood  ashes — Clover  as  a  fertilizer — Pea  fallow — Humus  in  the  soil— Peter 
Henderson  on  manures— Composting  home  manure  with  commercial  fertilizers — Barn-yard 
manure — Poultry  manure — Necessity  for  change — Fish  guano 94 

CHAPTER  V.— Mineral  Fertilizers. 

Linn' — Prof.  Puryear  on — Limestone  and  Lime— Quicklime  upon  land — Lime  in  crops — Gypsum 
or  plaster — How  and  when  applied — Useful  to  prevent  escape  of  ammonia — In  stables,  &c. — 
Marl— Clay  marl— Green  sand  marl— Commercial  fertilizers— Necessity  for— Judgment  in  ap- 
plying— Salt— Application  of  the  subject 88 

CHAPTER  VI. — Preparation  and  Cultivation  of  the  Soil. 

fertility  largely  dependent  on  proper  cultivation— Why  we  cultivate— Preparation  of  Soil— Porosity 
of  soil— Cultivating  wet  soil — Shading  the  soil — Burning  rubbish — Use  the  cultivator  more — 
Mulching  and  cultivating — Views  on  tillage — Subsoiling — Other  tillage  operations— Trench 
plowing— Points  of  merit  in  plowing— Harrowing— Rolling  the  soil — How  deep  to  cultivate — 

Hand  hoeing — Use  of  steam  power 106 

(ix) 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  VII.-Drainage. 

Plans  of  drainage — Mr.  Parks,  the  English  agricultural  engineer — What  lands  require  draining — 
Everglades  of  Florida — Lake  Okeechobee— Holland — Tile  draining — Determining  the  outlet- 
Locating  the  main  drains  and  tributaries — Depth  of  drains — Size  and  kind  of  tile  for  drainage 
— Rules  for  drainage — Stone  drains — Plank  or  board  drains— The  terrace  system 120 

CHAPTER  VIII.— What  Crops  to  Raise. 

A  judicious  choice  essential — Choice  modified  by  demand— Principle  should  be  regarded — Choice 
of  crops  modified  by  character  of  the  soil — Relative  cost  in  production — Rotation  of  crops — 
Theories  relative  to  the  necessity  of  rotation  of  crops — Some  crops  do  not  require  rotation — 
Nature  generally  follows  a  course  of  rotation — Schemes  of  rotation — Diversified  husbandry  .   .  137 

CHAPTER  IX— Grasses  and  Forage  Plants. 

General  distribution  of — Natural  and  cultivated — Timothy  or  herds  grass — Green  meadow  grass — 
June  grass — Common  spear  grass — Kentucky  blue  grass— Blue  grass  or  wire  grass — Bermuda 
gras3 — Wire  grass — Crab  grass — Hungarian  grass  or  Hungarian  millet — Common  millet — Culti- 
vation— Time  of  cutting  and  method  of  curing  clover — Cultivating  clover  seed — Clover  as  a  fer- 
tilizer— The  cow  or  field  pea — Sowing  grass  seed — Time  of  cutting  and  method  of  curing  hay — 
Hay  caps— Storage  of  hay — Aftermath  or  rowen—  Cultivating  grass  seed — Fall  grazing  of  mow- 
ing lands — Rolling  mowing  lands  and  pastures — Manuring  mowing  lands 152 

CHAPTER  X.— Cereals. 

Corn — Varieties  of — Selection  of  seed — Preparation  of  seed — Soil  for  corn  and  its  preparation — 
Planting — Hill  and  drill  planting — Cultivation — Hilling  or  level  cultivation— Wheat — Varie- 
ties— Preparation  of  soil — Fertilizing  of  soil — Selection  of  seed — Time  of  sowing — Quantity  per 
acre— Sowing — After  culture — Harvesting— Threshing — Diseases— Smut — Rust— Oats — Cultiva- 
tion— Harvesting — Diseases 177" 

CHAPTER  XI. — Roots  and  Esculent  Tubers  and  Peanuts. 

Potatoes — Varieties — Culture— Selecting  and  cutting  potatoes  for  planting — Cultivation— Potato 
bug  or  Colorado  beetle — Sweet  potatoes — Varieties — James  G.  Tinsley  on  sweet  potatoes — Har- 
vesting—  Storing  —  Mangel  wurzels  —  Peanuts — Varieties— Location— Soil — Cultivation— Har- 
vesting— Marketing — Turnips — Cultivation— Harvesting — Storing 207 

CHAPTER  XII.— Silos  and  Silage. 

History  of  Silage — Development  in  America — M.  Auguste  Goffart,  Burtin,  France,  the  inventor — 
Dr.  Bailey  on  silage — Value  of  silage— The  old  and  the  new  silo— The  location  of  a  silo— Kinds 
of  silage— Fodder  corn — Clover — Millet — Peas — Sorghum— How  to  plant— Tillage— When  to 
house — Cutting  and  filling  the  silo — Keeping  and  feeding  silage 23-t 

CHAPTER  XIII.— Tobacco. 

How  to  grow  and  cure— Flues  and  flue  curing— Selection  of  seed — Varieties  for  specific  types — 
Varieties  suited  for  the  various  types — Hybridizing— Preparation  of  plant  beds— Mulching  and 
covering — A  standing  plant  bed — Present  status  of  the  various  leaf  types  in  the  markets — Selec- 
tion of  soil,  &c— Fertilizers  for  tobacco— Planting— Cultivating— Pruning  and  topping— Cut 
worms  and  bud  worms — Worming  and  suckering— Ripening— Cutting  and  housing— Sun  cured 
— Curing  sweet  fillers  with  flues— To  cure  mahogany  color— Shipping  tobacco— Curing  bright 
yellow  tobacco— The  new  method  of  curing — The  science  of  curing  yellow  tobacco — Ripening 
of  tobacco— Changes  induced  by  flue  curing— Ordering— Shipping — Packing— New  method  of 
harvesting  the  leaves  by  stripping  from  the  stalks — Snow's  modern  tobacco  barn  and  stick — 
History  of  Burley  tobacco— Cultivation  of  Burley  tobacco— Cigar  tobacco — Tobacco— Historical 
and  commercial— Resume — To  tobacco  planters — To  seedmen  and  dealers — Varieties  recom- 
mended    245 


CONTENTS.  xi 


CHAPTER  XIV  —  Cotton. 

History  of  the  cotton  plant— Cotton  planting  at  the  South— The  cultivation  of  cotton— Cotton 
planting — Cotton  hoeing — First  working  of  cotton — Haling  cotton— Shipping  cotton — I.intless 
cotton — Large  crops  of  cotton — New  Varieties  of  cotton — Hon.  F.  C.  Furman  on  intensive 
farming 300 

CHAPTER  XV.— Orchards  and  Truits  fob  THE  .Southern  States. 

Growth  of  fruits  in  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  further  south— General  observations— Acclimation— 
The  apple — Location  and  soil— rianting — Cultivation — Manuring  and  mulching — Pruning — 
Grafting— Grafting  wax — Varieties — The  pear— Soil  and  situation— Cultivation — Manures  and 
management — Varieties — The  peach — Propagation — Varieties — The  quince — Varieties — Soils — 
Culture  and  manures — The  cherry — Propagation  and  cultivation — The  fig — The  Russian  apri- 
cot— Injurious  insects — The  apple-tree  borer — The  tent  caterpillar — The  codling  moth — The 
peach-tree  borer — Thecirculio -.  332 

CHAPTER  XVI.— Grapes  and  Wine  Making. 

Yintlculturc — How  to  obtain  best  results— Food  elements  for  the  grape  vine — Ashes  and  bones  for 
grapes — Varieties  of  grape — Vine  training— Grape  rot  remedy — Pruning  the  vine— Planting 
and  manuring — Propagation — Unfermcnted  wine 344 

CHAPTER  XVII.— Garden  Culture. 

The  farmer's  garden — Melioration  of  garden  soils — Market  gardening — Peter  Henderson  on — The 
possibilities  of  an  acre — Gardening  in  Virginia — Management  of  hot  beds— Lima  beans  for 
market  and  seed — Economical  way  of  raising  Irish  potatoes — Valuable  properties  of  the 
tomato — The  cultivation  of  tomatoes— Asparagus  — A  new  method  of  watermelon  cul  ure — 
Cucumbers  on  trellises— Wintering  cabbage — Vitality  of  seeds — Onion  culture— Nutritive 
value — Can  we  grow  onions  from  the  seed? — Rich  laud  for  onions— Saving  farm  and  garden 
seeds — The  flower  garden — Floriculture  and  its  pleasures — How  to  grow  beans— Planting  toma- 
toes— Celery  raising — Strawberries — Another  view  of  strawberry  planting — Drought — Guard 
against  droughts — Dew — Counteracting  drought 353 

CHAPTER  XVIII.— Live  Stock  on  the  Farm. 

The  agricultural  horse — The  stable — Simple  suggestions  for  the  management  of  injuries  and  dis- 
eases— Cattle  on  the  farm — Diseases  of  cattle— Sheep — Swine— Mule  raising — Milch  cows  and 
milking — Managing  milk — Temperature  for  churning — Keeping  milk  sweet — Ration  for  milk — 
Untainted  butter — Tests  of  dairy  cows— Raising  calves — Calves  and  young  cattle— Stall  feed- 
ing—Cattle sheds — Enclosures— Wool  and  sheep  against  tobacco  in  Virginia — Sheep  husbandry 
— Remedy  for  sheep-killing  dogs— In  praise  of  mutton — How  to  make  sheep  raising  profitable — 
Testimony  for  sheep — The  raising  and  fattening  of  hogs— Scalding  vat  for  pigs — A  trough  for 
salting  meat— Pork  raising  at  the  South 397 

CHAPTER  XIX.— Poultry. 

Southern  poultry  raising— Eggs  and  chickens— Poultry  notes— Facts  and  figures  about  the  poultry 
business — Poultry  for  the  ordinary  family — Fattening  fowls — Poultry  house  conveniences — 
Care  of  young  chickens — Keeping  vermin  out  of  poultry  houses — Hen  and  chicken  rules — Let 
them  scratch — How  to  clean  pou'.try  houses — Incubator  chickens  for  market — Laying  in  winter 
— Care  of  turkeys — Young  turkeys — Guineas  on  the  farm — Breeding  geese— Ducks— Duck  pens 
and  yard — Ducks  as  profitable  as  chickens — Pekin  ducks — Grain  for  poultry — How  to  prevent 
chicken  cholera  . * .    .  446 


xii  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XX.— Practical  Suggestions. 

Farm  roads — Fences,  to  what  extent  essential — Removing  fences — Rail  fences — Post  and  rail  fence- 
Preserving  fence  posts — Post  and  board  fence — Hedges— Portable  fences — Wire  fences — Wastes 
and  wants  of  the  farm— Lack  of  economy  in  labor — Slovenly  management — Doing  work  over- 
nicely— Use  of  poor  tools— Borrowing  tools — Lack  of  care  of  farm  implements— Repairing  tools — 
Insufficient  help— Poor  teams— Inferior  stock — Inconvenience  of  buildings — Better  knowledge 
of  farming  and  less  drudgery — Improved  farm  implements — More  capital — Choice  of  farms — 
Advantages  of  large  farms — Advantages  of  small  farms— Model  farms— Farm  buildings — 
What  necessary — Repairing  and  Painting — The  farm  house — Influence  of  dwelling  upon 
character— Plans  for  farm  houses — The  barn— Location— Stables — Light  in  stables — Venti- 
lation— Floors — Box  stalls,  etc. — A  good  platform  for  farmers — Feeding  oil-cake — Cultivate 
the  willow — The  time  to  cut  timber — A  rat-proof  corn  crib — When  and  how  to  sell  crops — 
The  markets — The  coin  weevil — Tidiness  on  the  farm — Common  sense  farming — Farming  as 
a  profitable  business — What  constitutes  good  farming — Lessening  the  cost  of  production — 
Farmers'  rights — Stand-still  farmers — Progressive  agriculture — The  progressive  farmer— Farm- 
work  in  winter — Fiain  management — Our  surplus  lands — Prosperity  approaching — Skill  in 
farming — Pernicious  weeds — Weeds  and  weeding 464 

CHAPTER  XXI. — Southern  Immigration. 

Population  Worth  and  South — Difference  in  occupation — Roman  Agriculturist— Address  of  Hon. 
W.  C.  Rives — War  between  the  States — Adaptability  of  the  South  to  support  population — Dis- 
satisfaction of  Northern  and  Western  farmers — Sale  of  land  desirable — Southern  minerals — 
Necessity  for  governments  to  control  immigration 555 

CHAPTER  XXII. — Agricultural  Education. 

The  destructive  and  reconstructive  period — Necessity  for  education  in  successful  farming — School 
of  agriculture  opposed  by  college  professors — Many  obstacles  to  be  overcome — Course  of  study 
— Sophomore  class— Manual  work  undesirable — Practical  demonstrations  necessary — Junior 
year — The  plant  a  factory — Lectures  necessary — Live  stock — Senior  year S63 

CHAPTER  XXIII.— Valuable  Hints. 

Trickery  in  horse  dealing — Bearing  reins — Burr  bits — Blindness  hid — Roach  back — Gray  hairs 
dyed — Pretense  to  cure  spavin — Doses  of  medicine  to  hide  defects — The  whip  in  the  stable — The 
i  nvigorating  comb  —  Spring  halt  —  Heaves  — Whistlers — Wavers — Farcey — Dummies — Age — 
Teeth — Our  cooks — The  farm  and  country  school 573 

CHAPTER  XXIV.— The  Farm  and  Fireside. 

Hot  one  content — Good  appetite  necessary — Farmer's  life  a  hard  one — Many  misfortunes — Comforts 
of  farm  life — Nothing  to  do  in  town — Monotony  of  town  life — Liberty  of  children — Mothers' 
cares — Country  best  place  for  children— Modern  man  of  Uz— The  Virginia  farmer 587 


..cr^^fe 


Sunday  Afternoon  ox  the  Farm.    (Frond* 
piece.) 

Head  Piece, PAG 

Tail  Piece, 

The  Robber, 

"  After  Your  Corn,  Sir,  " 

Family  Cares, 

Happy  Days, 

I've  Found  An  Egg, 

One  of  the  Perilsof  City  Life, 

Primitive  Egyptian  P.ow.     No.  1, 

Primitive  Egyptian  Plow.     No.  2, 

Primitive  Egyptian  Plow.     No.  3, 

Assyrian  Plow,   ...  

U.  S.  Patent,  A.  D.  1797, 

Side  Hill,  A.  D  ,  1831, 

Rolling  Land  Slide,  1843, 

Jointer,  1S84, 

Wheel  Plow,  1SS4, 

Gang  Plow,  1884, 

Steam  Plow,  18S4,  .  •    •    ■ ,. 

Primitive  Hand-Harrow,  . 

Primitive  Log, 

Types  of  Harrow  Teeth, 

Rotary  Harrow,  1S59, 

Spring  Tooth  Harrow,  18G9, 

Crushing  Harrow, 

Primitive  Hand  Planting, 

The  Disk  Harrow,  ...-■'■ 

Dibbler,  No.  1, 

Dibbler,  No.  2, 

Modern  Hand  Planter, 

U.  S.  Patent  Planter,  A.  D.  1825 

U.  S.  Patent  Hand  Planter,  185fi, 

U.  S.  Patent  Foot  Planter,  1856 

U.  S.  Patent  Planter,  1876, 

Check  Row  Planter,  1SS3, 

Primitive  Egyptian  Seeder, 

Assyrian  Seeder,  B.  C.  504, 

Italian  Seeder,  A.  D.  1605, 

Grain  Drill,  1S74, 

Grain  Drill,  1SS4, 

Primitive  Crotched  Stick  Cultivator, 

Primitive  Roman  Cultivator, 

Primitive  Egyptian  Cultivator,  .   .   .• 

Primitive  English  Cultivator, 

Hilling  Cultivator,  1830, 


e  4 
4 

IS 
20 
22 
24 
27 
28 
29 
33 
30 
30 
31 
31 
32 
32 
32 
33 
33 
34 
35 
35 
36 
36 
36 
37 
37 
37 
37 
38 
38 
3S 
39 
39 
39 
40 
40 
40 
41 
41 
42 
42 
42 
42 
43 


(xiii) 


Straddle  Row  Cultivator, pack  43 

Primitive  Hand  Scythe 44 

English  Mower,  A.  D.,  1790, 44 

Slotted  Guard  Finger  and  Mower,  A.  D.  1S33,    .  44 

Spokeless  Wheel  Mower,  A.  D.  1S57, 45 

Front  Cut  Two-Wheeled  Mower,  A.  D.  1858,  .  .  45 

Front  Cut  One-Wheeled  Mower,  1858, 45 

Front  Center  Cut  Mower,  1S03, 46 

Front  Cut  Two-Wheeled  Mower,  1880, 46 

Egyptian  Sickle, 46 

Front  Cut  Two-Wheeled  Mower,  1884, 46 

Colonial  Sickle, 46 

Grain  Cradle, 46 

Switch  Reel  Rake,  1804, 47 

Harvester  Hand  Rake,  1S55, 47 

Harvester  Self  Rake,  1856, 47 

Reaper  and  Thresher,  A.  D.  1836 48 

Old  Time  Horse  Threshing, 49 

U.  S.  Patent  Steam  Thresher,  1883 49 

Head  Cutter  ar.d  Side  Deliverer, 50 

Steam  Harvester, 51 

Hand  Flail,  ...-■• 51 

Clearing  Off  the  Wood  Lot 52 

Happy  Lambs, 64 

The  Wrong  and  the  Right  Way  to  Farm,  ...  56 

See  that  Mouse, 58 

Rural  Happiness, 60 

Cattle  Ranch, 65 

Solid  Comfort, 68 

Compost  Heap, 72 

Dinner  is  Ready, 79 

Young  Farmers, 85 

Menhaden  Fisherman, 87 

Primitive  Cooking, 89 

Even-Tide, 91 

Hot-Water  Reservoir  and  Warming  Oven,  1875,  92 

Three  Friends  on  the  Farm, 94 

Portable  Range,  A.  D.  1875, 96 

Happy  Boyhood, 97 

Gasoline  Vapor  Stove,  A.  D.  1878, 99 

After  the  Crops  are  Gathered 101 

Gas  Cooking  Stove,  A.  D.  18S0, 103 

Disk  Cultivator,  1880, 106 

Good  Morning, 107 

Spring  Cultivator,  1884 110 

Missed  Them, Ill 

Plowing, 113 


XIV 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Eiding  Cultivator,  1884 page  116 

Primitive  Hand  Broom, 118 

TJ.  S.  Patent  Hand  Broom,  A.  D.,  1852,  .    .       .US 

IT.  S.  Patent  Sweeper,  A.  D.  1852, 118 

U.  B.  Patent  Hand  Broom,  A.  D.  1852,    ....  119 

Drainage, 120 

Leveling  Instruments, 121 

Round  Tiles,  Collar,  Joints,  &c., 123 

Ain't  They  Sweet? 125 

Nothing  in  Town  to  Compare  with  It, 127 

Better  Quit  and  Move  to  Town, 129 

No  Good  for  a  Farmer, 131 

Tea  on  the  Lawn, 133 

Tail  Piece, 136 

Consider  Well, 140 

Enemy  of  the  Farm  Yard, 144 

Have  Some  Dinner,  Sir, 148 

Sweetheart  and  Wife, 151 

Flopover, 153 

Spring  Tooth  Pake, 153 

Dumping  Sulky  Rake, 154 

Draft  Dumping  Rake,  A.  D.  1S50, 155 

Self-Dumping  Rake,  A.  D.  1852 156 

Draft  Dumping  Rake,  A.  D.,  1866, 156 

Spring  Tooth  Dumping  Rake,  A.  D.  1856,  ...  157 

Spring  Tooth  Dumping  Rake,  A.  D.  1856,  ...  157 

Draft  Dumping  Rake,  A.  D.  1859, 15S 

Drag  Dumping  Rake,  A.  D.  1866, 159 

Primitive  Hand  Fork, 160 

Harpoon  Horse  Fork,  A.  D.  1867 161 

Tilting  Horse  Fork,  A.  D.  1870, 101 

Crapple  Horse  Fork,  A.  D.  1880, 102 

Harpoon  Horse  Fork,  A.  D.  1881, 103 

Hand  Fork,  A.  D.  1882, 164 

Harpoon  Horse  Fork,  A.  D.  1884, 165 

Hand  Tedder, 166 

Patent  Tedder,  1861, ,  167 

Patent  Tedder,  A.  D.,  1862, 16S 

Rake  and  Tedder,  A.  D.  1865, 169 

Rake  and  Tedder,  A.  D.  1SC7, 170 

Rake  and  Tedder,  A.  D.  1870, 171 

Patent  Tedder,  A.  D.  1883, 173 

Hay  Elevator  and  Carrier, 174 

Com  Stalk, 178 

Ear  of  Corn, 178 

Primitive  Winnowing,  Egypt,  1500  B.  C 179 

Primitive  Winnowing,  Rome,  B.  C.  100,  ....  179 

English  Fanning  Mill,  A.  D.  1775, 180 

U.  S.  Patent  Fanning  Mill,  A.  D.  1829,   ....  181 

U.  S.  Patent  Fanning  Mill,  A.  D.  1879,    ....  182 

Cockle  Machine,  A.  D.  1884 183 

A  Good  Homc-Made  Marker, 184 

Primitive  Corn  Husker, 1S6 

Primitive  Hominy  Mortar, 187 

Primitive  Corn  Sheller, 189 

Device  for  Shocking  Corn.    Fig.  1, 191 

Device  for  Shocking  Corn.    Fig.  2 191 


U.  S.  Patent  Corn  Husker,  A.  D.  1837,  .    .  PAGE  192 

Permanent  Corn  Crib, 193 

Roots  of  Corn  Plant, 195 

U.  8.  Patent  Corn  Husker,  A.  D.  1883, 196 

A  Fine  Harvest 197 

Sowing  Broadcast  and  Drill 199 

So  Tired, 201 

Ruth,  the  Gleaner 203 

Tail  Piece, 206 

Potato  Planter, 212 

The  Son  in  the  City,  the  Father  on  the  Farm,  .  214 

Potato  Digger, 217 

After  Work  is  Over, 219 

The  Turnip, .222 

The  Ruta  Bagas, 223 

The  Mangel-wurzel, 2-0 

The  District  School-House, 230 

Tail  Piece, 233 

The  Silo  of  M.  Augusta  Goffart, 235 

The  Ensilage  Cutter, 241 

A  Filled  Silo  being  Emptied  by  Vertical  Slicing,  243 

Major  R.  L.  Ragland, 214 

Flue  Curing, 247 

Stove  for  Flues, 248 

Fig.  No.  1, 251 

No.  2, 251 

No.  3, 251 

No.  4 251 

No.  5 252 

No.  6, . 252 

No.  7, 252 

No.  8, 252 

Sowing  Plant  Bed, 254 

Canvas  for  a  Plant  Bed, 255 

Hilling, 263 

Dropping  the  Plants, 204 

Bennis  Tobacco  Transplanter, 265 

Hilling  and  Topping, 266 

Worming  and  Suckering, 268 

Cutting  and  Sticking, 269 

Housing, 271 

Common  Sense  Barn, 274 

Stripping  and  Tieing 276 

Packing  and  Prizing 277 

Ready  for  Harvesting, 278 

Snow's  Modern  Tobacco  Farm, 279 

Snow's  Patent  Stick, 2S0 

Snow's  Tobacco  Basket, 281 

Housing  in  Snow's  New  Tobacco  Barn,  ....  282 

Rear  View  of  Snow's  Barn 283 

The  First  Smoke, 286 

Down  in  the  Meadow, 289 

At  the  Club, ...       292 

Curing  Shed, 294 

A  Model  Tobacco  Barn, 295 

My  First  Pipe, 298 

Using  the  Teacher's  Pipe, 801 


Fig 

Fig. 

Fig 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


xv 


Tobacco  Plant PAGE  304 

Figuring  up  the  Profits, 305 

Cotton  Planter,  A.  D.  1870,    . 307 

Cotton  Planter,  A.  I).  1883, 30S 

Cotton  Planting, 309 

Cotton  Hoeing, 310 

Baling  Cotton 312 

Cotton  Shipping, 313 

Cottofa  Gathering, 314 

An  Aute-Bellurn  Planter, 317 

Hindoo  Foot  Roller, 320 

Hindoo  Churka  Gin, 321 

Chinese  Cotton  Cleaner, 323 

Hand  Pulling 324 

Baw  Gin,  A.  D.  1794, 326 

Roller  Gin,  A.  D.  1881, 327 

Cotton  Whipper,  A.  D.  1SS2, 330 

The  Home  of  the  Farmer  of  To-Day, 331 

The  Right  Way, 333 

Springtime  in  the  New  Orchard, 334 

The  Wrong  Way, 335 

Cuttings, 335 

Whip  Tongue  Grafting, 336 

Cleft  Graft, ,    .   .    .  336 

Saddle  Graft, 337 

Budding  Illustrated, 339 

Young  Shoot, 339 

Preserving  Fruit  with  Mama, 340 

The  Cultivated  Blackberry, 342 

Propagation  by  Layering, 34G 

What  a  Treat, 347 

Treating  the  Children  to  Grapes, 350 

Tail  Piece, 352 

The  Farmer's  Vacation, 355 

No  Love  Like  a  Mother's, 356 

Happy  Young  Ones, 360 

English  Sparrows 362 

Hot  Beds  Showing  Method  of  Ventilation.   .   .  365 

Forms  of  Beans, 3C6 

Shelling  Beans  for  Dinner, 367 

Weighing  the  Baby, 370 

Various  Forms  of  Onions 371 

At  the  Shoemaker's, 373 

Preparing  for  Grand  Sport, 375 

Here  Comes  the  Watermelon, 377 

Beautiful  Roses, 379 

The  Flower  Girl, 380 

Mother's  Recreation, 382 

Hiding  from  Mother, 384 

The  Orphans, 386 

The  Young  Artist, 388 

Evening  Walk, 390 

In  the  City  Garret, 392 

Old  Way  of  Salting  Stock, 397 

Patent  Salt  Feeder, 398 

The  Racer, 399 

The  Trotter, 400 


The  Draft  Horse page  401 

The  Roadster, 402 

The  Old  Style  of  ((rooming, 403 

Patent  Grooming, 403 

Devon  Bull, 404 

Short  Horn  Bull> 405 

Holstein  Bull, 406 

The  Ayrshire  Cow, 407 

The  Jersey  Cow 408 

Polled  Angus  Cow, 409 

The  Southdown, 411 

TheCotswold 411 

The  Merino, 411 

The  Berkshire, 412 

The  Chester  White, 413 

The  Poland  China, 414 

A  Friend  in  Need, 417 

Patent  Vacuum  Milker,  A.  D.  1868, 418 

U.  S.  Patent  Vacuum  Milker,  A.  D.  1S83,  .   .   .  419 

Primitive  Scythian  Churn, 420 

Primitive  Grecian  Churn, 421 

A  Fashionable  Drink  for  City  People, 422 

Vibrating  Churn,  A.  D   1808,       424 

Dutch  Mode  of  Churning 424 

Working  Body  Churn,  A.  D.  1872 425 

U.  S.  Patent  Rotary  Churn, 425 

Modern  Barn, .  426 

Nothing  Like  This  at  the  South, 428 

Curiosity, 430 

Look  Out,  Sir, 432 

Dangerous  Neighbors  for  Sheep 435 

In  Distress, 436 

Heed  the  Advice  of  the  Wise, 438 

Lost,   ...■•• 440 

Primitive  Scalding 441 

Catching  and  Suspending,  A.  D.  1881,  ......  442 

U.  S.  Patent  Scalding,  A.  D.  1882, '  443 

Happy  Home, 444 

"Shall  We  Raise  Him  or  Not?" 445 

Poultry 446 

The  Plymouth  Rock 447 

Brown  Leghorns, 447 

White  Leghorns, 447 

The  Game, 448 

Light  Bramah, 448 

The  Farmer  Feedeth  Them  All, 450 

Houses  and  Lots  for  Poultry 452 

The  First  Brood 453 

Feeding  the  Doves, 454 

Taking  Liberties, 456 

Looking  for  the  Hawk, 45S 

American  Turkey, 459 

"Ain't  They  Pretty?" 461 

The  Gobbler  and  the  Lady  from  the  House,  .  .  463 

"I  Love  Grandma," 464 

Tail  Piece, 465 

Primitive  Leveler  for  Roads, 466 


XVI 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Carrying  Scraper page  467 

Sulky  Scraper,  A.  D.  1831, 467 

Wheel  Scraper,  A.  D.  1S30, 4C8 

Dry  Scraper,  A.  D.  1850, 468 

Self-Loading  Cart,  A.  D.  1S50, 469 

Farm  Fences.     Fig.  No.  1, 469 

Farm  Fence.    Fig.  No.  2, 469 

Farm  Fence.     Fig.  No.  3 469 

Farm  Fence.     Fig.  No.  4, 469 

Self-Loading  Cart,  A.  D.  IS67 470 

Farm  Fence.     Fig.  No.  5, 470 

Farm  Fence.     Fig.  No.  6, 470 

Farm  Fence.    Fig.  No.  7, 470 

Farm  Fence.    Fig.  No.  8, 470 

Farm  Fence.    Fig.  No.  9, 471 

Farm  Fence.    Fig.  No.  10 471 

Farm  Fence.     Fig.  No,  11, 471 

Farm  Fence.     Fig.  No.  12, \   .  471 

Farm  Fence.     Fig.  No.  13, 471 

Farm  Fence.    Fig.  No.  14, 471 

Revolving  Scraper,  A.  D.  187S 472 

After  a  Long  Chase, 473 

Wire  Fences  with  Tree  Posts, 475 

Self-Loading  Cart,  A.  D.  1881, 476 

Two  Kinds  of  Teachers  and  Their  Schools,    .    .  478 

Why  Gates  Sag, 479 

A  Good  Farm  Gate, 480 

Various  Forms  of  Gates, 4S2 

The  Sportsman  and  His  Son, 4S3 

Preparing  a  Good  Dinner,  .      485 

At  the  Blacksmith's, 487 

Road  Builder,  A.  D.  18S3, 488 

Wheel  Scraper,  A.  D.  1S84, 489 

The  Evening  Drink, 490 

A  Faithful  Friend, 491 

Primitive  Log  Bridge, 492 

Singing  Lessons  at  Home, 494 

Lattice  Bridge, 495 

A  Gallant  Escort, 496 

A  Little  Mischief, 498 

A  Watchful  Nurse, 500 

Conquered,   .    .    i 501 

Aboriginal  Dwelling, 502 

First  Step  Towards  Comfort 503 

Emigrant  Cabin, 504 

Captive  Liberated, 505 

Modern  Villa, 506 

Afraid  of  Calves, 508 

Giving  the  Young  Ones  a  Show, 509 

"  Keep  Him  Away  !  Keep  Him  Away  I"  .   .   .  510 

Poor  Kitty, 511 

Having  Lots  of  Fun 512 

His  Future  Master, 513 

Give  Us  Good  Roads, 515 

Recreation  for  City  People, 516 

"O,  Mister,  Open  "the  Gate,  will  Yer?"  .   ...  518 


Embryo  Seamen, PAGE  520 

Recreation  for  Country  Folks. 521 

"Won't  You  Give  Him  a  Piece?" 523 

Distressed,        525 

Well  Trained, 527 

Careful  Builder, 529 

Farmer's  Daughter, 631 

Out  in  the  Storm 533 

Which  Shall  I  Keep, 535 

Lessons  in  Music, 536 

Educated  Bears, 537 

So  Near  and  Yet  So  Far, 542 

Words  of  Wisdom, 547 

These  for  a  Cent, 531 

Ho  !  for  America  ! 556 

The  Old  Folks  Left  Behind, 558 

Decides  to  Go  South, 559 

A  Satisfied  Emigrant  (10  years  after  moving),  .  560 

There  Was  where  I  Was  Born, 562 

Colonial  Washing  Machine, 5C3 

Hand  Washing,  . 564 

Boiler  Washer,  A.  D.  1874, 564 

Oscillating  Rubber,  A.  D.  1882, 565 

Vertical  Rubber,  A.  D.  1SS3, 565 

Hand  Wringer, .566 

U.  S.  Patent  Wringer,  A.  D.  1S47, 566 

Adjustable  Roller,  A.  D.  1855, 567 

Roller  Wringer,  A.  D,  1862, 567 

Adjustable  Roller,  A.  D.  1872, 568 

Adjustable  Roller,  A.  D.  1872 56S 

Roller,  A.  D.  1S77, 569 

Flat  Irons, 569 

Sadiron, 570 

Smoothing  Iron,  A.  D.  1873, 570 

Ironing  Machine,  A.  D.  1S7S, 571 

Ironing  Machine,  A.  D.  1S79, 571 

Ironing  Machine,  A.  D.  1SS1, 571 

Tail  Piece, 572 

"  Father,  I  Am  Tired  of  Farming  ! " 574 

Our  Pet, 576 

Asleep, 577 

Too  Much  for  Grandpa, 579 

Teacher  and  Scholar , 581 

The  Old  Mare 587 

Everybody  Dissatisfied,  According  to  Horace,  .  5SS 

Yellow  Jackets'  Nest, 590 

Mule  with  the  Staggers, 592 

Paddling  in  the  Branch, 593 

"  Now,  Throw  a  Rock  !  " 594 

Stumped  Toes, .595 

Possum  Hunt, 596 

"Now,  Just  Look  at  Them  1" 598 

Colt  to  Break, 600 

Tail  Piece 601 

Women  and  Calf, 602 


Profitable  par/ryr^  117  tt?e  Souttyen?  States. 


CHAPTER  I. 


&.gricutttti?al  (Oronnixntions. 

BY    COLONEL   THOMAS    WHITEHEAD,    COMMISSIONER   OF    AGRICULTURE 
~  OF   VIRGINIA. 


jAN  EARLY  learned  the  power  of  organization  and  combined 
effort.  We  read  that  the  original  language  of  all  people  was  con- 
founded to  break  up  an  organization  for  a  great  enterprise.  We 
have  historic  evidence  of  secret  organizations  as  well  as  public 
societies  for  the  advancement  of  trades,  arts,  and  occupations. 
From  Europe  many  of  these  came  with  the  colonists  of  the 
various  States,  and  established  the  nucleus  of  those  now  flour- 
ishing in  all  the  trades  unions  of  the  various  cities.  Organiza- 
tions among  the  agricultural  population  of  the  United  States 
are  of  modern  date,  and  secret  agricultural  orders  of  still 
later  date,  starting  with  the  Grangers  about  1869-70.  The  first  Agricultural 
Society  was  organized  at  Philadelphia — the  date  is  not  known.  In  1815,  the 
"Pendleton  Farmers'  Society"  was  formed  in  Pendleton,  South  Carolina,  with 
James  C.  Griffin  as  president.  General  Thomas  Pinckney  was  an  honorary  mem- 
ber, and  Thomas  Pinckney,  Jr.,  was  a  resident  member.  Among  the  honorary 
members  were  John  C.  Calhoun,  General  Daniel  Huger,  Hon.  Will.  Lowndes,  and 
many  other  distinguished  names.  The  resident  active  members  were  many  of  the 
most  prominent  men  of  that  day.  On  June  6, 1818,  the  South  Carolina  Agricul- 
tural Society  organized,  with  General  William  B.  Davie,  president;  Colonel  Frank 
K.  Huger,  Colonel  John  Taylor,  Colonel  John  I.  Chappell,  and  Colonel  Wade 
Hampton,  vice-presidents.  Without  doubt  this  was  the  beginning  of  Southern 
agricultural  organizations. 

Fairs,  which  are  closely  connected  with  agricultural  organizations,  bringing 
together  the  agriculturalists  to  talk  of  their  hopes  and  fears,  and  suggest  relief 
from  burdens  and  protection  against  imposition,  furnish  an  attractive  place  for  con- 
sultation and  discussion.  Elkanah  Watson,  of  Massachusetts,  is  credited  with  the 
inauguration  of  the  first  agricultural  fair  for  a  county  in  this  country,  in  1810;  and 
from  this  move  the  Berkshire  County  Agricultural  Societ}7  (a  fair)  was  chartered 
by  the  State  of  Massachusetts  in  1811.     From  the  old  agricultural  journals  we 

a  (17) 


AGRICULTURAL  ORGANIZATIONS.  19 


learn  that  from  1819  to  1822  there  was  a  boom  in  agricultural  societies  in  Virginia, 
and  a  writer  in  the  "Fanners'  Register,"  in  1833,  says  "they 'all  ran  the  same 
course,"  and  in  "a  few  years  ceased  to  bo  heard  of."  He  expresses  the  opinion 
that  hut  one  (at  Fredericksburg)  is  in  existence  at  the  time  ho  writes.  In  1834  a 
letter  in  the  same  journal  argues  the  necessity  of  legislative  action  for  the  benefit 
and  protection  of  agriculture,  and  urging  united  action  on  the  part  of  agricultu- 
rists to  demand  of  their  law-makers  such  legislation  and  such  aid  as  was  being 
accorded  to  "education  and  internal  improvements."  So  we  find  in  all  the  old 
agricultural  literature  the  same  complaints,  in  different  forms,  of  a  disregard  of 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  by  the  law-makers  of  the 
Federal  and  State  governments.  Continual  allusions  to  favors,  advantages,  and 
privileges  accorded  to  other  interests  and  industries,  and  the  general  legislative 

FIRST   DAWNING. 

neglect  of  agriculture.  There  seemed  to  be  dawning  upon  many  of  the  agricul- 
tural writers  of  that  day  in  the  different  States  (and  they  were  able  men — many 
of  them  giants  in  the  forum)  that  the  organizations  they  had  formed,  their 
State  and  county  societies,  and  from  which  they  had  hoped  to  attain  all  needful 
aid  and  necessary  protection,  were  inoperative  and  defective;  that  they  lacked 
some  elements  to  make  them  continuous  and  some  to  give  them  direct  influence. 
Out  of  this  state  of  affairs  doubtless  grew  the  State  Boards  of  Agriculture  and  State 
departments.  There  was  a  necessity  felt  by  the  agriculturalists  for  putting  them  in 
closer  connection  with  their  State  governments,  and  especially  with  their  legisla- 
tures. This  subject  was  agitated  as  early  as  1830  in  some  of  the  States.  There 
was  not  a  well-defined  plan  of  what  they  wanted,  nor  a  direct  demand  on  the 
legislatures  until  long  afterwards,  and  the  success  of  the  farmers  in  their  demand 
for  recognition  occurred  at  different  times  in  the  different  States,  "which  accounts 
for  the  very  different  styles  of  State  boards  and  the  diversity  of  their  officials  and 
their  work.  Up  to  1841  all  the  States  had  been  working  on  the  same  line,_  and 
were  increasing  the  county,  district,  and  State  agricultural  societies  and  fairs,  and 
in  that  feeble  shape  mobilized  the  agricultural  army  of  the  United  States,  but  it 
was  badly  armed  and  poorly  provisioned.  On  December  15,  1841,  in  the  Capitol 
at  Washington,  was  held  a  meeting  for  the  purpose  of  organizing  a  grand  National 
Society  of  Agriculture.  Such  is  the  record  of  the  meeting  made  by  the  editor  of 
"The  Southern  Planter,"  of  Richmond,  Va.  Its  officers  were:  Hon.  James  M. 
Garnett,  of  Virginia,  president;  John  S.  Skinner,  corresponding  secretary;  John 
F.  Callan,  recording  secretary;  Edward  Dyer,  treasurer. 

NATIONAL   SOCIETY   FOR   AGRICULTURE. 

The  vice-presidents  were  one  selected  from  each  State  and  Territory,  and 
the  board  of  control  elected  were  Levi  Woodbury,  Elisha  Whittlesey,  Alexander 
Hunter,  John  A.  Smith,  and  W.  I.  Stone,  and  ex-officio  the  vice-presidents  of 
Virginia,  Maryland,  District  of  Columbia,  Pennsylvania,  and  Delaware.  Edmund 
Ruffin  was  chosen  vice-president  for  Virginia.  They  adopted  a  constitution  in 
in  advance  of  the  ideas  common  at  that  day.  Certain  it  is  that  this  was  the  cul- 
mination of  the  voluntary  organization  movement  to  be  supported  by  private 
funds.     This  movement  was  discussed,  opposed,  and  sometimes  denounced.     It 


(20) 


After  your  Corn,  Sir. 


AGRICULTURAL  ORGANIZATIONS.  21 


was  accused  of  being  a  political  interest,  etc.  Nevertheless,  agriculture  was 
coming  through  the  crysalis  state,  for  shortly  after  this  the. farmers  of  Virginia 
having  secured  a  Board  of  Agriculture  without  appropriations  from  tho  legisla- 
ture, afterwards  compelled  it  to  grant  an  appropriation  to  pay  the  expenses  of 
the  board,  and  immediately  after  the  meeting  in  Washington  city  they  went  to 
work  in  Virginia.  There  was  a  general  movement  all  over  tho  country.  The 
North  was  in  advance  of  the  South;  still  the  South  Atlantic  States  were  taking 
hold  of  the  movement.  A  Farmers'  Assembly  had  been  organized;  which  meet- 
ing, like  a  convention  of  the  people,  was  asserting  the  rights  of  the  farmers  in 
the  old  colonial  form  of  petition  to  the  law-makers.  During  this  period  we  find 
in  the  agricultural  journals  of  tho  North,  and  of  Maryland  and  Virginia,  a  discus- 
sion of  the  value  and  necessity  of  agricultural  departments  and  boards,  created 
by  the  legislatures,  and  sustained  by  appropriations,  and  often  a  criticism  of  the 
Federal  provision  for  agriculture.     The  "Agricultural  Clerkship,"  under  the  Com- 

AGRICUXTURAL    CLERKSHIP 

missioner  of  Patents,  was  the  subject  of  ridicule  by  many  agricultural  writers  North 
and  South.  Professor  Mapes'  speech,  published  in  the  "  Working  Farmer,"  a 
Northern  journal,  brought  forth  a  reply  denouncing  this  sentence  of  Professor 
Mapes:  "We  are  the  only  nation  Avhose  government  is  without  a  department 
devoted  to  agriculture.  The  farmers  have  a  right  to  and  should  claim  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  bearing  equal  rank  with  the  Secretary  of 
State,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  &c,  and  who  should  be  a  Cabinet  officer,  and 
whose  department  should  be  so  organized  as  to  render  every  new  truth  discovered 
in  agriculture  the  common  property  of  all.  We  should  no  longer  be  put  off  with 
a  clerk  subordinate  to  a  Bureau  officer,  and  located  in  an  obscure  corner  of  the 
Patent  office."  This  was  in  1857,  and  we  see  that  agriculture  was  slowly  advan- 
cing; and  now,  thirty  years  after  that  speech — with  a  great  sectional  Avar  begun 
and  ended,  the  sections  at  peace,  earth-works  plowed  down  and  obliterated — the 
"  obscure  corner  of  the  Patent  office"  no  longer  holds  the  "  Clerk  of  Agriculture." 
Professor  Mapes  was  a  prophet;  the  demand  was  in  due  time  made  by  the  farmers, 
and  Ave  have  a  "  Secretary  of  Agriculture"  bearing  even  rank  with  the  Secretary 
of  State,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,"  &c.  The  critic  of  Professor  Mapes  (L.  B. 
Mercer,  Esq.,)  proclaimed  the  unconstitutionality  of  the  Avhole  agricultural  move. 
The  prayer  that  Mr.  Mercer  uses  in  concluding  his  article  shoAvs  that  there  Avas  a 
wide-spread  idea  among  the  farmers  that  the  government  Avas  not  protecting  them 
and  their  industry;  that  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  looked  to  and  protected 
capital  and  finance,  manufactures  and  mines ;  that  the  Secretaries  of  War  and  of 
the  Navy  protected  the  soldiers  and  sailors,  but  that  agriculture  (composing  six- 
tenths  of  the  voters  and  tax-payers  of  the  countiw)  had  no  friend  at  the  Cabinet 
court  to  speak  directly  in  its  interest  when  questions  of  taxation,  revenue,  tariff, 
finance,  and  currency  came  up  for  discussion  and  settlement;  and,  therefore,  the 
farmers  said:  "  Give  us  a  Secretary."     Mr.  Mercer's  prayer  was,  to  "  Protect  me 

PROTECT  ME  AND  LET  ME  ALONE. 

and  let  me  alone."  That  Avas  an  admirable  platform  for  the  farmer;  but  that 
prayer  had  been  so  long  disregarded  in  the  construction  of  tariffs  and  the  regula- 


6 


gi 


AGRICULTURAL  ORGANIZATIONS.  23 


tion  of  the  currency,  that  agricultural  organizations  had  been  forming,  and  formed 
for  years,  to  secure  the  "  protection" — not  "expecting  to  he  let  alone."  Now  we 
have  also  Boards  of  Agriculture  and  a  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  in  nearly  every 
State  and  Territory,  but  it  has  taken  years  of  continuous  organization  to  secure 
this  position.  There  was  a  terrible  interregnum  of  about  five  years.  Southern 
agriculture  was  without  organization — the  sound  of  the  drum  and  the  roar  of  the 
cannon  had  hushed  the  voice  of  the  orators  of  the  societies  and  tho  fairs;  the 
improvement  of  land  was  forgotten,  compost  heaps  had  given  place  to  nitre  beds, 
and  the  exhausting  production  of  corn,  oats,  wheat,  rye,  hay,  and  sorghum,  year 
after  year  on  the  same  fields,  and  the  reduction  of  stock,  chiefly  of  horses  and 
teams,  made  the  agriculture  of  the  South  during  that  period  simply  a  process 
which  ground  out  of  the  earth  all  its  fertilizing  elements,  and  left  it  when  peace 
came  as  exhausted  as  its  owners.  In  a  short  time  there  was  an  effort  all  over  the 
South  to  gather  itself  together  agriculturally,  so  to  speak.  Attempts  were  made 
to  revive  the  old  societies  and  the  State  fairs  and  county  organizations,  but  many 
of  the  grand  old  farmers  were  gone,  and  more  were  broken-hearted  and  poor, 
without  money,  labor,  teams  or  stock,  left  only  broad  acres  fast  covering  them- 
selves in  a  mourning  garb  of  broom-sedge  and  old-field  pines.  Immigrants  were 
coming  in  from  the  Northern  States  and  foreign  countries,  bringing  some  capital 
and  introducing  their  systems  of  agriculture,  and  urging  agricultural  organiza- 
tion. It  was  seen  that  however  poor  or  unsalable  the  land,  it  still  bore  the  brunt 
of  taxation  and  its  cultivation,  the  burden  of  aiding,  protecting,  and  insuring 
manufactures  and  transportation,  and  that  even  banking  got  its  advantages  at  the 
cost  of  the  consumer  of  dutiable  goods,  while  the  tobacco  States  bore  a  double  tax, 
accompanied  with  a  restriction  on  the  marketing  of  their  main  product.  This 
state  of  affairs  started  the  farmers  again  on  the  outlook  for  protection  and  co= 

THE    VOICE    OF   THE    GRANGER. 

operation  by  organization.  The  voice  of  the  "  Granger"  was  heard  in  the  land, 
and  about  1870  the  Patrons  of  Husbandry  invaded  the  Southern  States. 

Some  quotations  from  an  editorial  in  the  "  Southern  Planter,"  of  July,  1874. 
will  give  a  pretty  fair  view  of  how  the  new  organization  was  viewed  in  the  South 
by  those  who  sympathized  with  the  farmers,  but  were  not  identified  with  the  order 
of  Patrons  of  Husbandry.  The  editor  says,  "  The  rapid  progress  which  the  society 
of  Patrons  of  Husbandry  is  making  in  Virginia,  is  indicative  of  a  feeling  among 
our  farmers  that  a  change  of  some  kind  is  necessary.  We  do  not  belong  to  that 
class  of  over-sanguine  individuals  Avho  are  always  expecting  impossibilities  of 
every  new  thing;  but  we  are  confident  that  the  Grangers  are  going  to  work  great 
and  permanent  good  in  this  State.  Our  farmers  being  brought  together  in  inti- 
mate personal  relations,  will  be  of  great  mutual  benefit  to  each  other,  imparting 
and  receiving  information  and  inspiring  a  spirit  of  emulation  which  can  be  pro- 
ductive of  good  only.  We  do  not  consider  this  movement  a  war  upon  other  trades 
and  professions.  Whatever  antagonism  may  exhibit  itself  must  grow  out  of  the 
legitimate  protection  it  seeks  to  give  to  the  interests  of  the  producing  classes.  We 
do  not  wish  to  deprive  any  one  of  the  legitimate  profits  of  trade,  but  when  we  see 
nearly  one-fourth  of  a  crop  absorbed  by  commission,  storage,  insurance,  and  such 
like  charges  we  are  very  apt  to  think  there  is  something  beyond  legitimate  profits 


24 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


someAvhere.  We  see  frequent  hints  that  this  is  a  political  movement,  which  is 
usually  persistently  denied  by  those  connected  with  the  order.  Now  it  appears  to 
us  that  while  the  objects  are  not  truly  political,  the  results  must  be  so.  We  need 
great  reforms  which  can  only  be  effected  through  legislatures,  and  whatever  a 
majority  of  the  people  desire  can  be  so  accomplished.  Upon  the  contrary,  how- 
ever, this  order  does  not  proscribe  any  class,  but  simply  leaves  the  individual 
members  to  choose  between  candidates  (and  they  will  give  preference  to  those) 
whose  principles  and  views  coincide  with  their  own." 

So  full  an  extract  from  this  article  is  given,  because  it  is  from  an  influential 
agricultural  journal  of  long  standing  and  great  influence,  and  because  with  little 
alteration,  it  voices  the  sentiments  of  the  farmers  and  planters  of  the  South  to-day 
as  fully  and  truly  as  it  did  then 


Happy  Days. 

At  a  later  day  the  same  author  wrote,  "  We  think  that  the  social  brotherhood 
of  the  Grange  will  do  away  with  the  last  particle  of  prejudice,  and  enable  Northern 
and  Southern  men  and  women  to  mingle  and  fraternize  freely,  without  doing  vio- 
lence to,  or  stirring  up  afresh  those  unkind  feelings  that  ought  to  have  been  buried 
long  ago.  If  the  Grange  accomplishes  this,  if  it  bridges  the  gulf  that  for  years 
prevented  free  and  unrestrained  social  intercourse  between  the  people  of  both  sec- 
tions, it  will  have  accomplished  that  which  will  entitle  its  originators  to  the  thanks' 
of  every  true  lover  of  the  country  in  either  section."     The  order  of  Patrons  of 


AGRICULTURAL  ORGANIZATIONS.  25 


Husbandry  has  done  a  great  •work,  and  to  some  extent  it  is  scattered  over  the 
whole  country.  It  still  has  a  national  organization  and  some  State  organizations, 
and  while  it  has  lost  the  political  influence  it  at  first  had  in  the  State  and  Federal 
legislatures,  still  its  social  influence  and  Avork  did  great  good — its  organizations 
made  a  direct  impress  on  the  agriculture  of  the  country,  and  was  indirectly  the 
means  of  relieving  agriculture  of  many  burdens.  To  it  more  than  to  all  other  influ- 
ences is  due  the  success  accomplished  by  the  war  against  the  adulterations  of  the 
products  of  agriculture  by  fraudulent  manufacturers.  This  war  has  been  carried  on 
by  the  Grangers,  mainly  into  all  the  legislatures  and  into  Congress,  and  laws  have 
been  enacted  in  the  interest  of  farmers,  giving  them  the  assurance  that  their  pro- 
ducts shall  not  be  forced  into  unfair  competition  with  fraudulent  imitations. 

This  was  the  first  secret  agricultural  organization  or  society.  It  had  its  forms 
and  ceremonies,  constitution  and  by-laws;  its  regularly  elected  officers ;  its  stated 
meetings;  its  lectures  and  business  officers.  To  some  extent  it  appears  to  have 
failed  to  give  the  farmers  of  the  country,  but  particularly  of  the  South,  all  they 
wanted.  Politically  the  order  exerted  more  influence  in  elections  in  Congress 
than  in  the  various  legislatures.  The  evidence  of  this  is  that  shortly  after  the 
revival  of  the  Granges,  and  the  organization  of  the  "Wheel  Men"  in  the  West,  and 
of  the  Alliances  in  the  South,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  and  appropriation  to 
the  State  experiment  stations  Avere  secured.  Doubtless  growing  out  of  the  history 
of  the  Patrons  of  Husbandry,  their  success  in  many  things,  the  acceptability  of 
their  secret  order  and  ritual,  their  effect  in  the  elections  in  the  West  and  North, 
as  well  as  their  failure  to  secure  many  matters  of  relief  .regarded  attainable  by 
close  organization,  produced  the  other  secret  agricultural  societies. 

The  exact  and  minute  history  of  the  various  secret  organizations  before  the 
apjDearance  of  the  greatest  and  most  powerful  agricultural  organization  ever 
known,  "The  Farmers'  Alliance,"  is  not  correctly  known.  The  organization 
known  as  "The  Wheel"  was  very  strong  in  Tennessee,  and  existed  in  the  South- 
Avest.  The  Farmers'  Alliance  started  in  Texas,  and  its  groAvth  in  the  South  has 
been  so  rapid  and  its  membership  composed  of  such  a  class  that  it  has  not  only 
created  an  excitement  hitherto  unknoAvn  in  southern  agricultural  circles,  but  the 
movement  has  put  neAv  life  and  vigor  in  the  Granges,  and  that  order  has  started 
to  conquer  new  fields  and  gain  neAV  victories. 

The  press  of  the  country  exhibits  facts  from  eA'ery  section,  shoAving  that  in 
many  places  the  Grangers  are  growing  as  fast  as  the  Alliances,  and  that  there  is  a 
disposition  in  the  Eastern  and  Western  States  to  consolidate  the  strength  and 
efforts  of  these  peculiar  organizations  into  one  great  national  agricultural  union, 
called  the  Farmers'  League,  Avhose  influence  shall  be  industrial,  financial,  and 
political.  The  NeAV  York  "Press"  gives  this  vieAV  of  the  moA^e:  "The  compact 
union  of  the  farmers  of  the  country  makes  it  certain  that  they  ha\Te  the  indepen- 
dence, tenacity  of  purpose  and  integrity  to  stand  together.  We  shall  watch  the 
'Farmers'  League'  Avith  the  interest  that  it  challenges,  as  the  latest,  greatest,  and 
possibly  the  most  formidable  force  in  American  politics."  The  following  is  the 
prospectus  of  the  Farmers'  League: 

farmers'  league. 

"The  idea  of  leaguing  together  all  agricultural  organizations,  so  that  under 
the  name  of  the  Farmers'  League  the  farmers  can  co-operate  politically  without 


26  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


interfering  with  existing  orders  meets  with  great  favor.  Full  particulars  of  the 
plan  of  work  will  be  furnished  free  to  all  who  apply  (with  stamp)  to  the  national 
secretary,  Herbert  Mysick,  Springfield,  Mass.  Any  farmer  may  become  a  life 
member  on  the  payment  of  fifty  cents ;  five  or  more  may  form  a  town  league ;  five 
or  more  towns  a  county  league,  and  three  or  more  counties  a  State  league." 
Such  is  the  present  state  of  agricultural  organizations  in  the  country.  Let  us 
sum  up  Avhat  they  have  accomplished  and  what  are  their  future  prospects.  This 
is  the  era  of  aggregation  of  means,  organization  of  forces,  and  combination  of 
methods.  Money  as  capital;  employees  as  labor;  power  as  corporations;  science  as 
laboratories,  and  intellect  as  boards  and  directories,  are  producing  tenfold  the 
results  of  individual  or  isolated  use  of  these  means  in  former  years.  The  time 
has  come  when  loss  or  financial  ruin  awaits  the  farmer  or  planter  who  does  not 
use  all  the  means,  all  the  skill,  all  the  economy,  all  the  scientific  and  practical 
system  required  by  manufacturers,  bankers,  and  merchants.  The  necessity  for 
this  has  been  fully  disclosed  by  the  concerted  action  of  these  organizations,  and 
the  best  means  of  accomplishing  by  increased  information  and  practical  experi- 
mentation the  best  results  has  in  many  sections  been  put  in  operation.  In  those 
States  which  have  well  organized  boards  of  agriculture,  there  has  been  an  improve- 
ment in  the  lands,  stock,  and  farming  implements,  and  farmers'  institutes  opera- 
ting under  State  boards  have  informed,  instructed  and  encouraged  the  agriculturist, 
equaling  the  highest  expectations  of  their  advocates. 

These  State  organizations,  boards,  commissioners,  farmers'  institutes,  agri- 
cultural schools,  experiment  stations  State  and  Federal,  departments  of  chemistry, 
pomology,  etomology,  and  geology  are  the  result  of  continued  agricultural  agitation 
through  the  organizations  of  farmers.  The  success  of  their  agitations  in  securing 
a  Secretary  of  Agriculture  can  hardly  at  present  be  appreciated.  Beyond  doubt  it 
will  prove  the  most  valuable  acquisition  to  the  efforts  of  the  farmers  for  equal 
rights,  protection  and  aid.  At  present,  and  for  some  years,  it  will  be  hampered 
by  party  politics,  and  the  influence  and  power  of  the  department  may  not  be  seen 
and  felt  in  their  proper  force  for  some  time.  But  a  representative  at  the  meeting 
of  the  Cabinet,  in  full  sympathy  Avith  agriculture,  acquainted  with  all  its  needs, 
understanding  its  past  oppressions,  feeling  its  burdens,  will  understand  how  to 
prevent  -the  encroachment  of  capital,  manufactures  and  trade,  in  their  applica- 
tions for  legislation  through  the  Secretary  representing  their  interest.  It  can 
readily  be  seen  how  different  might  have  been  the  various  tariff,  revenue,  finance, 
commerce  and  navigation  bills,  if  an  able  representative  of  agriculture  had  been 
at  the  Cabinet  meetings  at  which  they  were  discussed,  as  Avell  as  how  influential 
and  potent  would  be  the  report  of  a  Cabinet  officer  on  the  Congress  and  the  coun- 
try, setting  forth  the  rights  and  privileges  of  agriculture.  It  must  be  apparent  to 
the  most  casual  observer  and  the  most  careless  reader  that  the  agriculturists  of 
the  whole  country  have  awakened  to  the  fact  that  trade,  manufactures,  and  finance 
have  been  fostered,  protected,  and  advantaged  by  legislators,  and  that  the  same 
might  have  been  true  of  agriculture  had  it  from  the  foundation  of  the  government 
been  conceded  its  equal  place  in  the  government,  and  the  same  direct  recognition 
in  Federal  and  State  legislation.  The  continued  agitation  by  agricultural  associa- 
tions has  discovered  this,  and  the  continued  organization  of  farmers  and  land 
owners  has  accomplished  something,  and  will  secure  the  rest  in  the  end.  This  is 
an  agitation,  a  movement,  a  revelation,  if  you  please,  that  will  not  down;  that 


(27) 


"I've  Found  an  Egg." 


28 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


will  not  be  quieted  short  of  equal  rights,  equal  privileges — the  greatest  good  to 
the  greatest  number — equal  benefits  for  equal  burdens.  There  has  been  for  nearly 
a  century  an  agricultural  cloud,  no  larger  than  a  man's  hand,  rising  in  this  coun- 
try, and  it  has  grown,  rising  and  falling,  now  sighing  like  a  zephyr,  then  howling 
like  a  storm,  and  now  it  has  filled  the  land  v/ith  granges,  alliances,  clubs,  and 
associations,  numbering  millions  of  the  bone  and  sinew,  wealth  and  influence  of 
the  country,  apparently  about  to  crystalize  into  a  league  that  will  reach  every 
primary,  every  polling  place,  every  legislative  body.  How,  does  not  fully  appear, 
but  wise  men,  statesmen  and  patriots,  will  see  the  wisdom  as  well  as  the  necessity 
of  giving  this  great  industry,  this  basis  of  all  industries,  this  foundation  of  all  the 
wealth  and  power  of  the  country,  full  recognition,  its  proper  place  in  govern- 
ment, and  its  full  share  in  the  benefits  of  legislation  by  appropriations  from  the 
taxes  it  contributes  to  the  treasuries,  State  and  Federal. 


,  .  ( V ./ . i ,'.-V'.i V ;      ., .|:  ■    ,; ',  'i ';'      ,:'[,;; ' ;    -  ,^;  f:: ,^1(1,;', ' , ^[h;  ■  ^ ^ji il'i^y  ;; \j]W\ .,,■',„ '[l(      ,1'J     'CjlM^-^-^i'l 


One  of  the  Perils  of  City  Life. 


The  agriculture  of  this  great  country  covers  and  includes  every  product  neces- 
sary for  the  food  and  clothing  of  man.  In  a  few  years  it  will  be  able  to  clothe  the 
world  with  its  products.  Let  our  statesmen,  our  politicians,  heed  the  counsel  of 
the  old  men  to  Rehoboam,  King  of  Judah,  when  the  people  said  to  him,  "Make 
the  yoke  which  thy  father  did  put  upon  us  lighter." 


CHAPTER  II. 
Agricultural  3mp(cment$« 

BY   ASIIT0N    STARKE,    TRESIDENT   VIRGINIA    STATE    AGRICULTURAL   AND 

MECHANICAL    SOCIETY. 

VOLUME  of  no  mean  size  could  easily  be  filled  with  a  history 
of  that  most  important  of  all  the  farming  tools — the  plow. 
Many  theories  and  notions  have  been  advanced  as  to  its 
beginning  and  original  structure.  Some  say  that  tillage  or 
culture  of  the  soil  is  supposed  to  have  been  first  practiced  in 
imitation  of  the  effects  produced  by  the  sand  and  mud  left  by 
the  inundation  of  rivers.  These  take  place  more  or  less  in 
every  country,  and  their  effects  on  vegetation,  which  sponta- 
neously springs  up  out  of  the  deposited  sand  and  mud,  excited 
the  attention  of  the  countrymen.  This  hypothesis  seems  supported  by  the  tradi- 
tions and  natural  circumstances  of  Egypt:  overflowed  by  a  river,  civilized  from 
time  immemorial,  and  called  the  granary  of  the  surrounding  country,  being  so 
abundant  in  corn. 

Some  antiquarians  hold  that  the  primeval  implement  used  in  cultivating  the 
soil  was  of  a  pick  kind;  a  medal  of  greatest  antiquity,  dug  up  at  Syracuse,  con- 
tained an  impression  of  such  an  instrument,  and  its 
progress,  until  it  became  a  plow,  has  been  recognized  -=; 
in  a  cameo  on  which  a  pick-like  plow  is  drawn  by  two  ~ 
serpents.  It  is  also  seen  on  a  medal  from  the  village 
of  Enna,  in  Sicily,  in  a  figure  as  found  on  an  antique 
tomb;  in  an  Etruscan  plow,  copied  from  a  fragment  in 
the  Roman  College  at  Rome.  What  seems  to  confirm 
these  conjectures  is  that  the  image  of  Osiris  is  sculp-  Primitive  Egyptian  row,  no.  1. 
tured  with  a  similar  plow  in  each  hand,  and  a  barrow  suspended  by  a  cord  over 
the  left  shoulder.  This  plow  was  perhaps  used  in  war  as  well  as  in  agriculture, 
and  seems  to  have  been  of  that  kind  with  which  the  Israelites  fought  the  Philis- 
tines. Another  writer  says,  that  on  an  ancient  monument  in  Asia  Minor  was 
seen  an  illustration  of  the  original  plow,  which  consisted  of  the  natural  crook  of 
the  branch  of  a  tree.  It  is  also  held  that  the  first  "plow"  might  be  said  to  have 
been  a  "spade,"  for  the  work  of  the  plow  to-day  is  nothing  more  than  that  done 
with  a  spade — namely,  turning  up  the  earth. 

In  the  limited  space  in  a  volume  of  this  kind,  while  our  effort  will  be  to  show 
the  progress  of  invention  with  the  plow  up  to  the  splendid  improvement  of  this 
day,  which  has  done  so  much  to  lighten  labor  and  promote  agriculture,  it  would 
be  useless  to  attempt  to  enter  into  a  description  of  all  the  plows  that  are  known 
to  have  been  used  among  the  many  different  ancient  and  modern  people  of  the 

(29) 


30 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


§&*» 


world.  It  will,  perhaps,  be  a  matter  of  surprise  to  many  a  reader  that  plows  sup- 
ported by  two  wheels,  some  of  them  quite  like  the  modern  sulky  plow,  in  princi- 
ple, were  constructed  by  the  Greeks  over  two  thousand  years  ago.  In  the  plows 
alluded  to  as  found  upon  the  ancient  monument  in  Asia  Minor,  we  possibly  have 
the  first  plow  as  drawn  by  an  animal. 

It  was  a  natural  growth.  Here  we  have  as  to-day  the  "beam,"  the  "stand- 
ard," the  handle,  the  "brace  bolt;"  altogether,  we  might  say,  the  skeleton  of  a 
real  plow.     Egyptian  monuments  dating  back  more  than  three  thousand  years 

before  the  time  of  our  Saviour  present  to  us  plows 
quite  as  rude.  The  Roman  jlow  shows  a  change  in 
construction  in  that  the  handle  was  constructed  so 
that  the  plowman  could  press  down  upon  the  imple- 
ment. A  plow  used  by  Cincinnatus  and  Cato  shows, 
perhaps,  the  first  plow  where  real  mechanical  genius 
seems  to  have  entered  into  the  manufacture  of  the 
same.  In  this  plow  was  the  metal  share,  and  the  sole 
primitive  Egyptian  how,  no.  2.  of  this  plow  had  teeth  set  up  m  it,  so  that  while  it  did 
not  turn  the  soil  as  does  the  mould-board  of  to-day,  these  teeth  served  to  har- 
row or  break  the  clods,  somewhat,  as  the  plow  broke  the  soil.  Years  before  these 
Roman  plows,  however,  during  the  pre-historic  iron  age,  plows  had  been  con- 
structed with  metal  shares. 

The  Assyrians,  long  before  the  Christian  era,  used  _=a==r^=-    __^»^ 

plows  substantially  like  those  which  may  be  seen  in 
use  at  this  time  in  sections  of  Spain  and  Italy.  Such, 
also,  is  the  case  in  Egypt  and  China,  and  other  sec- 
tions. The  caschrom  is  a  sort  of  plow  still  to  be  found 
in  some  portions  of  the  Hebrides  and  the  Isle  of  Sk}r, 
British  Isles,  that  has  come  down  from  time  immemo- 
rial. It  was  made  of  a  single  piece  of  wood,  with 
a  metal  point,  in  which  point  we  seem  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  what  is  known  to-day 
as  the  "patent,"  reversible  point,  as  this  point  was  evidently  made  with  a  socket, 
and  could  be  put  on  one  side  up  as  well  as  the  other. 

The  East  Indians  now  use  a  plow  that  has  not  been  materially  changed  for 
thousands  of  years.  It  is  made  from  three  natural  crooks,  for  handle,  beam  and 
bottom,  with  a  bit  of  iron  strapped  on  the  point  of  the  latter  to  protect  it,  and  to 
open  the  ground. 

In  England,  plows  having  their  beams  supported  upon  wheels  have  been 
favorites  from  the  earliest  times.     A  description  of  one  used  during  the  reign  of 

William  the  Conqueror,  in  the  eleventh  century,  is  as 

follows:  "It  was  drawn  by  four  oxen,  and  fastened  to 

them  by  ropes  made  of  twisted  willows,  and  sometimes 

by  the  skin  of  Avhales.     A  coulter  or  sword,  fastened  to 

the  beam,  and  in  front  of  the  plow,  is  here  seen  for  the 

first  time,  and  a  wheel  is  placed  in  front  to  regulate 

■  depth.     In  Wales,  as  in  Britain,  the  custom  was  to 

fasten  the  plows  to  the  tails  of  the  oxen  or  horses,  and 

Assyrian  piow.  compel  the  poor  beast  to  thus  drag  them  through  the 

ground.    An  act  of  the  Irish  legislature,  passed  in  1634,  forbade  this  cruel  custom." 


Primitive  Egyptian  Plow,  No.  3. 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS. 


31 


much  neglected 


U.  S.  Patent,  A.  P.  1797. 


From  the  third  until  the  eleventh  century  agriculture  seems  to  have  been 
From  the  war-like  nature  of  the  countries  and  other  circum- 
stances, people  depended  more  upon  their  flocks  and  herds  for  support.  In 
Britain,  just  after  the  eleventh  century,  the  plow  had  but  one  stilt  or  handle;  this 
plow  had  a  wheel  in  front  to  steady  it.     Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 

century,  the  idea  of  constructing  a  plow  with  a  mould- 
board  to  turn  over  the  soil  after  it  had  been  broken,  does 
not  seem  to  have  occurred  to  the  makers  or  users  of 
these  implements;  their  whole  object  being  simply 
to  break  or  tear  up,  aud  we  can  imagine  what  a  time 
they  must  have  had  with  grass  and  weeds  before  the 
crops  matured.  The  Norman  plow  had  two  wheels, 
and  in  their  light  soils  was  generally  drawn  by  one  or 
two  oxen.  The  forms  of  plows  used  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  seem  to  have  spread  all  over  Europe,  and  underwent  no  change  until  the 
sixteenth  century,  when  they  began  to  be  improved  by  the  Dutch  and  Flemish. 
A  plow  known  as  the  "  Rotherham  Plow,"  introduced  from  Holland,  was 
first  constructed  and  patented  by  Joseph  Foljambe,  in  1720.  The  bottom  was 
made  of  wood,  the  wearing  parts  covered  Avith  heavy  sheet-iron;  the  point  of 
conical  shape  and  thicker  plate.  On  the  end  of  the  beam  was  a  clevis  to  pull  by, 
quite  similar  to  those  in  general  use  to-day.  Altogether,  this  plow  was  well  pro- 
portioned, and  James  Small,  who  labored  many  years  to  improve  it,  left  a  plow 
which  is  used  to  this  day.  In  1785,  Mr.  Robert  Ransom  obtained  a  patent  for 
plow-shares  of  cast  iron,  and  in  1803  improved  them  by  a  mode  of  "  chilling"  or 
case  hardening.  The  Scotch  plow,  as  nearly  all  of  the  foreign  plows  have  been 
since  1810,  is  made  exclusively  of  iron — the  beam  generally  from  six  to  nine 
feet  long,  the  handles  from  seven  to  ten  feet  long — the  mould-boards  of  different 
shapes;  for  sandy  soils,  concave  on  the  face;  for  clay  soils,  convex.  All  of  them 
unhandy  and  heavy;  and  it  may  be  said  in  a  word,  that  the  United  States  of 
America  stands  to-day  far  in  the  lead  of  all  nations  in  producing  a  superior 
implement  in  every  respect. 

Thomas  Jefferson  was  one  of  the  earliest  Americans  to  labor  towards  the 
perfection  and  simplifying  of  the  plow.     He  gives  his  ideas  in  his  journal  of  1788, 


and  in  about  1793  he  put 
The  next  American  after 
took  the  work  of  improving 
bold,  of  Burlington,  New 
first  cast-iron  plow  in  this 
patent  were  signed  by  John 
Newbold  spent  upwards  of 
perfecting  and  introducing 
cloned  the  business  in  des- 


his  theory  into  practice. 
Mr.  Jefferson  who  under- 
the  plow,  was  Charles  New- 
Jersey,  who  invented  the 
country,  and  whose  letters- 
Adams  in  June,  1797.  Mr. 
thirty  thousand  dollars  in 
his  plow,  and  then  aban- 
pair,  as  the  planters,  for 
idea  that  "cast  iron  poisoned 


Side  Hill,  A.  D.  1831. 

some  remarkable  reason,  imbibed  the  ludicrous 

the  land,  injured  its  fertility,  and  promoted  the  growth  of  rocks." 

The  next  plow  invented  was  by  Hezekiah  Harris,  February  24,  1804.     The 
next  was  to  John  Deaver,  of  Maryland,  June  12,  1804. 

A  patent  was  granted  to  David  Peacock,  of  New  Jersey,  April  1,  1807,  whom 
Newbold  sued  for  infringement  and  recovered  $1,500  damages.     If,  when  there 


32 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


existed  only  three  patents  on  plows,  there  was  granted  by  the  Patent  Office  letters- 
patent  that  so  conflicted  with  another,  what  must  be  the  real  worth  of  patents 
to-day  on  plows,  when  the  very  latest  has  not  departed  really  from  the  under- 
lying principles  of  the  first,  yea,  the  primeval  plow,  and 
the  letters-patent  issued  are  up  in  the  thousands  ?  In 
1836,  Mr.  Daniel  Webster  invented  a  plow  for  working 
twelve  or  fourteen  inches  deep,  and  cutting  a  furrow 
twenty-four  inches  wide.  This  plow. is  still  in  existence, 
and  was  inspected  by  thousands  at  the  Philadelphia 
Exposition  in  1876.  A  plow  made  of  all  wood  with 
metal  point ;  the  mould-board  cut  out  of  a  section  of  a 
"winding  tree,"  and  two  or  three  strips  of  iron  nailed 
to  its  face  to  prevent  wear,  was  exhibited  at  the  Virginia  Exposition  in  1888, 
and  is  the  property  of  Mr.  Ashton  Starke,  Richmond,  Virginia.  It  was  dug  up 
in  one  of  the  upper  counties  of  Virginia.  Mr.  Webster's  plow  was  of  fearful  pro- 
portions. He,  with  some  six  or  eight  assistants,  used  to  hold  this  plow,  and  his 
own  words  were:  "When  I  have  hold  of  the  handles  of  my  big  plow  in  such  a 
field,  with  a  pair  of  cattle  to  pull  it  through  (they  must  have  been  huge  cattle), 
and  hear  the  roots  crack  and  see  the  stumps  go  under  the  furrows  out  of  sight, 
and  observe  the  clean  mellowed  surface  of  the  plowed  land,  I  feel  more  enthu- 
siasm over  my  achievement,  than  comes  from  my  encounters  in  public  life  in 
Washington." 


Rolling  Land-Side,  1843. 


Plows  have  been  made 
and  wood,  as  stated,  and  of 
of  the  far  South,  especially, 
experimented  with  at  great 
will  "scour"  or  turn  the 
and  is  to-day,  largely  used — 
but  of  late  years,  chilled 
boards  have  been  resorted 
of  their  economy  in    cost. 


Jointer,  1884. 


with  mould-boards  of  iron 
glass.  In  the  sticky  lands 
wood  and  glass  have  been 
cost  to  get  something  that 
soil.  Steel  has  also  been, 
looking  to  the  same  end; 
or  case  hardened  mould- 
to  most  largely  on  account 
The  effort  is  to  get  some 
metal  that  will  admit  of  a  high  polish,  and  this  is  greatly  promoted  in  the  chilled- 
faced  moulds,  from  the  fact  that  the  grain  of  the  metal  is  changed  from  a  long 
fibre,  to  a  sectional  or  cross-grain,  it  might  be  termed.  Of  course,  these  moulds  are 
necessarily  more  brittle.    To-day  the  name  of  the  different  makes  of  plows  is  legion. 

Electricity  and  steam  have 
been  brought  into  play,  but  it 
cannot  be  said  with  any  great 
degree  of  success.  The  great 
cost  and  the  requirement  that 
the  land  shall  be  comparatively 
level,  prevents  them  as  yet 
from  coming  into  general  use. 
Wheel  or  sulky  plows,  as 
has  been  said,  may  be  classed 
among    the    primeval    plows,  wneei  piow,  i884. 

and  not  until  the  past  two  years  have  they  been  brought  to  that  state  of  per- 

As  labor  becomes  more  intelli- 


fection  which  seems  to  suit  them  to  general  use 


AGEICULTURA  L  IM  PLEMENTS. 


33 


gent  they  will  bo  more  largely  used.  That  they  decrease  draft,  enabling  the  same 
team  to  do  more  work  both  by  reason  of  faster  travel  and  cutting  a  wider  furrow 
each  time,  has  been  certainly  proven.  All  of  the  leading  chilled  plows  of  to-day 
may  be  said  to  be  of  the  same  pattern  so  far  as  general  construction  goes.  That 
some  are  made  of  better  material  by  reason  of  recent  improvements  in  case  hard- 
ening, steel-working,  etc.,  is  true.  It  is  equally  true  that  some  turn  better  furrows 
and  draw  easier  and  at  the 
same  time  are  less  liable  to 
choke  in  weedy  or  trashy 
land.  Yet  the  principles  are 
the  same.  The  choking  of  a 
plow  is  due  to:  First,  the 
construction  of  the  standard 
piece,  and  secondly,  the  rela- 
tion of  the  mould-board  to 
the  standard.  Richmond, 
Virginia,  I  think,  may  claim 
that  her  plow  manufacturers  Gang  Plow.  ism. 

have  given  much  thought  to  this  feature  and  perhaps  turn  out  the  only  plows 
in  the  country  that  are  positive  departures  from  the  stereot}^ped  standard. 
The  late  Mr.  P.  H.  Starke  invented  a  plow  which  is  largely  used  in  the  south- 
ern section  of  this  country,  which  has  a  very  tall  receding  standard,  arranged 
with  a  ratchett  for  raising  and  lowering  the  beam.  The  idea  in  this  plow  is  to  get 
the  beam  high  enough  from  the  land  and  far  enough  back  from  the  front  or  cut- 
ting edge  of  the  plow,  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  trash  or  weeds.  Mr.  Watt, 
on  the  other  hand,  constructed  and  invented  a  plow  in  which  the  beam  was  bolted 
to  the  side  of  the  standard  by  a  cuff,  and  underneath  the  beam  is  cast  to  the 


Steam  Plow,  1881. 


standard  piece  a  throat  piece,  the  idea  being  to  turn  off  the  weeds,  &c.  As  these 
patent  rights  have  now  expired,  and  they  being  the  only  positive  departures  in  my 
knowledge,  I  mention  them. 

5 


34  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


A  plow  to  run  well  at  the  least  expense  of  labor  should  he  so  adjusted  mat 
the  landside  will  neither  leave  its  impression  upon  the  bottom  or  the  side  of  the 
furrow;  it  should  just  slide  along  easily  enough  on  each,  as  to  gently  touch  all 
along.  Large  numbers  of  plowmen  prefer  to  have  wheels  under  the  front  end  of 
the  beam  of  the  plow.  I  fancy  most  often  the  wheel  is  used  at  the  expense  of 
draft.  The  plow  is  set  say  to  run  very  deep,  and  is  then  prized  out  by  the  pressure 
of  the  wheel  on  the  unbroken  land  ahead,  and  so  there  is  created  unnecessary 
draft.  This  and  the  proper  sword  or  rolling  cutter  for  special  work,  the  set  of  the 
same,  and  the  use  of  the  jointer  (all  attachments  to  plows),  are  seldom  used  with 
intelligence. 

Wheel  plows,  with  which  the  operator  walks,  seem  to  be  coming  into  favor 
just  now,  in  preference  to  the  sulky  or  riding  plows. 

Thus  far  we  have  only  been  describing  turn  plows,  the  parents  of  the  great 
family  of  hill-side  ploAvs,  sub-soil  plows,  trench-plows,  new-ground  plows,  railroad 
plows,  and  a  host  of  others.  Nor  can  we  hope  to  go  into  a  treatise  on  all  of  these 
different  classes  of  plows.  Just  one  word  on  the  subject  of  trench-plowing.  I 
believe  that  this  mode  of  plowing  is  the  only  sensible  thing  to  be  done  with  lands 
that  have  been  long  years  in  cultivation.  Trench-plowing  is  running  a  small  plow 
in  the  furrow  of  a  large  one.  The  idea  is  just  to  bring  up  a  little  fresh  earth  every 
season  so  that  the  unexhausted  properties  of  the  earth  may  be  given  the  fertilizer 
or  manure  to  work  upon,  and  thus  the  depth  of  soil  be  increased  all  the  time. 
Soil  that  has  been  worked  year  after  year  and  exhausted,  cannot,  by  the  use  of 
fertilizers,  be  put  in  a  healthy  state  without  the  assistance  of  new  soil  to  properly 
utilize  it. 

Up  to  1888,  there  had  been  granted  by  the  U.  S.  Patent  Office  6,686  patents 
on  plows. 

HARROWS. 

After  the  plow  follows  the  harrow;  the  harrow  is  mentioned  three  times  in 
the  Bible.  First,  in  the  book  of  Job,  "Will  he  (the  Unicorn)  harrow  valleys 
after  thee";  II.  Chronicles,  XX.,  3:  "He  cut  them  with  saws  and  with  harrows 
of  iron";  in  2d  Samuel,  "He  put  them  under  saws  and  under  harrows  of  iron. " 
As  I  have  said  that  the  plow  is  really  "  the  spade  drawn  by  horses,"  so  the  harrow 
is  many  rakes  fastened  together  and  worked  in  the 
same  manner.  The  first  trace  we  find  of  harrowing 
was  done  by  men  employed,  who  followed  the  plow 
with  instruments  they  called  "hacks" — a  kind  of  hoe, 
hollow  in  the  blade — and  with  these  the  "hackers" 
broke  the  clods  made  by  the  plow.  Next  following, 
perhaps,  came  the  bush-harrow,  which  was  made  of 
the  brush  of  a  tree — most  often  the  hawthorn,  perhaps. 
One  of  the  methods  was  to  tie  with  a  cord  of  raw 
hide  or  bark  the  trunk  or  brush  limb  of  a  tree  to  the 
animal's  tail.  This  was  abolished  by  an  act  of  Parlia- 
ment in  the  year  1664.  Then  we  find  that  the  spiked 
limbs  of  trees  are  bound  together,  the   spurs  of  the  Primitive  Hand 

limbs  being  the  substitute  for  the  teeth  of  the  harrow,  and  these  to-day  are  used 
in  the  north  of  Europe.     It  was  not  long  when  the  people  conceived  the  idea 


AGRICULTUKA  L  IMPLEMENTS. 


35 


Primitive  Log. 


of  driving  spikes  into  boards,  and  here  we  have  the  harrow  just  as  it  has  boon 
used  for  all  the  years,  differing  only  in  the  matter  of  the  shape  of  the  frames 
which  holds  the"  spikes  or  teeth.  Every  fanner  to-day  knows  of  the  "square 
harrow,"  "V  harrow,"  "X,  or  cross  harrow,"  and  such  like,  made  of  timbers 
fastened  together,  through  which  are  drawn  the  teeth.  Next,  perhaps,  came  the 
idea  of  attaching  two  or  more  of  these  different  shapes  together,  sometimes  allow- 
ing them  to  drag  along  independent  of  each  other,  then  again  having  them 
hinged  together,  the  object  being  to  so  construct  the 
harrow  as  a  whole  that  it  would  adapt  itself  to  the 
unevenness  of  the  land.  At  first  the  teeth  were  all 
drawn  through  the  timbers  perpendicularly,  buit  after 
a  while  it  was  seen  that  in  some  cases,  and  for  cer- 
tain different  kinds  of  work,  these  entered  the  ground 
too  severely,  and  then  the  teeth  in  some  harrows 
were  drawn  in  slanting,  so  that  they  would  not  tear- 
up  the  ground  so  much ;  and  following  this  harrows  - 
were  made  with  the  teeth  put  on  against  the  side  of 
the  timbers,  with  devices  such  that  pulling  the  har- 
row from  one  side  the  teeth  stand  perpendicular, 
while  drawing  it  from  the  other  side  they  assume  a  slanting  position — thus  adapt- 
ing the  one  tool  to  the  two  styles  of  work.  Rotary  harrows — those  so  made  that 
the  resistance  against  the  earth  as  they  are  drawn  along  give  them  a  turning- 
motion  as  they  move  forward — have  also  been  made.  The  spiked  cylinder  har- 
rows are  among  the  late  inventions. 

Of  the  most  popular  and  latest  inventions  in  the  harrow  class  to-day  may  be 
classed  the  following:  The  spring-tooth  harrow,  an  implement  of  exceptional 
merit,  is  made  of  a  wood  or  metal  frame,  to  which  is  attached  flat  steel  teeth  about 
two  inches  wide,  and  when  ready  for  work  stands  on  the  ground  and  attached  to 
the  frame  like  the  letter  C,  not  turned  up  so  much  at  the  bottom,  but  cut  off  and 

dipped  so  as  to  enter  the  ground.  These  harrows  do 
fine  Avork  and  recommend  themselves  to  every  farmer. 
Many  different  styles  of  them  are  made  by  different 
manufacturers,  and  in  many  cases  they  take  the  place 
■,  of  the  plow,  doing  the  two  operations  of  plowing  and 
harrowing  at  the  same  time.  Few  farmers  can  afford 
to  be  without  one  such  harrow.  A  class  of  harrows 
made  after  an  old  harrow  called  "Share's  colter  har- 
row" may  be  mentioned  here.  It  has  blades  of  steel 
about  four  inches  in  Avidth,  curved  someA\That  and  set 
on  edge,  being  attached  to  a  frame  sometimes  of  iron 
and  again  of  avoocI.  These  act  as  so  many  knives 
that  slice  the  earth,  at  the  same  time  turning  a  slight 
furrow  by  their  peculiar  shape.  For  lighter  lands  and  surface  harrowing,  as  dis- 
tinct from  fallow  or  heavy  harroAA'ing,  they  perform  well,  and  for  putting  in  grass 
seed  and  the  like  are  very  popular.  Next  to  be  mentioned  is  the  disc  har- 
row, another  excellent  tool  for  certain  classes  of  work.  These  consist  of  a  series 
of  steel  discs,  similar  in  shape  to  a  table  plate,  that  is  convexed  on  one  side  and 
concaA^e  on  the  other.     These  discs  are  strung  on  tAVO  axles,  usually  two  sizes 


Types  of  Harrow-teeth. 


36 


'PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


with  four  discs  to  each  axle,  or  six  discs,  as  the  land  and  the  team  may  he  suited. 

The  gangs  of  discs  are  so  arranged  that  by  the  use  of  a  lever  these  two  axles  ma}' 

be  thrown  in  a  straight 
line,  that  is  one  simply 
continuing  the  length  of 
the  other,  or  the  two 
]Taay  be  thrown  and  set 
to  an  acute  angle.  By 
reason  of  the  plates  or 
discs  being  concave  the 
more  nearly  at  right  an- 
gles the  one  gang  is  set 
with  the  other  the 
greater  the  little  fur  tow 
is  made  by  each  separ- 
ate disc,.  Since  this  har- 
has  gone  farther  and  by  cutting  out 

V-shaped  sections  out  of  the  beforetime  solid  discs  they  have  made  what  is  called 

a    "cut-away"    disc    harrow. 

Another  has  fluted  or  corru-  V  ^-VT==w.  .— 

gated   the   periphery  of  the^.    %«-^_  3"*%^.._1__^~.  ~  r^ 

discs,  all  striving  to  cut  the  j*fe=-^_ 

land  as  fine  as  possible  as  the 

'harrow  passes  over.    To  these 

latter  harrows  seed  boxes  are 

some  times   attached,  which 

sow  the  seed  at  the  same  time 

the   land  is  being  harrowed 

and  the  seed  covered.     This 

is  also  true  of  the  spring- 
tooth  harrow  which  is  fre- 
quently mounted  on  wheels 

and  the  driving  gear  for  the 

seed  box  is  taken  from  the 

revolving  wheels. 


Rotary  Harrow,  1859. 

row  has   made   its  appearance  invention 


Spring-Tooth  Harrow,  1869. 


It  is 


harrowing 
average 


Crushing  Harrow. 

born  clod  nor  has  it  strength  to  find  its  way  around  it. 

and  the  plumpest  grains  the  land  must  be  thoroughly  pulverized 


to  be  remarked  that 
seems  to  give  the 
farmer  little  concern, 
when  indeed  there  is  nothing 
in  which  so  much  economy  of 
labor  can  be  practiced  and  no 
work  which  will  conduce  more 
decidedly  to  the  health  and  in- 
crease of  his  crops  as  good  and 
sufficient  harrowing.  The  ten- 
der germ  from  the  seed  cannot 
tunnel  its  way  through  the  stub- 
To  make  the  best  yield 
I  have  seen  land 


AfJTUCULTUKAL  IMPLEMENTS. 


37 


on  which  wheat  was  sown  and  yielded  say  six  to  eight  bushels,  which  hand  but  a 
single  harrowing,  which,  if  it  had  had  six  to  eight  harrowings,  each  time  mat 


mg  it 


The  Disc  Harrow. 


finer,  without  any  other  help  would  havo  yielded  one-third  to  one-half  more  in  all 
probability.  The  United  States  Patent  Office  has  granted  1,478  patents  on  harrows. 

PLANTERS,  DRILLS,  SEEDERS. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  determine  how  seeding  was  first  done;.     Nature  of  course 

gave  object  lessons  in  the  fall  and  spring.     The  people  saw  the  seed  that  fell  to 

the  ground  during  the  later  days  of  the  years  sprout        _..  v 

and  the  germs  thereof  spring  up  in  the  spring-time, 

and  the  sowing  with  careless  hand  by  old  Mother 

Nature  suggested  the  more  methodical  drilling  and 

dropping  by  man.     We  are  told  that  the  Egyptians 

sowed  broadcast  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  after  the 

overflow  had  subsided,  and  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats 

=i,j  were  driven    over   the 
i.  seeds  to  pressthem  into 
|  the  earth.     The    same 
crude  implements  men- 
tioned among  the  plows 
such  as  a  crooked  stick 

or  a  stag's  horn,  soon,  if  not  at  the  same  time,  were 
brought  into  use  for  the  purpose  of  opening  furrows 
or  making  holes  into  which  to  drop  the  seed.  The 
first  trace  that  we  find  of  a  seeding  machine  is  a 
sort  of  drill  used  by  the  Assyrians  B.  C.  680.  The 
Chinese  and  Italians  both  claim  to  have  used  drill- 
ing machines  for  thousands  of  years. 
A  _  work    on    agriculture  published  in  Venice, 

1764,  gives  a  description  of  a  seeder  claiming  that  such 

description  had  been  copied  from  a  work  published  in 

Bologna,  1605.     It  appears  that  "  it  was  mounted  on 

two  wheels,  the  axle 
passing  through  the 
seed-box,  in  the  bottom 
of  which  was  a  series 
of  holes  opening  in  an 
equal  number  of  metal 
tubes  or  funnels, 
through  which  the  seed 
was  conducted  to  the 


Dibbler,  No.  1. 

ground.  The  front  of  the  tubes  at  their  lower  ends 
were  shaped  somewhat  like  plowshares  and  were 
designed  to  make  small  furrows  into  which  the  seed 
dropped."  So  then  in  this  description  we  have  the 
implement  which  has  been  handled  by  thousands  of  mechanics,  adding  and  recon- 
structing this  or  that  for  convenience  or  economy  sake,  and  which  is  known  to-day 
as  the  grain  drill.  Unnecessary  it  is  to  go  into  the  many  different  patterns  and 
models  we  find  recorded  since  this  early  machine. 


Primitive  Hand-Planting. 


Dibbler,  No.  2. 


38 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Jethro  Tull  published  a  work  entitled  "Horse-hoeing  Husbandry"  in  1731. 
His  theory  was  "that  grain  or  seed  should  not  be  sowed  broad-cast,  but  should  be 
planted  in  rows  or  drills  so  as  to  admit  of  hoeing  by  horse-power  with  proper 
implements."  His  first  machine  was  constructed  so  as  to  sow  wheat  or  turnips, 
three  rows  at  a  time.  It  consisted  of  two  seed  boxes  with  colter  attached  to  each 
and  following  each  other;  behind  them  followed  a  harrow  to  cover  the  seed.  His 
object  in  having  two  separate  deposits  of  seed  at  different  depths,  was  that  they 
might  not  sprout  at  the  same  time,  and  so  perhaps  escape  the  ravages  of  the  fly. 
He  invented  a  turnip  drill,  also  horse-hoes  and  cultivators;  in  fact,  he  was  the 
father  of  the  system  of  horse  cultivating.  Spent  a  fortune  in  his  endeavors  and 
died  poor. 

Seeding  may  be  classified  as  "drilling,  broad- 
casting" and  dropping.  Drilling  is  where  the  seed 
are  poured  along  in  continuous  rows.  Broad-cast- 
ing is  scattering  over  the  surface,  as  thrown  out  by 
the  hand.  Dropping  is  where  a  certain  number 
of  grains  are  dropped  at  stated  places.  "Check  row- 
ing" is  where  a  certain  number  of  grains  are 
dropped  so  that  there  will  be  equal  space  between 
the  "hills"  in  the  rows,  and  between  the  rows 
themselves. 

In  "  Croker's  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences," 
published  in  London  in  1765,  is  found  "drill,  or 
drill-box,"  a  new  name  given  to  an  instrument  for  sowing  land  in  the  new  method 

of  horse-hoeing  husbandry  (introduced  by  Tull). 
It  plants  the  corn  in  rows,  makes  the  channels, 
sows  the  seeds  in  them,  and  covers  them  with 
earth  when  sown;  and  all  this  at  the  same  time 
and  AVith  great  expe- 
dition.   It  measures, 
;  or   rather  numbers, 
-  out  the  seed  which  it 
received  from  the 
.  hopper,    and    is   for 
this  purpose  an  arti- 
ficial   hand;    but   it 
much   more  equally  than  can 


Modern  Hand-Planter, 


U.  S.  Patent  Planter,  A.  D.  1825, 


U.  S.  Patent  Hand  Planter,  1856. 


delivers  out  the  seed 

be  done  by  the  natural  hand. 

In  America  the  first  patent  granted  by  the  Uni- 
ted States  for  a  seeder  was  to  E.  Spooner,  of  Ver- 
mont, January  25,  1799.  Between  this  time  and 
1836,  when  the  Patent  Office  was  burned  with  all  the 
models,  records,  &c,  we  have  no  means  of  describing  the  inventions  that  may 
ha^ve  occurred.  It  was  between  1836  and  1840  when  fresh  stimulus  seems  to  have 
been  given  the  invention  and  use  of  practical  seeders.  According  to  "Allen's 
Digest,"  J.  Hatch,  of  Great  Bend,  Pa.,  patented  August  17,  1835,  a  machine  for 
sowing  plaster,  lime,  and  ashes  broadcast,  January  9,  1838,  it  was  reissued,  evi- 
dently then  with  the  purpose  of  becoming  a  grain-seeder  also.     There  had  been 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS. 


39 


issued  by  the  United  States  Patent  Office  up  to  1888,  1,440  patents  on  seeders 
and  2,497  on  planters;  so  that  it  would  be  almost  an  endless  task  to  attempt  to 
describe  any  considerable  number  of  the  whole,  and  we  will  at  once  come  to  notice 
some  of  the  different  styles  of  planters  and  seeders  in 
use  to-day.  Some  of  tbe  machines  made  to  do  tbe 
work  in  a  broadcast  fashion  are  the  following:  The 
Cahoon  sower  is  familiar  to  every  well-posted  farmer  as 
the  oldest,  perhaps,  of  that  class  of  seeders  that  is  car- 
ried on  the  person  and  operated  by  hand.  It  throws 
the  seed  out,  in  front  of  the  man  walking,  in  a  funnel 
shape,  spreading  as  they  leave  the  machine.     Another 

type  of    the    same    kind    is 

what  is  known  as  the  "  South 

Bend,"    the   "Philadelphia," 

&c.  These,  carried  by  a  strap 

over  the  shoulder  and  turned 

by  a  crank,  instead  of  throw- 
ing the  seed  in  a  funnel  shape, 
^•spread  them  out  in  front  of  the  operator  in  a  sheet- 
j?  like  way.     What  is  known  as  the  "  Shrock"  hand-sower 
"f7  has  a  hopper,  &c,  quite  similar  to  the  last  above  men- 
fey  tioned,  but  it  is  operated  by  a  bow  drawn  to  and  fro, 


U.  8.  Patent  Koot-Plouter.  1806. 


V.  S.  Patent  Planter,  1876. 


which  moves  the  agitator  and  whirl  that  throws  out  the 


seed.  There  is  another  hand  sower  called  the  "Wad- 
dill,"  which  has  a  tin  hopper  arranged  to  revolve  on  the  top  of  a  wood  staff.  The 
lower  end  of  the  staff  rests  in  a  belt  around  the  waist,  while  the  hopper  sits  above 
the  head  of  the  operator.  This  hopper  is  made  to  revolve  by  a  crank  turned,  and 
the  seed  come  clown  through  the  bottom  of  the  hopper  and  are  thrown  out. 

Such  sowers  as  the  "  South  Bend"  and  "  Philadelphia,"  named  above,  have  been 
of  late  arranged  on  a  larger  scale,  and  intended  to  set  in  the  back  of  a  vehicle  and 
to  be  drawn  by  a  chain  moved  by  a  sproc- 
ket fixed  on  to  the  wheel  of  the  vehicle. 
These  machines  broadcast  well,  and  are 
great  labor  and  time-savers.  The  remain- 
ing broadcast  sowers  and  seeders  (and 
here  we  may  say  that  machines  which 
simply  deposit  the  seed  are  usually  termed 
sowers,  and  those  that  deposit  and  also 
cover  them,  seeders)  are  of  many  patterns. 
There   is   the    long    box    carried   on    a  Chcck  Row  plaDtcr- 1883- 

wheelbarrow;  some  have  a  long  rod  that  is  made  to  slide  to  and  fro,  others  a  chain, 
a  rope,  &c,  over  openings  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  through  which  the  seed  fall  on 
a  board,  or  some  arrangement  by  which  the  seed  will  be  scattered.  A  great  many 
of  the  harrows  or  cultivators  of  to-day  have  such  seeders  fixed  to  them  as  "attach- 
ments." Next  Ave  come  to  the  grain  drill.  The  most  popular  of  the  modes  of  drop'- 
ping  the  seed  to-day  in  drills  seems  to  be  the  use  of  fluted  seed  rollers,  which  can 
be  opened  or  closed  to  determine  the  quantity  of  seed  to  be  planted.  Another 
pattern,  quite  popular,  is  that  in  which  two  smooth  rollers,  one  of  metal,  the  other 


40 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


of  rubber,  running  close  to  each  other,  and  feed  down  between  them  the  grains. 
These  drills  are  all  provided  with  "  land  measures" — that  is,  a  device  made  with 
a  dial — on  which  is  indicated  the  distance  traveled,  so  as  to  determine  the 
amount  sown  on  an  acre.     Some  of  the  drills  are  provided  with  wheels  that  travel 


rail 


Primitive  Egypt-un  Seeder. 


behind  the  spouts  through  which  the  seed  fall,  and 

serve  to  cover  the  seed  by  pressing  the  earth  upon 

them ;  others  have-harrow  attachments  for  the  same 

purpose.     Nearly  all  of  the  drills  are  so  made  that 

a  fertilizer  attachment  can  be  used  on  them.     There 

are  many   different   kinds  of  these    attachments. 

Some  feed  down  the  fertilizer  by  means  of  fluted 

rollers,  others  by  means  of  what  may  be  termed 

fingers,  that  revolve  and  push  the  fertilizer  through 

openings.     In  all  of  them  these  Openings  can  be 

made  large  or  small  by  a  "shut-off    or  "gate"  to  determine  quantity.     The  latest 

thing,  perhaps,  is  a  glass  dial  that  is  made  to  revolve  and  carry  out  the  fertilizer, 

and  superiority  is  claimed  for  it,  because  the  acid  in  the  fertilizer  does  not  effect 

the  glass,  as  it  does  corrode  and  rust  out  where  metal  is  used. 

The  one  desirable  feature  in  a  fertilizer  attach- 
ment is  to  have  it  so  arranged  and  constructed  that 
wet  or  sticky  material  will  not  "bridge  over"  or  clog 
up  the  openings.  One  feature  which  seems  to  have 
escaped  the  attention  of  manufacturers  of  drills  is, 
that  the  seed  feeders  may  plant  peas  as  well  as  wheat, 
the  same  corrugated  wheels  that  accommodate  wheat, 
oats,  &c,  will  not  serve  for  peas  on  account  of  their 
being  cracked  by  the  small  flutes.  It  would  seem 
Assyrian  seeder,  b.c.  504.  that  larger  flutes  might  be  used  on  the  same  drills 

for  peas  as  the  pea  crop  has  gotten  to  be  one  of  importance  in  later  years. 

Drills  are  classified  as  "pinhoe"  and  "spring."     The  pinhoe  is  that  in  which 

wooden  pins  are  used  as  "break-pins,"  that  is,  when  the  hoe  strikes  an  obstacle,  a 

small  wooden  pin,  which  is  easily  replaced,  is  broken  and  allows  the  hoe  to  fall 

back  unhurt;  in  the  other  class,  a  steel  or  rubber 

spring  is  compressed  and  permits  the  hoe  to  pass 

over  the  obstacle  without  damage  and  then  come 

back  to  its  proper  position. 

The  droppers — that  is,  machines  which  drop  cer- 
tain numbers  of  grains  at  stated  distances  apar1>— are 

varied.     One  class  has  a  slide  which  is  made  to 

move  in  and  out;  in  this  slide  is  a  hole,  and  the  size 

of  this  hole  determines  the  number  of  grains;  when 

the  hole  in  the  slide  passes  over  a  corresponding 

hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  hopper  the  grains  fall 

through.     This  slide  is  made  to  move  in  and  out  by 

certain  gearing;  some  by  an  "eccentric,"  others  by 

knobs  on  a  wheel,  by  cog-gearing,  &c.     Another  class  of  droppers  have  a  wheel, 

in  the  face  or  periphery  of  which  are  made  openings  which  catch  the  seed,  carry 

them  over,  and  drop  them.     The  largest  and  perhaps  the  most  desirable  class 


Italian  Feeder,  A.  D.  1G05. 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEM ENTS. 


41 


is  that  in  which  we  find  plates  arranged  with  a  series  of  holes  that  move  around, 
and  as  the  opening  in  this  plate  passes  over  the  opening  in  the  bottom  of  the 


hopper  the  grains  fall  throu* 


~r~ 


ft'),,,., 

Grain  Drill,  1874. 


These  planters  will  "drill"  as  well  as  drop,  and 
as  these  plates  are  movable  and 
provided  with  various  numbers  and 
sizes  of  holes  any  seed  can  beplan- 

~~— ted  with  them  any  distance  apart. 

All  of  the  present  check-row  plan- 
ters use  this  style  of  plate  for  drop- 
ping. All  of  these  planters  are  pro- 
vided with  a  tooth  or  shovel,  which 
opens  the  furrow  in  which  the 
grain  is  dropped,  and  a  wheel  or 
drag-bar,  which  pulls  the  dirt  over 
and  upon  the  seed  planted.  So  have 
most  of  them  fertilizer  attachments 
as  well  as  drill.  Cotton  planters 
(usually  one-horse)  are  made  very  much  on  the  principle  of  the  one-horse  corn- 
planters,  except  instead  of  holes  through  which  the  grain  is  dropped,  a  long  slot 
is  considered  the  best  style;  in  this  slot,  or  long  hole,  fingers  are  made  to  vibrate 
to  and  fro  pushing  the  cotton  seed 
through.  This  has  been  found  neces- 
sary on  account  of  the  tendency  of 
the  cotton  seed  to  stick  together  and 
bridge  over  the  opening.  I  think  it 
it  can  be  truthfully  said  that  the  best 
mode  of  planting  corn,  is  to  plant  it 
as  does  the  check-row  planter,  so  that 
the  cultivator,  of  which  we  shall  pres- 
ently speak,  can  be  run  through  both 
ways  in  the  field,  and  thus  save  any 
amount  of  hoe  and  other  work. 


Grain  Drill,  1884. 


CULTIVATORS. 


"  History  furnishes  no  account  of  a  time  when  man  was  destitute  of  the  hoe 
and  the  plow.  In  their  beginning  they  were  all  of  Avood;  the  original  hoe  was  a 
forked  limb.     The  hoe  was  the  progenitor  of  the  cultivating  machine." 

"  Ancient  Roman  writers  recommended  hoeing  and  weeding  the  corn  and 
fallowing  the  ground." 

Cultivators  are  the  implements  which  are  used  to  work  the  crop  after  it  has 
sprung  up.  It  is  really  an  improved  harrow  having  a  number  of  teeth  in  a  frame, 
but,  unlike  the  harrow,  the  teeth  of  which  are  intended  simply  to  tear  the  ground 
or  break  the  clods,  the  teeth  of  the  cultivators  are  made  to  do  more  the  work  of  a 
little  plow;  that  is,  to  turn  little  furrows  as  the  occasion  may  demand.  Some  of 
the  disc  and  other  harrows  of  more  recent  invention  can  also  be  made  to  turn 
little  furrows  and  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  cultivating. 


42 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Primitive  Crotched  Stick  Cultivator. 


Jethro  Tull,  of  England,  is  the  author  of  horse-hoeing  husbandry,  and  intro- 
duced his  system   in   1701  of  cultivating  plants  by   machinery.     In  1731,  he 

published  a  book  on  this  subject,  which  rendered  the 
invention  of  the  cultivator  possible. 

Wilkie,  of  Scotland,  is  the  inventor  of  the  cultiva- 
tor.    He  invented  in  1820  the  plurality  of  shares,  the 
expanding  frame,  and  the  castor-wheel. 

The  first  patent  granted  by  the  United  States  for 
cultivators  was  to  Bordon,  in  1830.  The  first  wheel 
cultivator  patent  was  issued  in  1846.  Single  and  double 
"shovel  plows"  may  also  be  classed  as  cultivators,  for 
the  wheel  cultivator  of  to-day  is  nothing  more  than 
two  double-shovel  plows  hung  to  an  axle  on  wheels. 
Cultivators  in  the  United  States  are  classed  as  ordi- 
nary, wheeled,  rotary,  straddle-row,  parallel,  disc,  -.  ..  — 
walking,  riding  and  expanding.  There  have  been 
2,254  patents  granted  on  cultivators  by  the  United 
States  up  to  1888. 

Perhaps  the  primitive  cultivator  was  a  crotched 
stick,  the  longer  limb  serving  as  a  handle  by  which 
the  two  or  more  prongs  which  had  grown  at  near 
right  angles  to  the  same,  were  drawn  by  the  opera- 
tor through  the  ground.  Then  we  have  an  illus- 
tration Of  the  Egyptian  implement,  Which  Consisted  Primitive  Roman  Cultivator. 

of  a  frame  made  from  a  natural  growth  in  a  V  shape, 
in  which  frame  were  set  teeth;  by  the  point  of  the  V 
was  the  implement  drawn  by  one  person,  while  stand- 
ing up  from  each  of  the  rear  ends  of  the  prongs  were 
upright  sticks  and  these  were  held  by  the  operator. 
Quite  similar  was  the  Roman  and  old  English  tools 

As  indicated  by  the  number  of  patents  granted, 
not  to  notice  the  multitude  that  have  been  rejected  by 
the  Patent  Office,  invention  has  been  wide-awake  in 
constructing  cultivators,  and  it  is  not  at  all  necessary 
primitive  Egyptian  cultivator.  to  attempt  anything  like  even  an  allusion  to  the  many 
different  styles  of  this  all  important  implement  to 
the  farmer.  To-day  the  most  popular  cultivators,  per- 
haps, are  the  one-horse  implements  that  usually  con- 
sist of  a  steel  or  iron  frame  made  so  that  the  two 
outer  beams  can  be  expanded.  To  these  beams  are 
bolted  little  standards,  and  to  the  foot  of  each  one  of 
these  standards  may  be  attached  teeth  or  shovels  of 
various  widths  and  fashions.  The  very  narrow  shov- 
els or  blades  being  used  where  little  furrows  are  re- 
quired, and  wider  blades  for  larger  furrows.  Then  Primitive  English  cultivator, 
winged  blades  are  attached  for  the  purpose  of  hilling;  double  winged  blades  for 
opening  furrows;  scrape-blades  for  shaving  the  top  of  the  ground,  and  so  on. 
What  may  be  termed  the  advanced  cultivator  of   the  day  is  the  wheel  imple- 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS. 


43 


ments  in  this  class.  The  wheel-walking  cultivator  is  the  one  with  which  the 
■operator  walks  behind  the  tool,  while  with  the  riding  cultivator  he  may  ride  or 
walk  at  his  option. 

These  tools  are  drawn 
by  two  horses,  and  as  be- 
fore stated  consists  of  two 
double-shovel  plows  hung 
to  an  axle.  The  team 
straddles  the  row,  and  one 
shovel  plow  is  made  to 
run  along  each  side  of  the 
row,  thus  a  row  is  finished 
up  at  one  trip.  The  wheels: 
run  along  between  the 
rows,  and  the  most  im- 
proved of  these  cultivators  are  so  arranged  that  the  wheels  may  be  closed  in  or 
widened  out  so  as  to  adapt  them  to  various  widths  between  rows.  These  like  the 
one-horse  cultivators  have  the  different  sizes  and  shapes  of  attachments  for 
various  kinds  of  work. 


Hilling  Cultivator,  1830. 


Straddle.Row  Cultivator,  1884. 


There  is  no  questioning  the  fact  that  great  economy  of  labor  may  be  enjoyed 
in  the  use  of  the  wheel  cultivators,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  say  that  unless  some- 
thing else  is  brought  out  of  superior  merit  they  must  become  the  almost  universal 
implement  of  the  kind  in  use. 


REAPERS    AND   BINDERS. 

A  beautiful  allusion  is  made  to  the  harvest  season  in  the  olden  times  in  the 
Farm  Implement  News"  in  its  January  (1886)  number — to  which  publication  we 
are  indebted  for  much  of  the  data  here  given  in  regard  to  all  different  implements — 
in  these  words:  '"Harvest  was  a  season  of  toil  and  anxiety,  and  its  close  among 
most  nations  was  celebrated  by  general  rejoicings,  games,  and  rustic  fetes  marked 
the  final  ingathering  of  the  sheaves.     The  husbandmen  ceased  their  labors,  and 


44 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


threw  off  their  cares  in  rounds  of  uproarious  jollification.     In  the  old  simple 
days  of  England  the  Harvest  Home  or  close  of  the  season,  was  such  a  scene  as 

Horace's  friends  might  have  expected  to  see 
on  his  Sabine  farm,  or  Theocritus  might 
have  described  in  his  Idyls;  and  possibly 
such  scenes  were  presented  in  those  ancient 
times.  The  last  sheaves  were  brought  home 
in  the  hock-cart  surmounted  by  a  sheaf 
formed  and  dressed  to  represent  a  female 
figure — presumably  the  Goddess  of  Ceres — 
or  by  pretty  girls  of  the  reaping  band  fan- 
tastically attired  and  crowned  with  flowers. 
A  pipe  and  tabor  led  the  procession,  while 
the  reapers  danced  around,  shouting  and 
singing  appropriate  songs  like  the  following: 

'Harvest  home,  harvest  home, 
We  have  plowed,  we  have  sowed ; 
We  have  reaped,  we  have  mowed ; 
We  have  brought  home  every  load — 
Hip,  hip,  hip,  harvest  home,'  &c. 

"  Those  merry  days  have  passed.  Our  age  is  hard  and  practical."  But  why 
should  it  be  ?  Why  can't  we  find  time  and  occasion  for  some  of  these  pastimes — 
to  make  life  the  pleasanter  and  our  tasks 
brighter  ? 


Primitive  Hand  Scythe. 


What  a  volume 
cerning   the    implements 


might  be  written  con- 
that  have  been 
invented  to  reap  and  to  mow.  Everywhere 
we  find  pictures  of  old  Father  Time  with  a 
primitive  scythe  in  hand;  and  this  scythe, 
or  as  it  was  first  spelled  "sithe,"  is  our  begin- 
ning with  harvesting  machinery. 

The  first  patent  granted  for  a  reaping 
machine  Avas  obtained  in  England  by  Joseph 
Boyce,  July  4,  1799,  and  the  first  patent 
granted  by  the  United  States  for  cutting 
grain  and  grass,  bears  the  date  of  May  17, 
Hawkins,  of  New  Jersey. 


English  Mower,  A.  D.  1799. 

1803,  to  Richard  French  and  J.  T 


It  is  a  fact  that  tire  reaper,  hand-raker, 
and  self-raker  were  invented  by  the  British, 
but  the  real  progress  and  practical  develop- 
ments have  been  due  to  American  genius  and 
progress. 

The  next  invention  showing  marked  im- 
provements was  that  of  William  Manning,  of 
New  Jersey,  patented  May  3,  1831.     Among 

Slotted  Guard  Finger  and  Mower,  A.  D.  1833.  the  earliest  patdlteeS    ill    this  lilie  AVaS  Cyi'US 

H.  McCormick,  of  Virginia,  June  21,  1834,  although  his  machines  Averc  largely 
made  up  from  features  gathered  from  other  iiwentions  and  combined  together  in 
one  machine. 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS. 


45 


Reapers  were  first  made  requiring  one  man  to  drive  and  another  to  pull  off 
with  a  hand-rake  the  cut  straw.  Then  the  various  self-rakers  came  in.  The 
same  writer,  alhided  to  in  the  beginning  of  this  article,  says:  "That  in  1860,  the 
Walter  A.  Wood  self-rake  reaper  was  made  literally  for  the  wide  world.  He  has 
achieved  great  celebrity,  and  his  system  of  machinery  is  known  wherever  grain 
is  cut."  The  reaper  of  to-day  is  the  result  of  a  congregation  of  steady  improve- 
ments in  one  part  and  another,  until  to  no  single  manufacturer  can  he  ascribed  the 
credit  of  ottering  a  reaper  of  sufficient  individuality  to 
set  it  apart  as  distinct.  But  it  would  seem  that  the 
reaper  is  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  is  hereafter  to  be  ex- 
ceptionally Used,  having  had  to  step  aside  to  make  room 
for  the  "Harvester."  The  term  "harvester"  applies  to 
that  class  of  reapers  which  carry  binders — manual  and 
automatic  hinders;  it  has  been  applied  to  not  only  these, 
but  also  to  strippers,  headers,  and  combined  harvesters 

nii/1  threshers  Spokeless  Wheel  Mower,  A.  D.  1867, 

The  machine  of  the  Gauls  is  said  to  have  had  knives  or  "sections"  sharpened 
on  their  sides,  somewhat  similar  to  the  scythes  or  blades  of  reapers  to-day,  and 

this  long  bar  of  "sections"  being  fixed  to  a 
kind  of  cart-body  on  two  wheels.  The  blade, 
for  instance,  being  the  back  edge  of  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cart-body,  and  there  being  what 
may  be  termed  one  shaft  to  the  cart,  the  vehi- 
cle was-  pushed  backward,  and,  as  the  blades 
were  pushed  and  caught  against  the  stalk,  the, 
heads  were  dragged  off  into  the  cart.  When 
a  sufficient  amount  Avas  caught,  it  was  carried 

Front  Cut  Two-wheeled  Mower,  A.  D.  1858.  off  an(j   emptie(}.       This    old   machine   is    really 

the  "header"  of  to-day,  except  that  the  blade  or  scythe  is  now  made  to  move 
and  cut  between  teeth  or  guards. 

Samuel  Lane,  of  Hallowell,  Maine,  August  8,  1828,  obtained  a  patent  for  a 
combined  harvester  and  thresher;  but  this  machine  never  seems  to  have  come  into 
any  use.  Subsequentlv,  many  patents  were 
granted;  but  C.  W.  and  W.  W.  Marsh,  of  De 
Kalb  county,  Illinois,  August  17,  1858,  may 
be  termed  the  pioneers  with  the  harvester 
and  binder  of  to-day.  It  is  said  that  if  the , 
same  old  machine  as  used  in  1858  was  seen 
standing  in  the  field  to-day,  one  familiar 
with  such  a  machine  would  wonder  whether 
it  was  a  "Wood,"  "McCormick,"  "Deer- 
ing,"  Samuelson,"  or  "Hornsby,"  and  why  the  binder  was  not  in  place. 

After  many  struggles,  in  the  fall  of  1863,  Steward  and  Marsh  begun  fifty 
machines,  but  completed  only  twenty-six.  These  gave  fair  satisfaction  and  the 
balance  were  improved  somewhat,  completed,  and  marketed  in  1865.  As  the 
years  rolled  on,  hand-binders  gave  way  to  automatic  binding,  and  out  of  the  body 
of  the  old  Marsh  harvester  sprang  the  various  harvesters  and  binders  now  in  use. 
John  E.  Heath,  of  Warren,  Ohio,  was  the  first  on  record  to   attempt  to.  bind 


Front  Cut  One-wheeled  Mower,  1858. 


46 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


grain  by  machinery.  His  was  a  twine  or  cord  binder,  and  his  patents  dated  July 
22,  1850.  C.  A.  McPhitridge,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to 
bind  with  wire  (patent  November  18, 1856). 

S.D.Locke, 

Janesville,0., 

claims  to  have 

been  the  first 

man  to  build 

an  automatic 

binder  as  a4 

separate    and 
..distinct  ma- 
chine for  at- 

Front  Center  Cut  Mower,  1863.  tach  me  11 1  to  a  Front  Cut  Two-wheeled  Mower,  1880. 

harvester,  and  the  Walter  A.  Wood  Company  were  the  first  to  build  and  put  regu- 
larly upon  the  market  successful  automatic  wire-binding  machines. 

In  1880,  just  as  wire  binders  had  seemingly  gotten  into  position  to  "take  the 
world,"  the  twine  binder  took  a  fresh  hold,  and  to-day  is  the  one  machine. 

All  of  the  present  machines  use  the  Appleby  binder, 
except  the  Walter  A.  Wood's;  on  this  is  used  the  Holmes 
binder.     Both  are  excellent  devices  and  do  grand  work 

A  number  of  efforts 
have  been  made  to  con- 
struct a  successful  plat- 
form   or    "  low-down  " 
binder,  but  with  little 
success   so    far.      The 
i  Wood's    single    apron 
I  harvester  appears  to  be 
the  only  thing  like  a 
Egyptian  sickle.  departure   from   the 

school  of  harvesters,  all  the  rest  using  these  aprons..    Nearly  all  of  the  different 

harvesters  are  provided  with  "transports"  or  trucks 
on  which  the  machine 
can  be  drawn  end-ways 
and  so  pass  through  an 
ordinary  farm  gate. 
Many  of  the  machines 
also  have  bundle-carrier 
attachments,  by  the  _J 
means  of  which  seve- 
ral bundles  after  being 
tied  are  held  in  a  re- 
ceiver and  then  dump- 
ed  in    piles  for  shoek- 

Colonial  Sickle.  illg. 

The  following  from  the  "  Inter-Ocean  "  tells  of  steam  harvesting  and  threshing 
in  the  West:  "The  immense  thrashing  machine  now  coining  into  general  use  in 


Front  Cut  Two-wheeled  Mower,  1884. 


Grain  Cradle. 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS. 


47 


U 


California  would  be  of  little  service  in  States  where  rain  falls  during  summer,  for 
they  are  reaper  and  thresher  all  in  one.  The  wheat-field  stands  white  for  the  har- 
vest." This  machine  cuts  its  swath  of  the  snap- 
ping dry  grain, 
sweeps  it  up  into 
a  cylinder,  and 
empties  out  the 
good  wheat H 
through  the  sepa- 
rator into  bags, 
which  a  man  on 
the  side  of  the  ma- 

Switch  Reel  Rake,  1884.  cllilie  Opposite  the  Harvester  Hand  Rake,  1855. 

sickle  sews  up  leisurely  as  he  rides  along  in  his  little  canopied  room.  When  three 
bags  are  filled  with  the  firm,  plump  kernels,  the  small  platform  upon  which  the 
bag  sewer  has  placed  the  wheat  tips  over  of  its  own  intelligent  will,  apparently, 


and  a  man  comes  along  with 
load  to  cart  off  to  the  mill, 
velous  feat  on  a  ranch  where 
the  early  birds  who  wished 
cut  and  thresh  a  bag  of 
into  flour  at  sunrise,  and 
by  8  o'clock.  It  takes 
machine,  and  the  small 
ence  in  life  is  a  tale  of  one 
away  with  a  neighbor's 
The   greatest   harvest- 


a  wagon  and  makes  up  his 
It  was,  therefore,  no  mar- 
there  was  a  grist-mill  for 
to  surprise  the  master,  to 
wheat  at  daylight,  grind  it 
have  it  baked  in  the  kitchen 
eighteen  mules  to  draw  the 
boy's  most  exciting  experi- 
time  when  the  mules  ran 
machine. 

ing  machine  ever  made, 
perhaps,    is    that    success-  Harvester, seif.Rake,  1856.  fully    operated    jn    Tulare 

county,  Cal.     Mr.  Berry,  the  inventor,  has  lived  in  the  said  county  for  a  dozen 
years.     He  farms  4,000  acres  of  wheat.     His  great  machine  is  propelled  and 
worked  by  a  steam  traction  engine.     It  cuts  a  swath  of  40  feet  wide.     The  ground 
wheels  of  the  machine  are  four  feet  face  and  six  feet  diameter.     He  says  that  he 
averaged  cutting  about  ninety-two  acres  per  day,  and  did  cut  in  two  days  230  acres. 
There  have  been  issued  by  the  United  States  Patent  Office: 
22  patents  on  bean  harvesters. 
44  patents  on  clover  harvesters. 
286  patents  on  corn  harvesters. 
104  patents  on  cotton  harvesters. 
36  patents  on  hemp  and  flax  harvesters. 
1,610  patents  on  harvester  cutters  and  mowers. 
1,170  patents  on  mowers  (separate). 
1,398  patents  on  reapers. 

44  patents  on  combined  reapers  and  threshers. 
697  patents  on  harvester  binders. 

THRESHERS. 

In  Isaiah  XXVIII,  27-28,  Ave  read  :  "For  fitches  (peas)  are  not  threshed  with 
a  threshing  instrument,  neither  is  a  cart  wheel  turned  about  upon  a  cummin  (a 


48 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


seed  plant  something  like  caraway) ;  but  the  fitches  are  beaten  out  with  a  staff, 
and  the  cummin  with  a  rod.  Bread  corn  is  bruised  because  he  will  not  ever  be 
threshing  it,  nor  break  it  with  the  wheel  of  his  cart,  nor  bruise  it  with  his  horse- 
men." 

Cattle  were  generally  used  by  the  ancients  to  tread  out  the  grain  spread  upon 
the  floor  "(thou  shalt  not  muzzle  the  ox  when  he  treadeth  out  the  corn),"  and 
also  to  draw  the  "charatz"  of  the  Egyptians  and  the  "moreg"  of  the  Hebrews 
over  the  grain  laid  on  the  floor.  The  former  having  been  made  of  a  flat  board, 
rough  under  the  bottom,  and  dragged  over  the  grain  to  rub  out  the  kernels.     The 


Keaper  and  Thresher,  A.  D.  1S36. 

latter  was  more  like  a  sled,  between  the  runners  of  which  were  spiked  cylinders 
which  revolved  upon  the  grain  as  it  was  drawn  around. 

The  flail  has  been  used  for  threshing  from  time  immemorial.  The  Japanese 
are  said  to  have  used  a  stripping  machine  for  all  time.  It  may  be  described  as  a 
long  comb  set  upon  a  bench,  through  the  teeth  of  which  the  straw  was  drawn  by 
hand  and  the  heads  pulled  off  ready  for  the  thresher. 

Michael  Menzies,  of  Scotland,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  inventor  of  the 
power  threshing  machine.  It  was  a  contrivance  to  draw  a  large  number  of  flails 
by  power;  the  power  being  obtained  from  a  water  wheel.  The  type  of  modern 
threshers  was  invented  by  another  Scotchman,  Andrew  Meikle,  in  1786.  All  of 
the  early  threshers  were  built  in  the  barns  and  the  grain  was  brought  to  them. 

It  seems  as  if  the  Pitts  Brothers  (Hiram  A.  and  John  A.)  of  Winthrop, 
Maine,  were  the  first  American   inventors  who  were  thoroughly  successful  with 


50 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


threshers  and  whose  inventions  went  into  general  use  and  have  continued  down 
to  our  time,  although  various  improvements  have  been  made  since  in  the  details 
of  this  type  of  threshers.  It  is  a  fact  that  they  have  followed  the  principles  cov- 
ered by  the  original  patent  all  the  way  down  to  the  present. 

February  5, 1836,  E.  Briggs  and  C.  G.  Carpenter  patented  a  traveling  machine 
which  could  be  used  with  or  without  a  grain-cutting  attachment.  It  ran  on  four 
wheels  like  a  wagon  and  depended  upon  the  traction  of  the  two  hind  wheels  for 
power. 


in  i 


. ^M^sm&$miAk^wiu ■li" '  ...III"" '"         '      .wiiii '    *''-jnr~ 


Head  Cutter  and  Side  Deliverer. 


Mr.  H.  M.  Smith,  Sr.,  of  Richmond,  Va.,  at  the  head  of  the  oldest  agricultural 
implement  manufactory  in  the  country,  I  believe,  describes  in  the  "  Farm  Imple- 
ment News  "  the  old  threshers  used  by  the  Scotch  and  English  settlers,  "consisting 
mainly  of  a  shaft  about  twenty-four  inches  in  diameter,  standing  seven  or  eight 
feet  high,  Avith  four  levers  (sometimes  eight)  morticed  into  it,  about  two  and  one- 
half  feet  from  the  ground.  Then  eight  arms  were  morticed  into  it  at  the  top,  on 
which  a  wooden  wheel  was  constructed  and  morticed  on  its  upper  face  for  wooden 
cogs,  which  worked  into  a  sort  of  wallower  constructed  of  Avood,  having  two  heads 
Avith  rounds  in  them,  forming  a  sort  of  trundle  or  lantern-shaped  pinion,  AA'hich 
gave  motion  to  the  wooden  shaft  on  which  it  was  built.  This  shaft  extended  oA'er 
the  horses'  heads  into  the  main  barn,  Avhere  another  AArooden  wheel  Avas  built  upon 
the  arms  morticed  upon  the  same  shaft.  This  Avheel,  which  consisted  of  segments 
with  Avooden  cogs  morticed  in,  drove  another  pinion  constructed  on  another  AA'ooden 
shaft,  on  Avhich  Avas  another  Avooden  Avheel  made  like  the  other,  and  geared  into  a 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS. 


51 


pinion  on  the  threshing  drum.  The  drum  was  made  as  follows:  Its  ends  or  heads 
were  of  wood  connected  by  six  or  eight  parallel  bars  of  like  material,  but  shod 
with  iron,  the  whole  forming  a  series  of  beaters  that  whipped  the  wheat  out  as  it 
was  fed  to  this  drum  through  rollers  which  were  geared  together  so  as  to  force  the 
Avheat  up  to  the  beaters  at  a  speed  proportioned  to  that  of  the  other  machinery. 
These  drums  were  usually  four  feet  long,  three  and  one-half  to  four  feet  in  diameter, 
and  run  at  a  speed  of  300  to  400  revolutions  per  minute." 


■  ''['■'•■•::::^iMMi^.-:'h- 


H:;:y:':m 


Steam  Harvester. 

Some  of  the  James  River  farmers  have  the  old  houses  in  which  these  machines 
were  used  still  standing. 

To-day  among  the  family  of  threshers,  are  two  great  classes,  the  "  Vibrators" 
and  the  "  Endless  Apron"  or  Pitts  machines;  the  former  is  now  the  most  popular 

BKI^!,    t0    have    completely   dis- 


of  the  two  and  may  be  said 
placed  the  latter. 

Printed  circulars  from 
are  so  generally  distributed 
farmer  is  somewhat  ac-  "^ 
ent  patterns  of  threshers, 
impossible  thing  to  describe 
that  a  reader  could  get  an 
construction,  and  it  is  hoped 
may  be  here  given  to  dis- 
features  in    this    class    of 

In  Great  Britain    and 
threshing    machines     are 


Hand  FlaiL 


j  the  various  manufacturers 

nowadays  that  the  average 

quainted  with  the  differ- 

III  It  certainly  would  be  an 

IP  any  number  of  them  so 

;  intelligent    idea   of   their 

that  sufficient  illustrations 

play  the  different  special 

machinery. 

on  the  continent  of  Europe 
quite  differently  construc- 


ted from  those  used  in  this  country,  because  here  the  straw  is  valuable  and  the 
machines  are  made  to  damage  it  as  little  as  possible.     The  improved  threshers 


52 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


of  to-day  appear  large  and  cumbersome  and  their  first  cost  is  heavy,  yet  when  the 
amount  of  work  they  will  do,  and  the  saving  of  labor  and  teams  is  taken  into 
account,  they  have  reached  a  high  state  of  perfection.  It  may  be  said  literally 
that  all  of  the  grain  is  saved  and  in  the  best  possible  condition. 


"'%^p 


Clearing  off  the  Wood  Lot. 

Elevators  are  made  as  attachments  to  threshers,  and  serve  to  carry  the  straw  after  it 
leaves  the  drum  and  shaker  up  to  the  stack.  Bagger  attachments  are  also  used' 
Avhich  measure  out  the  grain  and  deliver  it  into  the  bags.  One  can  hardly  go 
amiss  to-day  in  purchasing  any  one  of  the  leading  threshers;  they  all  do  their 
work  in  a  first-class  manner. 

In  writing  this  chapter  I  have  drawn  most  largely  from  the  articles  of  Mr. 
C.  W.  Marsh,  editor  of  the  "Farming  Implement  News,"  who  has  expended  great 
labor  in  gathering  data  and  giving  the  same  to  the  public  in  a  most  readable 
shape. 


CHAPTER  III. 


Classification  of  Soils. 


God  bless  the  farm — the  dear  old  farm — 

God  bless  its  every  rood, 
Where  willing  hearts  and  sturdy  arms 

Can  earn  an  honest  livelihood; 

Can  from  the  generous  fertile  soil 

Win  back  a  recompense  for  toil. 

.OIL,  in  the  common  and  appropriate  sense,  is  the  upper  stratum 
of  the  earth — the  mold,  dirt,  or  the  compound  substance  which 
furnishes  nutriment  to  plants,  and  is  particularly  adapted  to 
support  and  nourish  them.  Soil  is  mostly  produced  by  the  dis- 
integration of  the  various  kinds  of  rock,  which  also  modifies  its 
quality  and  value.  In  other  words,  it  is  rotted  rock;  the  subsoil 
is  rotting  rock;  it  lies  or  rests  on  the  underlying  rock,  is  more 
hard  and  compact  than  the  soil,  of  different  color,  and  is  less 
moved  by  the  plow  and  of  less  value  in  cultivation,  yet  when 
raised  and  stirred  by  cultivation  in  gradual  thin  layers,  adds  to 
the  depth  of  the  soil  and  its  capacity  for  retaining  moisture. 
In  talking  of  soils,  a  general  nomenclature  should  be  adhered  to  in  preference 
to  local  terms;  otherwise,  men  in  different  districts  will  often  fail  to  understand 
what  particular  kind  of  soil  is  alluded  to.  The  most  common  classifications  of  soil 
is  based  on  their  composition,  and  the  names  applied  to  them  take  after  their  pre- 
dominant ingredient.  Thus  where  sand,  clay,  lime,  or  organic  matter  predomi- 
nates in  a  soil,  it  is  sandy,  clayey,  calcareous,  or  vegetable,  as  the  case  may  be. 
A  mixture  of  sand  and  clay  is  called  loam.  If  it  is  needful  to  be  more  specific, 
loams,  etc.,  are  designated  by  the  predominance  in  them  of  either  sand,  clay  or 
lime — as  sand  loams,  clay  loams,  etc.  Soils  are  also  popularly  designated  from 
their  texture  as  light  or  heavy,  porous  or  impervious;  from  their  relations  to  heat 
and  moisture  as  wet  or  dry,  cold  or  warm;  and  from  their  measure  of  fertility  as 
rich  or  poor,  fertile  or  infertile,  etc.  Again,  the  class  of  crops  has  led  to  clays  being 
spoken  of  as  wheat  and  bean  soils,  and  friable  soils  as  barley  and  turnip  land. 


DIFFERENCE    IN    ADAPTATION,    COMPOSITION,    &C. 

All  farmers  will  agree  in  believing  that  the  first  subject,  and  by  all  odds  the 
most  important  factor  of  success  in  farming,  is  a  fertile  soil — this  must  ever  be, 
other  things  being  equal,  the  fundamental  element  of  success.  While  in  Europe 
a  few  years  ago  on  an  extended  tour  in  Great  Britain  and  the  continent,  the 
writer  observed  that  although  the  lands  in  all  these  regions  had  been  cultivated 
probably  for  five  hundred  years,  wherever  the  soil  was  naturally  fertile  there  were 
found  good  farm  buildings,  good  fences,  horses,  wagons  and  harness — everything 

(53) 


< 
X 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SOILS.  55 

to  indicate  prosperity.  On  the  other  hand,  wherever  a  poor  sterile  soil  predomi- 
nated, there  were  found  farm  buildings,  fences,  and  cattle  that  indicated  poverty. 
As  well  may  a  stage-coach  attempt  to  compete  with  a  locomotive,  as  a  farmer 
owning  poor  and  sterile  land,  with  the  owner  of  a  rich  fertile  soil,  if  they  sell  their 
products  in  the  same  market.  It  is  a  delusive  belief  that  manuring  or  tillage — 
no  matter  how  good — will  ever  bring  a  poor,  thin  soil  into  permanent  fertility, 
unless  the  application  of  manure  is  yearly  continued;  for  no  ordinary  amount  of 
manuring  or  cultivation  will  maintain  the  fertility  of  any  soil  over  two  years,  as 
it  will  then  either  have  been  taken  up  by  the  crops  growing  on  it,  or  else  have 
been  washed  down  below  the_  depth  to  which  the  roots  penetrate.  It  requires 
some  extent  of  practical  experience  to  know  what  is  a  good  soil.  The  writer  well 
remembers  a  blunder  he  and  his  partner  made  in  their  early  experience  in  this 
matter.  They  (bred  as  horticulturists,  partly  in  Europe  and  partly  here,)  on  their 
first  purchase  of  land  for  market-garden  purposes  in  Hudson  county,  New  Jersey, 
which  borders  on  New  York  city,  made  a  mistake  in  their  selection,  and  no  amount 
of  the  highest  culture,  although  that  is  now  thirty  years  ago,  has  ever  been  able 
to  bring  the  soil  into  what  would  be  termed  even  second-rate  condition.  The 
error  made  was  in  selecting  a  soil  apparently  good,  but  which  was  underlaid 
by  a  stratum  of  clay  ten  inches  below  the  surface,  and  to-day,  with  all  the  drain- 
ing and  subsoiling  and  every  known  means  of  eulture,  it  is  impossible  to  raise 
crops  as  good  as  those  half  a  mile  away,  where  the  subsoil  is  of  porous  sand.  This 
is  mentioned  to  show  the  importance  of  selecting,  whenever  practicable,  a  suitable 
soil  for  all  operations,  whether  for  the  farm  or  the  garden;  for  had  it  not  been  by  an 
accident  of  circumstance,  that  the  above  lands  became  valuable  from  their  proximity 
to  the  city,  the  unfortunate  purchase  would  have  ruined  the  writer  and  his  partner. 

Experience  with  adhesive  soils  overlying  clay,  indicate  success  with  oats,  rye, 
barley,  turnips,  cabbage,  dc.^  but  for  mangels,  carrots,  parsnips,  or  other  deep- 
rooted  crops,  the  lighter  soil  is  preferable.  Such  crops  as  wheat,  barley,  oats,  &c., 
do  better  in  Europe  on  ridge  lands,  in  consequence  of  their  wetter  climate  and 
less  sunshine  than  we  have  here.  A  level  soil  here,  however,  of  equal  fertility, 
(if  the  water  passes  off  freely)  is  generally  best  for  most  of  our  crops,  or  for 
general  farm  purposes — as  we  have  more  heat,  sunshine,  and  droughts. 

A  heavy  land  with  a  clay  subsoil  will  retain  its  fertility  much  longer  than 
any  other  soil.  But  it  would  depend  altogether  on  what  purpose  the  land  was 
used  for.  If  for  permanent  grass,  there  is  no  land  that  will  retain  manure  so  long 
as  stiff  soils  with  clayey  subsoils.  We  have  known  it  to  be  kept  forty  years  without 
being  plowed,  by  applying  an  occasional  top  dressing  of  either  barn-yard  manure 
or  a  compost  made  of  loam  and  lime. 

"Composition  of  the  soil  is  one  of  the  conditions  on  which  its  fertility 
depends.  On  this  composition  depends  its  supply  of  plant  food.  Fertility  does 
not  altogether  depend  on  the  quantity  of  organic  matter  present  in  the  soil. 
There  are  some  alluvial  soils  nearly  destitute  of  organic  matter,  and  yet  of  almost 
inexhaustible  fertility;  and  there  are  peaty  soils  which  are  rich  in  organic  matter, 
yet  very  barren.  The  organic  matter  of  the  soil,  however,  is  of  great  value.  It 
is  constantly  yielding  by  its  decay  matter,  which  nourishes  the  organic  parts  of 
the  plant;  and  it  is  setting  free,  little  by  little,  the  earthy  matters  of  its  own  ashes. 
It  is  also  by  its  decay,  inducing  chemical  changes  which  tend  to  set  free  other 
matters  held  in  combination  in  the  particles  of  the  soil.     It  renders  clay  soil  more 


(56) 


The  Wrong  and  the  Richt  Way  to  Farm. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SOILS.  57 


friable,  and  sandy  soils  more  retentive  of  substances  in  solution;  and  tbese  are 
certainly  groat  uses." 

"The  mineral  matter  of  the  soil  is  of  equal  importance.  All  naturally  fertile 
soils  contain  a  notable  quantity  of  each  of  the  different  mineral  substances  which 
have  been  named,  which  are  indeed  essential  to  fertility,  for  a  soil  destitute  of  any 
one  of  them  is  more  or  less  barren;  fertility  being  limited  by  the  minimum  of 
any  one  necessary  ingredient,  even  though  the  maximum  of  the  others  be  present." 

"However  fertile  a  soil  may  be,  not  more  perhaps  than  one  per  cent,  of  its 
substance  is,  at  any  moment,  in  a  fit  condition  for  nourishing  our  crops.  The 
bulk  of  it  is  unavailable  to  the  plant  at  any  one  time,  and  is  only  slowly  liberated 
by  the  addition  of  air,  of  moisture,  of  heat,  and  of  manure.  It  is  on  the  rale  at 
which  this  liberation  of  plant  food  takes  place  that  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil 
may  be  said  in  a  great  measure  to  depend." 

A  soil  may  contain  abundance  of  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  magnesia,  etc, 
and  yet  be  barren,  if  these  exist  in  the  soil  only  as  apatite,  feldspar,  and  serpentine, 
because  these  minerals  do  not  yield  their  elements  to  the  solvent  agencies  of  the 
soil  or  plant  rapidly  enough  to  furnish  the  required  amount  of  plant  food.  Nit- 
rates and  ammonia  salts,  which  are  the  natural  sources  of  nitrogen  to  crops,  never 
need  be  present  in  the  soil  in  more  than  the  minutest  proportion.  It  is  only 
requisite  that  they  be  gathered  or  generated  there  as  rapidly  as  crops  require 
them. 

"The  process  of  nitrification,  whereby  inert  or  unassimilable  nitrogen  existing 
in  the  soil  is  converted  into  nitric  acid,  thus  becomes  one  of  the  utmost  agricul- 
tural importance." 

"On  the  other  hand,  the  nutritive  substances  which  are  yielded  naturally  by 
the  soil,  may  be  in  a  state  so  soluble  as  to  be  very  liable  to  waste  before  they  can 
be  taken  up  by  the  growing  plants." 

"Every-day  experience  proves  that  soils  differ  greatly  in  these  respects. 
Nearly  all  the  materials  which  go  to  make  up  the  structure  of  the  earth's  crust 
are  such  as  to  afford,  by  their  decomposition,  a  soil  fit  for  the  support  of  vegetable 
life;  but  all  rock  formations  do  not  furnish  equal  amount  of  these  materials,  and 
while  all  soils  have  considerable  power  of  retaining  in  their  pores  even  the  most 
soluble  substances,  some  part  with  them  too  readily,  and  others  retain  them  too 
firmly,  or  only  part  with  them  when  exposed  to  various  preparatory  processes. 
These  differences  are  the  result  of  geological  formation,  as  well  as  of  chemical 
composition." 

EXHAUSTION  OF  SOILS. 

The  following  views  on  this  subject  are  well  worth  the  consideration  of  all 
farmers.  They  are  from  the  pen  of  a  distinguished  agriculturist,  who  knows  how 
to  shoAV  up  the  misdoings  of  improvident  and  careless  farmers,  who  allow  the 
exhaustion  of  their  soils  and  the  gradual  reduction  of  all  their  crops  by  with- 
holding what  their  fields  should  as  regularly  receive  as  they  are  exhausted  by 
taking  away  of  their  crops. 

"This  subject  in  past  time  received  much  attention,  and  was  brought  promptly 
before  the  farmers  of  this  and  other  countries.  Discussions,  with  valuable  infor- 
mation, were  elicited  and  published ;  but  adoption  of  efficient  and  practical  means 
for  the  preservation  and  improvement  of  wasting  soils  has  been  slow  and  inade- 


58 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


quate.  'But  the  progressive  spirit  is  now  at  work,'  and  the  lethargy  on  this 
subject  that  has  prevailed  since  the  late  war  has  been  to  considerable  extent  dis- 
sipated and  removed. 

"  In  the  older  and  more  thickly  populated  countries  of  Europe,  where  the  soil 
had  become  barren  and  sterile  from  long-continued  cropping,  the  attention  of 


"See  that  Mouse!" 

farmers  was  directed  to  the  fact  by  scientists,  especially  those  conversant  with 
chemistry,  that  something  must  be  done  to  prevent  the  country  from  becoming  a 
barren  wilderness  like  ancient  Palestine,  which  at  one  time  was  exceedingly  pro- 
ductive. But  it  was  not  until  about  the  beginning  of  this  century  that  the  farmer 
became  awakened  to  this  fact,  and  that  any  great  advance  was  made  to  rectify 
this  evil,  which  took  the  shape  of  a  more  systematic  cultivation  of  the  soil  by 
better  tillage,  drainage,  and  rotation  of  crops.  The  expectations  of  the  farmers 
were  satisfied  for  a  time,  as  this  system  utilized  a  large  quantity  of  plant  food 
that  was  lying  latent  in  the  soil;  but  after  a  few  years  they  were  again  abruptly 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SOILS.  5tt 


aroused  from  this  mythical  dream  hy  the  fact  that  their  lands  were  again  becom- 
ing exhausted,  showing  that  this  better  system  of  tillage  did  not  prevent  the 
depletion  of  the  soil,  but  only  made'  available  the  remainder  of  the  plant  food 
that  was  lying  dormant  in  the  soil.  This  failure  necessitated  further  investiga- 
tion, in  order  to  discover  what  was  lacking.  The  agricultural  chemistry  then 
came  into  play,  which  consisted  in  analyzing  the  soil  and  the  plants  to  find  out 
what  was  really  wanting.  The  result  was  the  discovery  that  phosphoric  acid, 
potash,  and  ammonia  were  the  plant  food  found  lacking,  and  that  they  were  the 
chief  constituents  necessary  for  the  successful  propagation  of  all  plants.  This 
theory  is  still  recognized  to  be  quite  correct,  and  no  soil,  however  fertile,  contains 
inexhaustible  supplies  of  these  three  essential  constituents.  With  these  facts 
staring  the  farmer  in  the  face,  he  had  either  to  let  his  land  become  barren  and 
sterile,  or  get  a  supply  of  these  ingredients,  in  some  shape  or  other,  to  take  the 
place  of  the  waste  going  on. 

"A  new  departure  was  then  adopted  in  the  shape  of  mixed  farming;  that  is, 
keeping  a  certain  number  of  stock,  principally  dairy  stock,  to  utilize  all  the 
rougher  produce  of  the  farm,  and  have  it  converted  into  manure  and  put  back 
into  the  land.  This  was  to  be  the  great  cure-all  for  the  prevailing  evil,  and, 
indeed,  is  considered  by  some  of  our  farmers,  of  this  young  country,  as  being  all 
that  is  requisite  not  only  to  keep  up,  but  also  to  restore,  the  fertility  of  the  hardly 
used  soil,  and  this  is  one  of  the  myths  that  is  very  hard  to  eradicate  from  the 
minds  of  our  farmers  in  this  country.  Observation,  so  far  as  their  experience 
permits,  seems  to  verify  this  conclusion,  for  in  many  cases  where  this  method  is 
fairly  well  carried  out,  the  land  becomes  much  more  productive  than  it  was  when 
the  grain  crops  were  taken  off  continuous^ ;  and  altogether  we  are  pleased  to 
admit  this  fact  as  far  as  it  goes,  yet  we  may  rest  assured  history  will  repeat  itself, 
and  we  have  only  to  look  up  the  records  of  some  of  the  older  countries  to  find 
that,  with  the  most  careful  system  of  mixed  farming,  where  nothing  is  sold  off 
but  milk,  butter,  and  cheese,  as  the  case  may  be,  along  with  some  beef,  the  soil 
gradually  becomes  depleted  of  plant  food,  and  although  it  may  take  a  much  longer 
time  to  accomplish  this  end  as  compared  with  raising  and  selling  of  grain,  yet 
the  fact  remains  the  same — exhaustion  is  just  as  surely  and  steadily  going  on. 

"What  says  Ville?  'In  the  past  the  following  was  made  an  axiom  for  good 
farming:  We  must  have  plenty  of  hay,  pasture,  cattle  and  manure.  But  I  assert 
that  this  proposition  is  an  agricultural  and  economical  heresy.' 

'The  farmer  who  uses  nothing  but  farm-yard  manure  produced  on  the  farm, 
exhausts  his  land.  AVhence  comes  the  manure  but  from  the  soil?  and  if  any 
thing  is  sold,  we  are  selling  away  part  of  the  manure;  or,  in  other  Avords,  part  of 
the  plant  food  taken  from  the  soil. 

"As  a  fact,  farm-yard  manure  does  not  make  up  for  the  loss  of  the  phosphoric 
acid,  lime,  potash  and  nitrogeneous  matter  which  it  had  to  submit  to  through  the 
carrying  away  of  part,  at  any  rate,  of  the  crops  grown  on  it.  Where  meat  is  sold 
the  loss  is  less  than  in  the  case  of  grain,  but  there  is  a  loss  which  in  due  time 
will  be  felt  to  be  a  serious  one.  I  repeat,  then,  that  the  axiom  which  has  hitherto 
been  made  the  foundation  and  paladium  of  agricultural  science,  is  nothing  more 
than  an  expedient.  I  have  said  that  farming  founded  on  the  use  of  the  manure 
made  on  the  farm  alone  is,  economically  speaking,  against  common  sense.  But, 
if,  besides  the  profit,  we  increase  from  the  first  year  the  crop  of  straw,  is  it  not 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SOILS.  61 


evident  that,  instead  of  growing  meat  in  order  to  have  grain,  there  is  a  manifest 
advantage  in  reversing  the  recognized  order  of  things  and  commencing  to  grow 
grain  in  order  to  gain  the  earliest  advantage?  in  fact  we  can  get  grain  first  and 
manure  afterwards. 

"I  repeat,  then,  that  the  soil  can  not  do  otherwise  than  exhaust  itself  unless 
we  bring  in  from  outside  a  large  amount  of  fertilizing  material,  which  for  nine- 
tenths  of  the  farmers  in  this  country  must  be  in  the  shape  of  chemical  fertilizers,  and 
the  solution  of  this  question,  imposed  on  us  by  the  force  of  circumstances,  seems  to 
be  that  it  is  only  by  the  judicious  use  of  well  compounded  fertilizers  that  we  can 
maintain  the  fertility  of  our  soil,  and  these  substances  required  to  make  chemical 
fertilizers  exist  in  the  mineral  kingdom,  which  appear  to  us  to  be  especially 
reserved  to  repair  the  depredations  of  the  past  and  of  the  present,  and  to  guard 
us  against  the  effect  of  such  disasters  in  the  future.  It  is  therefore  not  correct  to 
say  that,  with  farm-yard  manure  made  on  the  farm  alone,  and  nothing  but  the 
manure,  we  have  everything  required;  it  is,  however,  true  to  say  that  in  order  to 
obtain  large  crops,  there  is  only  one  method  at  our  command,  and  that  is  to  have 
recourse  to  chemical  manures  in  preference  to  all  others;  with  their  aid  we  can 
govern  the  requirements  of  the  farm  instead  of  being  governed  by  them." 

[Note — The  author  of  the  above  excellent  article,  it  seems  to  us,  has  put  too 
much  stress  on  chemical  fertilizers.  He  does  not  even  mention  or  put  estimate  on 
any  farm  manures  except  that  of  the  barn-yard.  Has  not  the  farmer  other  resources 
to  aid  in  returning  plant  food  to  his  fields  ?  He  says  nothing  of  the  compost-heap, 
the  sweepings  of  yards,  night  soil,  scrapings,  rotted  leaves,  wood-pile  mold  and 
that  from  fence  corners,  the  kitchen  and  out-houses — which  every  provident 
farmer  would  secure  to  lessen  the  amount  which  would  have  to  be  spent  for 
fertilizers  not  produced  on  the  farm.] 

TEXTURE,    PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES   AND   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   SOILS. 

"Soils  differ  greatly,  not  only  in  chemical  constitution,  but  also  in  physical 
characteristics ;  and,  in  our  estimation  of  them,  we  must  be  guided  by  their  climatic 
and  physical  relations  no  less  than  by  the  results  of  chemical  analysis.  It  is 
comparatively  easy  to  adapt  the  plant  or  crop  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  when  once 
we  know  what  mineral  ingredients  are  required  by  the  one  and  afforded  by  the 
other;  but  it  demands  close  observation  and  a  more  diligent  application  of  means 
to  bring  the  physical  or  mechanical  qualities  of  the  soil  into  the  state  most  con- 
ducive to  the  growth  of  its  natural  products.  The  necessary  influence  of  mechani- 
cal operations  here  becomes  obvious,  for  the  circumstances  of  air,  moisture  and 
warmth,  which  are  essential  to  the  development  of  the  changes  which  occur  in 
the  process  of  germination,  are  but  slightly  influenced  by  the  chemical  properties 
of  the  soil,  being  all  dependent  upon  its  mechanical  condition.  All  this  influence 
is  not  confined  to  the  first  stage  of  vegetation,  for  at  no  period  of  growth  or  matu- 
rity can  the  plants  avail  themselves  of  the  full  amount  of  food  unless  the  state 
of  the  soil  admits  of  the  free  passage  of  air  and  water  and  favors  the  extension 
of  the  roots  in  all  directions. 

"  In  respect  to  textures,  the  soil  may  vary  from  coarse  pebbles  or  loose  sand  to 
the  finest  and  most  tenacious  clay.  In  general,  however,  those  soils  are  best 
adapted  for  agriculture  which  consistof  mixtures  of  sand  with  a  moderate  quantity  of 


G2  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


clay  and  a  little  vegetable  matter.  "When  sand  or  other  coarse  material  predominates 
the  soil  is  light  and  easy  to  till,  and  ■will  grow  all  the  crops  suitable  to  the  district; 
but  it  is  deficient  in  the  power  of  retaining  water  and  the  soluble  and  volatile 
parts  of  manure.  "When  clay  is  in  excess,  the  soil  is  heavy  to  till,  and  will  prob- 
ably grow  fewer  crops;  it  is  too  retentive  of  water,  and  is  not  easily  warmed,  does 
not  admit  of  access  of  air,  and  consecpiently  does  not  facilitate  those  chemical 
changes  in  the  soil  and  manure  placed  in  it  which  are  necessary  to  prepare 
proper  food  for  plants. 

"Clay  lands,  whether  in  the  dry  or  wet  state,  are  the  most  difficult  to  work; 
sandy  soils  and  those  containing  much  organic  matter  being  the  easiest.  When 
land  is  worked  in  a  wet  state  we  have  not  only  to  overcome  the  cohesiveness  of  the 
particles  among  themselves,  but  at  the  same  time,  their  attachment  or  adhesion 
also  to  the  agricultural  implements  employed.  (Land  should  never  be  worked  in 
a  wet  condition.)  In  a  wet  climate,  therefore,  the  working  clays  for  tillage  will  be 
fewer  than  in  a  dry  one,  and  proportionately  more  so  on  clay  soils  than  on  light 
soils.  Less  work  can  also  be  done  in  a  day  with  the  same  power  on  clay  and 
heavy  soils  than  on  sandy  or  light  ones.  On  clay  lands  a  pair  of  horses  can  seldom 
do  the  tillage  of  sixty  acres  per  annnm,  but  on  light  soils  a  pair  of  horses  may 
undertake  the  work  of  eighty  acres  and  upwards,  except  under  very  laborious 
rotations  of  cropping. 

"The  terms  light  and  heavy,  as  commonly  applied  to  soils,  do  not  refer  to 
their  actual  weight,  but  to  their  tenacity  and  the  degree  of  resistance  they  will 
offer  to  the  plow  or  other  implements.  Sandy  soils  are  in  the  farmers'  sense  of 
the  word  the  lightest  of  all  soils,  because  they  are  easiest  to  work,  while  in  actual 
weight  they  are  the  heaviest  soils  known.  Clay,  also,  which  we  call  a  heavy  soil, 
because  stiff  and  unyielding  to  the  plow,  is  comparatively  a  light  soil  in  actual 
weight.  Peat  soils  are  light  in  both  senses  of  the  word,  having  little  actual 
weight,  and  being  loose  and  porous." 

ABSORBENT    AND    RETENTIVE    POWERS    OF    SOILS. 

"If  there  were  no  other  difference  than  that  of  texture,  that  which  contained 
the  greatest  amount  of  finely  divided  matter  would  possess  an  advantage  over 
soils  with  coarser  parts.  One  cause  of  this  superiority  consists  in  the  greater 
absorptive  and  retentive  powers  Avhich  finely  divided  matter  possesses — due 
mainly,  in  all  probability,  to  the  immensely  greater  quantity  of  internal  super- 
flees  in  a  given  bulk  or  weight  of  the  more  finely  divided  soil.  The  ammonia 
floating  in  the  atmosphere  is  continually  being  washed  into  soils  in  solution  with 
rain  water.  Clay,  oxide  of  iron,  and  the  organic  matter  contained  in  the  soils, 
perform  the  important  function  of  absorption.  This  property  of  clay  may  be 
one  of  the  circumstances  which  renders  clay  soils  better  for  wheat  than  sandy 
soils;  but,  although  clay  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  this  absorbed  substance 
than  sands  or  loams,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  these  must  receive  from  rains  the 
same  amount  of  fertilizing  matter  as  the  clay,  only  they  have  less  ability  for 
retaining  it,  or  at  least  for  storing  it  up.  The  soil,  however,  is  not  a  mere  seive 
through  which  any  matter  in  solution  can  pass  freely.  It  has  a  power  of  retain- 
ing, as  in  a  filter,  many  saline  and  other  substances  that  may  be  present  in  the 
Avater  permeating  it.     The  experiments  of  May,  Yoelker,  and  others  have  shown 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SOILS.  63 


that  when  surface  water  charged  with  the  products  of  vegetable  decay  are  brought 
into  contact  with  argillaceous  sediment,  they  part  to  some  extent  with  their 
potash,  ammonia,  silica,  phosphoric  acid  and  organic  matter,  which  remain  in 
combination  with  the  soil;  while,  under  ordinary  conditions  at  least,  neither 
nitrates,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  sulphuric  acid,  nor  chlorine  are  retained.  The 
phosphates  are  probably  retained  in  combination  with  alumina  or  peroxide  of 
iron,  and  the  silica  and  organic  matters  also  enter  moi*e  or  less  insoluble  combi- 
nations. It  follows  from  these  reactions  that  drainage-waters,  especially  from 
clay  soils  in  a  good  state  of  pulverization,  are  found  to  carry  off  nitrates,  sul- 
phates, chlorides,  or  carbonates  of  soda,  lime,  and  magnesia.  In  light  and  sandy 
soils  the  power  of  retaining  nutritive  substances  is  less  than  in  the  case  of  heavier 
soils,  or  than  soils  having  much  vegetable  matter.  Were  it  not  for  this  power, 
the  soluble  substances  in  the  soil,  whether  naturally  or  applied  in  manures,  would 
often  be  speedily  washed  out  of  it,  and  tillage  and  drainage  would  more  rapidly 
impoverish  the  land  than  they  do  by  allowing  its  soluble  constituents  to  be  carried 
off  by  water. 

"The  power  of  soils  to  absorb  and  retain  moisture  is  in  direct  ratio  not  only 
to  the  quantity  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  but  also  to  the  fineness  of  the  par- 
ticles of  the  soil — hence,  it  becomes  important,  in  a  practical  point  of  view,  to 
secure  a  proper  degree  of  fineness  in  the  particles  of  a  soil  if  it  is  to  withstand 
drought.  During  dry  weather,  plants  require  a  soil  which  is  both  absorptive  and 
retentive,  and  that  soil  which  is  capable  of  seizing  atmospheric  moisture,  and 
holding  it  when  the  atmosphere  is  heated,  is  one  of  the  best  constituted  soils;  but 
'  stiff  clays  which  take  up  the  greatest  quantity  of  water  Avhen  it  is  poured  upon 
them  in  a  fluid  form,  are  not  the  soils  which  absorb  most  moisture  from  the 
atmosphere  in  dry  weather;  they  cake  and  present  only  a  small  surface  to  the 
air,  and  the  vegetation  on  them  is  generally  burnt  up  almost  as  readily  as  on 
sands.  The  soils  that  are  most  efficient  in  supplying  the  plant  with  water  by 
atmospheric  absorption,  are  those  in  which  there  is  a  due  mixture  of  sand,  finely 
divided  clay  and  carbonate  of  lime,  with  some  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  and 
which  are  so  loose  or  light  as  to  be  fully  permeable  to  the  atmosphere.  With 
respect  to  this  quality,  carbonate  of  lime  and  vegetable  matter  are  of  great  use 
in  soils;  they  give  absorbent  power  to  the  soil  without  likewise  giving  it  tenacity; 
sand  which  also  destroys  tenacity,  on  the  contrary,  gives  it  little  absorbant  poAver.' 
In  accordance,  then,  Avith  these  observations,  Ave  find  that  the  materials  Avhich 
are  most  influential  in  soils  may  be  arranged  in  the  following  order,  Avhen  their 
relations  to  moisture  are  considered:  organic  matter,  marls,  loams,  and  sands." 


CHAPTER  IV. 
Manures  anft  their  ^Vpjilicatlon, 

BY    J.    W.    FITZ,    HORTICULTURIST. 


LANTS  require  food  on  which  to  subsist,  it  being  just  as 
essential  to  their  sustenance  as  with  animals.  They  also 
require  a  variety  of  nutrition  for  their  proper  nourishment 
and  growth,  which  can  no  more  be  secured  without  it  than 
a  perfect  animal  growth  when  subsisting  constantly  on  one 
element. 

It  is  also  equally  true  that  different  plants  require  differ- 
ent proportionate  elements  in  their  food,  just  as  different 
species  of  animals  require  different  kinds  of  nutriment,  and 
they  will  dwarf  and  starve  unless  that  nourishment  is  furn- 
ished them.  When  farmers  learn  to  feed  their  crops  with 
the  same  care  and  consideration  that  they  feed  their  .animals,  they  will  be  more 
successful  in  their  business,  and  find  that  farming  pays  well  for  the  labor  bestowed. 
Although  some  soils  contain  all  the  requisite  elements  of  plant-food  in  the 
proper  proportions  for  certain  kinds  of  crops,  and  will  produce  them  for  a  long 
time  without  any  apparent  impoverishing,  others  contain  certain  necessary 
substances  of  nutrition  in  smaller  quantities,  which  must  be  furnished  in  fertili- 
zers of  some  kind  in  order  to  produce  a  healthy  and  luxuriant  growth.  These 
elements  that  are  needed  in  the  soil  to  supply  the  suitable  plant  food  may  be 
contained  in  the  proper  proportion  in  vegetable  manures — plowed  into  the  soil  in 
a  green  state — stable-manure,  lime,  wood-ashes,  guano,  or  any  of  the  other  sub- 
stances used  for  fertilizing  purposes.  It  depends  upon  the  farmer  to  ascertain 
what  is  needed  and  to  supply  the  requisite  demand;  certain  it  is.  that  all  cultivated 
soils,  hoAvever,  rich,  will  in  time  become  impoverished  with  constant  cropping, 
unless  a  portion  of  the  elements  extracted  from  the  soil  by  the  growth  of  these 
crops  be  returned  in  the  form  of  fertilizers  of  some  kind;  it  may  be  by  a  deposit 
of  rich  mud  or  sediment  drained  to  impoverishment  from  other  soils  by  inunda- 
tion, as  is  the  case  with  the  valley  of  the  Nile  and  banks  of  the  Ganges,  or  it  may 
be  by  other  agencies;  it  makes  no  difference  how  the  supply  comes,  the  principle 
remains  the  same,  which  is,  that  soils  producing  constantly  must  be  supplied 
with  nutriment  from  some  source.  The  Nile  and  Ganges  rivers  have  continued 
by  their  overflow  to  furnish  for  more  than  3,000  years  all  the  fertilizing  elements 
requisite  to  produce  crops  constantly  during  that  period.  When  soils  remain  in 
their  natural  state,  or  are  used  only  for  pastures,  but  little  change  is  perceptible 
in  their  character.  Changes,  however,  are  constantly  going  on  both  in  their 
texture  and  capacity  for  production,  although  so  gradual  as  to  be  perceptible  only 

(64) 


n 

> 


> 

n 

s 


(65) 


66  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


after  a  long  period.  Soils  constantly  cropped  are  the  ones  to  become  exhausted 
soonest.  The  decay  of  vegetable  matter  upon  the  surface  of  lands,  the  fertilizing 
properties  washed  down  by  the  rains  and  melting  snows  from  the  steep  declivities 
of  hills  and  mountains,  the  mineral  elements  contained  in  the  soil  and  rocks,  that 
are  rendered  soluble  through  the  agencies  of  the  atmosphere,  water,  heat  and  cold, 
all  these,  though  silent  and  gradual  in  their  working,  affect  the  productiveness  of 
soils  in  a  remarkable  degree. 

The  washing  of  the  fertilizing  properties  from  the  mountains  and  hills  is  one 
great  reason  why  the  valleys  contain  usually  the  most  productive  soils. 

The  food  of  plants  is  derived  from  two  sources,  viz.,  the  soil  and  atmosphere. 
The  elements  obtained  from  these  two  sources,  though  greatly  varying  in  propor- 
tionate quantities,  are  equally  essential,  as  far  as  the  plant  growth  is  concerned, 
and  no  excess  in  the  amount  furnished  from  one  source  can  make  up  or  counter- 
balance the  deficiency  in  the  quantity  furnished  from  the  other,  both  being  equally 
necessary. 

ELEMENTS    OF    PLANT    FOOD. 

The  elements  of  plant  food  necessary  to  produce  plant  growth  are  called 
organic  and  inorganic  elements,  and,  in  a  general  sense,  embrace  every  material 
which,  if  added  to  the  soil,  will  tend  to  increase  its  fertility.  Organic  elements 
embrace  animal  and  vegetable  substances  which  have  a  certain  proportion  of 
nitrogen;  inorganic  elements  comprise  those  that  are  purely  mineral  or  earthy, 
and  which  generally  contain  no  nitrogen.  The  organic  elements,  to  be  in  the 
proper  proportion,  should  be  about  ninety-five  per  cent.,  the  inorganic  the  remain- 
ing five  per  cent.  By  burning  a  plant  the  organic  elements  will  be  converted 
into  gases,  while  the  inorganic  elements  remain  in  the  form  of  ashes,  called  in 
analysis  the  ash  of  plants;  thus  the  organic  element,  or  the  ninety-five  pounds 
out  of  every  one  hundred  pounds  of  the  dried  plant  that  is  burned,  and  which  is 
derived  mainly  from  the  air,  disappears,  while  the  inorganic,  or  the  five  pounds 
out  of  every  one  hundred  pounds  that  are  left  behind  in  the  form  of  ashes,  are 
obtained  from  the  soil.  Different  plants  differ  somewhat  in  the  proportion  of  the 
organic  and  inorganic  elements  contained  in  them.  The  tobacco  plant,  for 
instance,  having  a  larger  proportion  of  ash  than  many  others,  but,  on  the  average, 
every  plant  that  grows  will  have  about  ninety-five  percent,  of  organic  matter  and 
five  per  cent,  of  inorganic  matter,  the  organic  matter  being  furnished  by  the  air, 
the  inorganic  by  the  soil.  This,  in  the  main,  is  the  unchangeable  law  of  nature. 
Since  the  atmospheric  elements  are  found  present  in  the  soil,  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  according  to  its'  texture  and  degree  of  porosity,  it  has  been  estimated  that 
about  one-half  of  the  material  furnished  to  plants  is  derived  from  the  earth.  It 
was  formerly  believed  that  plants  depended  for  their  nutrition  upon  the  organic 
matter  (or  what  is  called  humus)  in  the  soil.  This  humus  theory  was  set  aside 
by  chemistry,  which  proved  that  certain  soils  were  extremely  fertile  with  but  two 
or  three  per  cent,  of  humus  in  their  composition,  while  certain  other  soils  were 
sterile  with  from  twenty  to  forty  per  cent,  of  humus  contained  in  them.  After- 
ward it  was  advocated  by  even  the  noted  Liebig  that  plants  for  nutrition  required 
only  the  application  of  the  mineral  elements.  This  theory  was  met  by  the  nitro- 
gen theory,  between  which  two  (the  mineral  and  nitrogen  theories)  a  long  contest 
ensued,  until  it  was  discovered  that  in  some  respects  both  theories  were  right,  and 


MANURES  AND  THEIR  APPLICATION.  67 


in  others  that  both  were  wrong.  Then  followed  the  theory  that  iii  order  to  ascer- 
tain the  wants  of  plants  and  provide!  them  with  proper  nutriment,  we  had  only  to 
analyze  the  soil  and  determine  its  wants,  also  the  structure!  and  composition  of 
plants,  and  by  supplying  the  soil  with  the  elements  necessary  to  certain  plants, 
and  in  which  it  was  deficient,  a  perfect  supply  of  nutriment  would  thus  be  fur- 
nished the  plant.  Although  this  theory  seemed  to  approximate  nearer  the  truth 
than  cither  of  the  preceding  ones,  still  it  had  its  objections,  and  its  advocates  were 
disappointed  in  not  meeting  with  that  success  in  its  practicable  application  that 
had  been  anticipated;  for  it  was  soon  found  that  the  acids  of  the  chemist  in 
analysis  would  take  from  the  sample  of  soil  certain  elements  which  the  plant 
could  never  find  and  approximate,  owing  to  its  being  in  such  a  state  that  ren- 
dered it  impossible  to  extract  it  from  the  soil.  For  instance,  the  analysis  of  the 
soil  might  prove  an  abundant  supply  of  phosphoric  acid  contained  within  it,  but  it 
might  not  be  in  such  a  solvent  state  as  is  necessary  for  the  tender  roots  to  derive 
nourishment  from  it;  hence,  the  plant  would  just  as  surely  starve  for  the  want  of 
that  phosphoric  acid  as  though  the  soil  contained  none.  In  other  words,  the 
analysis  determined  the  constituents  of  the  soil,  but  not  its  mechanical  condition, 
upon  which  so  much  depends  in  successful  agriculture.  Besides  these  objections, 
different  samples  of  soil  taken  from  different  portions  of  the  same  field  might 
vary  greatly  in  their  composition;  hence,  an  analysis  of  soil  from  one  portion  of 
a  field  might  not  apply  to  other  portions. 

The  following  important  propositions  concerning  plant  food,  agricultu- 
rally considered,  are  given  by  Dr.  E.  L.  Sturtevant,  of  Massachusetts,  an 
authority  that  will  be  a  sure  guaranty  of  their  reliability  and  true  value  to  the 
farmer : 

1.  The  soil  contains  plant  food. 

2.  The  plant  removes  this  plant  food  from  the  soil. 

3.  Analyses  of  plants  will  show  the  character  and  quantity  of  the  plant  food 
removed  from  the  land. 

4.  A  supply  of  the  elements  removed  by  the  plants  from  the  soil  in  such  a 
way  that  they  can  be  appropriated  by  the  plants,  will  produce  plant  growth  under 
proper  conditions. 

5.  Plants  remove  varying  quantities  of  plant  food  from  the  soil,  according  to 
their  species,  their  manner  of  growth,  and  the  proportions  and  quantities  of  plant 
food  present  in  the  soil. 

6.  The  constituents  of  plants  furnished  from  the  atmosphere  being  beyond 
our  control,  in  studying  plant  growth  and  food  supply,  Ave  can  limit  ourselves  to 
the  earth  alone,  and  study  the  air  supply  only  as  modified  by  our  control  over  the 
elements  supplied  to  our  land. 

7.  The  soil  contains  the  elements  of  plant  growth  in  varying  proportions  and 
conditions;  some  elements  far  in  excess  of  the  needs  of  our  plant,  other  elements 
in  quantities  sufficient  only  to  support  a  scant  growth. 

8.  The  plant  food  in  the  land  must,  to  be  of  service  to  the  crop,  be  in 
a  soluble  state,  or  in  a  state  capable  of  being  taken  up  by  the  rootlets  of  our 
plants. 

9.  When  the  elements  of  plant  food,  in  the  form  of  chemicals  or  dung,  are 
added  to  our  soil,  there  is  a  chemical  action  taking  place  between  them  and  the 
soil  constituents,  in  the  presence  of  moisture. 


108) 


Solid  Comfort. 


MANURES  AND  THEIR  APPLICATION.  09 


10.  The  soil  has  the  power  of  decomposing  most  of  the  chemicals  which  are 
applied,  and  has  a  retaining  power  on  their  compounds,  varying  with  the  character 
of  the  element. 

11.  As  a  rule,  phosphoric  acid  is  firmly  held  hy  the  soil  and  is  not  subject 
to  loss  through  drainage,  and  has  a  limited  dlffusibility;  potash  is  strongly  retained, 
but  has  a  greater  diffusibility;  nitrogen  in  its  various  forms  is  less  strongly  retained, 
and  has  a  ready  diffusibility. 

12.  In  proportion  to  the  presence  of  and  diffusion  of  these  fertile  elements  in 
our  soil,  other  conditions  being  favorable,  will  be  the  amount  of  our  crop. 

14.  Waste  of  fertility  in  our  land  arises  from  drainage,  and  the  changing  of 
soluble  plant  food  into  unsoluble  forms. 

14.  Plants  require  different  proportions  of  plant  food  and  different  combina- 
tions at  different  periods  of  their  growth. 

15.  The  presence  of  certain  elements  in  excess  has  an  influence  on  the  growth 
and  composition  of  the  plant. 

10.  The  seed  has  an  influence,  in  itself,  in  determining  the  ci'op,  an  influence 
apart  from  the  presence  of  a  full  supply  of  food,  or  the  climatic  features  of  the 
season. 

TIME    AND    METHOD    OF    APPLYING   MANURES    AND    FERTILIZERS. 

We  cannot  do  better  than  give  the  following  by  Prof.  B.  Puryear,  Richmond, 
Va.,  on  this  subject:  We  believe  that  farmers  are  constantly  sustaining  heavy  losses 
from  the  bad  management  of  fertilizing  material.  Our  domestic  manures,  the  excre- 
ments of  animals,  are  frequently  exposed  month  after  month  to  the  action  of  sun  and 
rain ;  no  processes,  either  mechanical  or  chemical,  are  taken  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
ammonia,  or  the  carryihgoff  in  solution  of  the  soluble  constituents  of  the  manure. 
In  the  construction  of  farm-yards,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  roofs  of  the  build- 
ings turn  the  water  from,  and  not  into,  the  farm-yard.  Then,  if  the  farm-yard  be 
level,  or  slightly  basin-shaped,  there  will  seldom  be  an  overflow  of  water.  When, 
however,  this  does  occur,  it  may  be  made,  by  easy  contrivance,  to  flow  into  a  water- 
tight tank,  which  should  always  contain  absorbents  in  abundance.  The  contents 
of  the  tank  may  be  hauled  off,  at  suitable  intervals,  to  the  field,  or  thrown  back 
upon  the  manure  pile,  as  circumstances  may  suggest.  Thus  nothing  is  lost;  the 
saving  accomplished  will  soon  repay  the  trouble  and  expense  incurred. 

The  blackish  water  which  has  percolated  through  a  manure  pile,  and  flows 
off  upon  the  surface,  is  charged,  to  saturation,  with  the  soluble  constituents  of  the 
manure.  When  we  recall  the  fact  that  no  solid,  as  a  solid,  can  get  into  the  circu- 
lation, so  that  all  solids,  to  be  available,  must  first  be  dissolved  by  water,  we  see 
at  once  that  in  this  waste  of  liquid  manure,  Ave  are  losing  all  those  constituents 
that  make  manure  valuable. 

In  saving  animal  manure,  the  admixture  with  it  of  vegetable  matter  and  earth  is 
always  advisable.  The  fertilizing  material  is  thus  absorbed  and  retained,  and  the 
vegetation  rots  more  thoi-oughly  and  promptly  from  its  contact  with  animal  mat- 
ter. The  sprinkling  of  gypsum  (calcium  sulphate)  over  manure  heaps,  and  in 
the  stalls  of  horses  and  cattle,  is  also  advisable.  The  escape  of  the  gas  (ammonia) 
which  is  but  little  more  than  half  as  heavy  as  the  atmosphere,  and  therefore  is 
liable  to  rise  into  the  air,  is  prevented  by  the  formation  of  the  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
which  is  solid,  and  therefore  cannot  escape  in  this  Avay. 


70  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


We  believe,  however,  that  animals'  excrements  should  be  hauled  off  as 
promptly  as  possible  to  the  field,  and  turned  under.  Then  all  the  chemical 
changes  take  place  in  the  soil,  which  holds  and  assimilates  the  products  of  chemi- 
cal action.  We  will  give  a  single  illustration  of  this  remark:  Ammonia,  the 
form  in  which  plants  obtain  their  nitrogen  chiefly — it  being  a  compound  of  nitro- 
gen and  hydrogen — is  always  a  product  of  the  decomposition  of  putrescent 
manures.  When  formed  in  the  soil,  ammonia  can  never  escape;  its  wonderfully 
absorbability  by  water  is  the  explanation.  Water  absorbs  seven  hundred  times 
its  volume  of  the  gas,  so  that  as  fast  as  the  gas  is  formed,  the'  moisture  of  the  soil 
absorbs  and  holds  it  for  the  use  of  growing  vegetation. 

We  believe  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  best  method  of  applying  manure  is  to 
broadcast  it.  Tbe  argument  that  manure  should  be  applied  just  where  it  is  most 
accessible  by  the  roots,  is,  in  the  main,  fallacious;  in  the  case  of  plants,  as  Irish 
potatoes,  which  must  make  very  quickly,  and  whose  roots  do  not  ramify  exten- 
sively through  the  soil,  it  may  be  best,  particularly  if  the  supply  of  manure  is 
scant,  to  put  it  where  it  is  most  accessible,  and  most  ready  for  immediate  use. 
But  for  wheat,  corn,  tobacco,  and  for  all  plants  where  we  can  fertilize  heavily, 
broadcasting  is  the  proper  method. 

Let  us  see  :  Tobacco,  say,  is  cultivated  in  the  hill ;  the  plants  are  success- 
fully set  and  are  growing  rapidly  ;  the  prospect  for  a  large  crop  is  highly  flatter- 
ing; everything  that  the  plant  needs  is  about  and  among  its  roots,  and  with 
favorable  seasons  the  growth  is  rapid;  but  let  a  little  drought  come — how  quickly 
the  plants  show  that  they  cannot  contend  with  the  situation ;  the  prospect  so  flat- 
tering awhile  ago  vanishes  at  once — why  is  this  so?  Plants,  like  animals,  accom- 
modate themselves  to  their  environment.  The  plants,  when  set,  found  everything 
necessary  for  rapid  growth  abundantly  about  their  roots;  why  should  the  roots 
spread  out  and  strike  down  in  quest  of  food,  when  without  doing  so  they  can  get 
it  abundantly?  Like  fast  young  men,  like  riotous  livers,  they  have  abundance  at 
present,  and  reck  not  the  day  of  coming  trial.  When,  therefore,  the  crop  is  pinched 
by  a  little  drought,  it  gives  way  at  once;  the  roots  are  superficial,  and  confined  also 
to  smaller  area;  water  does  not  fall  to  dissolve  the  fertilizer  freely,  and  the  plants 
not  having  made  provision  for  getting  supplies  from  a  larger  area  and  from  greater 
depths,  succumb  at  once.  They  have  been  pampered,  and  are  unprepared  to  make 
a  vigorous  effort  for  life. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  same  amount  of  fertilizing  material  had  been  applied 
broadcast,  and  so  had  become  thoroughly  intermixed  with,  and  assimilated,  by 
the  soil,  the  growth  would  have  been  more  gradual,  more  healthful,  and  better 
sustained ;  the  plants  would  have  had  to  root  for  their  food,  and  would  have  rooted 
more  extensively  and  more  deeply;  they  would  have  had  more  and  stronger  means 
of  obtaining  food,  and  that,  too,  from  depths  and  localities  unvisited,  in  the  former 
case,  by  their  roots.  AVhat  we  have  said  about  tobacco  applies  with  equal  force  to 
corn,  wheat,  cotton,  and  other  staple  crops. 

Again,  the  inadvisabihty  of  applying  manure  in  the  drill  or  hill  may  be  illus- 
trated in  another  way.  If  the  supply  is  inadequate  for  the  full  demand  of  the 
plant,  the  result,  even  with  good  .seasons,  may  be  disastrous,  for  another  reason. 
Let  us  again  take  tobacco  to  illustrate  our  point:  the  plants  grow  off  promptly  and 
rapidly,  they  are  vigorous  and  strong;  they  feed  upon,  and  consume  rapidly,  the 
food  placed  immediately  about  their  roots;  but  when  this  supply  gives  out,  as  is 


MANURES  AND  THEIR  APPLICATION.  71 


not  unfrequently  the  case,  before  the  maturity  of  the  plant,  then  the  plant  is  well 
nigh  helpless;  with  an  artificial  supply  of  food  placed  right  at  hand,  it  has  neg- 
lected to  send  out  many  roots,  or  any  very  deeply;  this  artificial  supply  failing, 
the  plant  is  unprepared  to  get  food  from  the  soil  at  large.  At  best,  at  the  very 
best,  its  growth  must  bo  checked  while  it  is  endeavoring  to  accommodate  itself  to 
the  new  situation.  The  easy  and  abundant  source  from  which  it  has  been  draw- 
ing its  food  is  exhausted;  what  now  shall  it  do?  It  will  either  fail  to  meet  the 
emergency,  or  at  best,  must  bo  checked  and  injured  in  its  growth  and  develop- 
ment, Avhile  it  is  seeking  to  change  its  tactics,  and  adjust  itself  to  altered  condi- 
tions. 

We  believe,  also,  that  it  is  best  to  apply  manures,  whether  putrescent  or  com- 
mercial, for  spring  or  summer  crops,  in  the  preceding  fall;  let  it  have  time  for  per- 
fect assimilation  by  the  soil,  for  the  completion  of  the  chemical  changes  that  will 
occur  upon  its  admixture  with  the  soil. 

Some  fear  that  it  will  get  out  into  the  air;  that  it  will  be  dissolved  by  the 
rains  and  carried  away  to  the  creeks  and  rivers.  Not  so;  the  earth  is  not  con- 
structed in  so  bungling  a  way;  Ave  may  not  so  impeach  the  wisdom  of  the  Supreme 
Architect;  it  is  only  when  rains  are  excessive,  and  are  more  than  sufficient  to 
saturate  the  soil,  that  any  runs  off;  but  the  rain  that  runs  off  is  the  surface  rain 
that  has  not  percolated  through  the  soil,  and  therefore  carries  off  but  very  slightly 
the  soluble  constituents  of  the  soil;  it  has  not  struck  through  the  soil;  it  has  had 
no  chance  to  dissolve,  except  to  a  small  extent,  the  soluble  constituents  of  the 
soil,  for,  confined  to  the  surface,  it  has  come  in  contact  with  them  only  to  a  very 
slight  extent.  Besides,  who  knows  but  that  the  soil,  by  a  law  of  its  own,  unknown 
to  existing  science,  may  have  the  power  of  holding  with  special  grip  and  tenacity, 
whatever  is  necessary  to  its  own  constitution?  Such  is  the  belief,  at  least,  of  a 
farmer  who  was  talking  Avith  me  a  few  days  ago — a  man  of  large  experience  and 
successful  practice,  distinguished  by  the  accuracy  of  his  observations,  and  the 
general  correctness  of  his  inductions. 

BARN-YARD    MANURE. 

The  chief  value  of  barn-yard  manure,  an  exchange  says  very  truly,  lies  in 
the  manner  in  AArhich  it  is  saved.  If  allowed  to  be  drenched  and  AA'ashed  by  rain, 
its  soluble  portions  are  Avashed  aAvay,  and  these  contain  about  all  there  is  of  value 
in  any  fertilizer.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  moist  manure  is  thrown  into  a  pile  and 
alloAAred  to  heat,  its  valuable  constituents  are  volatilized,  and  pass  immediately 
into  that  vast  storehouse  of  fertility,  the  air.  Hence,  under  the  action  of  water 
and  strong  fermentation  the  valuable  constituents  of  manure  may  be  dissipated 
until  so  little  remains  as  to  be  practically  AArorthless.  In  the  feeding  of  animals 
in  the  fields  or  in  pasturage  this  fertility  is  not  lost.  The  soluble  portions  are 
washed  out,  and  descend  into  the  soil,  and  are  held  for  future  use.  The  practical 
saving  of  manure  of  yards  and  stables  therefore  becomes  a  matter  of  importance. 
Two  means  are  constant  and  simple;  the  prevention  of  fermentation  in  heaps, 
and  the  Avashing  of  the  soluble  portions  out  of  the  yards.  The  first  may  be  pre- 
vented by  spreading  Avhere  it  may  be  tramped  under  the  feet  of  animals  and  the 
second  by  forming  the  yard  dishing  and  AATith  a  clay  bottom  that  will  hold  the 
liquid. 


72 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


MAKING    MANURE. 


Clean  the  stables  every  morning  or  when  necessary,  and  throw  on  the  heap; 
always  keep  it  well  together,  with  a  flat  and  broad  top;  it  will  soon  commence  to 
rot,  and  by  the  time  there  are  eight  or  ten  loads  accumulated,  take  a  day  and  haul 
to  some  suitable  place  for  manufacture.  As  the  manure  is  hauled  keep  it  well 
together,  and  not  less  than  three  feet  deep;  keep  the  top  always  flat  or  a  little 
concave,  as  in  this  way  the  valuable  quality  is  better  retained.  When  manure  is 
heaped  conically  or  spread  carelessly  far  around,  and  remains  so  for  any  length 
of  time,  its  value  then  would  only  be  about  equal  to  straw.  Tbe  heap  should  be 
regulated  in  depth  according  to  quantity.     By  hauling  a  day  at  intervals  in  winter 


the  yard  may  be  clear 
stock  out  to  pasture. 
work  of  spring  is  past, 
over,  mixing  it  thor- 
finished  square  or  ob- 
nearly  perpendicular 
through,  and  not  less 
the  deeper  it  is  the 
about  level,  with  six 
which  will  prove  val- 


C'ompost  Heap. 


)y  the  time  of  turning 
When  the  pressing 
turn  the  manure  heap 
oughly.  It  should  be 
long,  with  straight  and 
sides,  well  packed  all 
than  four  feet  deep,  as 
better;  finish  the  top 
or  eight  inches  of  soil, 
uable   in   saving   the 


good  qualities  of  the  manure.  When  application  time  comes  there  will  be  found 
a  rich  heap  of  manure,  black  and  greasy.  This  plan  is  practiced  by  all  the  best 
farmers  of  England,  who  obtain  such  heavy  crops  of  roots  followed  by  heavy  and 
luxuriant  spring  grains  and  grass. 


HOW   TO    SAVE    MANURE    AT   HOME. 

A  correspondent  of  the  "Planters'  Journal"  says:  I  have  an  old  mule  and  a 
dump  cart,  and  hire  an  old  darkey  every  year  whose  only  labor  is  to  haul  manure 
and  stuff  to  make  it.  I  never  stop  him  to  be  sent  to  town  for  mail,  nor  to  chop 
cotton,  nor  to  pick  cotton  even.  Every  day  that  old  man  hauls  with  his  mule,  and 
if  ever  I  have  a  spare  hand  from  the  crop,  I  send  him  to  help  in  the  same  business. 
Leaves  and  pine  straAV  to  fill  my  stalls,  and  put  under  my  cow  sheds,  and  the  same 
mixed  with  rich  garden  and  wood-pile  litter,  dirt  from  the  fence  corners,  cinders, 
ashes,  yard  sweepings  and  garbage  is  added  to  my  compost  pile,  with  sometimes  a 
little  lye  to  decompose  the  contents  thoroughly,  and  strong  soap  suds  from  the  wash 
tub  poured  on.  This  makes  the  finest  and  richest  of  all  manure  heaps;  and  whilst 
it  costs  least  of  all,  being  built  up  almost  entirely  by  house  servants  in  cleaning  about 
yard  and  garden,  it  will  often  prove  equal  to  one-third  its  weight  in  Peruvian  guano. 

The  hog-pen  where  I  am  fattening  my  hogs  is  a  source  of  the  best  of  all 
manures.  My  old  carter  throws  in  a  load  of  litter  every  day  or  two,  filling  the  pen 
a  foot  deep  by  the  time  the  hogs  are  killed.  I  find  this  the  most  durable  in  its 
effect  of  all  the  manures  I  have  ever  used.  I  do  not  know  how  many  tons  of  all 
sorts  of  manure  I  get  every  year.  I  think,  with  all  the  hauling  back  and  forth, 
I  get  three  cartloads  on  an  average  every  day  available  for  use,  counting,  of  course, 
all  the  help  I  put  in  the  winter  and  spring.  This  would  give  900  cart  loads,  equal 
certainly  to  300  tons,  and  Avorth,  at  my  calculation,  $1,500  at  least.  And  all  this 
is,  as  I  may  safely  say,  the  yield  from  one  man  and  his  cart,  with  only  such  help 


MANURES  AND  THEIR  APPLICATION.  73 


as  I  can  throw  in  conveniently.  T  use  my  manure  liberally  as  I  go,  sometimes 
putting  200  cart  loads  to  an  acre,  often  100,  and  when  such  a  liberal  dressing  is 
plowed  in,  that  land  will  be  rich  for  several  years  and  work  easy  and  does  not  bake 
nor  suffer  from  drought  so  readily. 

I  consider  the  increased  yield  in  one  year  from  the  manure  saved  tin*  year  pre- 
vious, pays  liberally  the  cost  of  saving  and  applying  it,  and  leaves  the  increased 
yield  every  subsequent  year  as  net  profits  equal  to  75  per  centum. 

I  find  also  that  on  land  well  improved  by  my  home-made  manure,  a  very 
small  application  subsequently  of  commercial  manures  makes  a  more  wonderful 
yield  than  a  thousand  pounds  would  do  on  land  that  has  not  had  my  home  com- 
post on  it.  The  richer  my  lands  are  with  home-made  manure,  the  better  it  pays 
me  to  use  guano  on  the  same  land. 

I  have  had  such  success  in  the  practice  of  my  plan  that  I  want  to  see  every 
plantation  doing  the  same  way,  or  a  better  way.  The  secret  of  my  success  is,  that 
I  make  manure-saving  a  special  business,  and  never  put  it  aside  to  do  anything 
else.  On  my  farm,  in  the  fence  corners  and  in  the  Avood  and  branch  bottoms, 
scrapings  are  obtained  in  the  shape  of  dead  and  dirty  leaves,  rich  dirt,  &c,  that 
are  very  valuable.  I  am  saving  daily  and  converting  it,  and  it  pays  well.  The 
same  is  on  every  plantation  in  Georgia.  Let  us  not  ignore  the  fertility  that  lies 
at  our  own  doors  and  reach  out  to  buy  ruinously  from  abroad. 

VALUE    OF    LIQUID    MANURE. 

In  regard  to  the  value  of  liquid  excrement,  the  Boston  "Journal  of  Chemistry" 
says :  How  strangely  we  overlook  the  value  of  the  liquid  excrement  of  our  animals. 
A  cow  under  ordinary  feeding  furnishes  in  a  year  20,000  pounds  of  solid  excre- 
ment, and  about  8,000  of  liquid.  The  comparative  money  value  of  the  two  is  but 
slightly  in  favor  of  the  solid.  The  statement  has  been  verified  as  truth  over  and 
over  again.  The  urine  of  the  herbivorous  animals  holds  nearly  all  the  secretions 
of  the  body  which  are  capable  of  producing  rich  nitrogeneous  compound,  so  essen- 
tial as  forcing  or  leaf  forming  agents  in  the  growth  of  plants.  The  solid  holds 
the  phosphoric  acid,  the  lime  and  magnesia,  which  go  to  seeds  principally,  but  its 
liquid,  holding  nitrogen,  potash  and  soda,  is  needed  in  forming  the  stalks 
and  leaves.  The  two  forms  of  plant  nutriment  should  never  be  separated  or 
allowed  to  be  wasted  by  neglect.  The  farmer  who  saves  all  the  urine  of  the 
animals  doubles  his  manural  resourses  and  it  will  require  a  large  expenditure  of 
commercial  fertilizers  to  make  good  this  loss. 

If  the  farmer  cannot  do  anything  else  he  can  at  least  sprinkle  land  plaster  in 
the  gutter  behind  the  cows  and  in  the  horse  stables  every  day,  and  save  a  part  of 
the  value  that  goes  to  waste  in  the  urine.  Besides,  the  plaster  will  make  a  sweet 
smelling  stable,  and  that  will  do  his  animals  considerable  good. 

COMPOSTING. 

It  will  always  pay  to  have  a  compost  heap,  especially  where  there  is  stock. 
In  preparing  a  place  for  one  it  is  proper  to  place  boards  at  the  bottom.  A  high 
and  dry  spot  should  be  selected  for  the  purpose.  The  object  in  view  is  to  rapidly 
decompose  the  substances  in  the  pile,  and  decomposition  cannot  go  on  to  any 
extent  under  water.     The  heap  should  be  five  or  six  feet  high,  in  order  that  the 


74  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


rains  which  fall  upon  it  may  not  leach  it  and  carry  off  its  valuable  properties. 
A  layer  of  muck,  or  good  loam  a  foot  thick,  may  be  placed  at  the  bottom.  Upon 
this  an  equal  layer  of  stable  manure.  Then  leaves,  corn-stalks,  straw,  and  similar 
substances  may  be  thrown  on  and  mixed  with  the  manure.  Another  layer  of  muck 
may  be  used,  followed  by  leaves  and  similar  substances  and  covered  with  manure. 
The  muck  may  be  employed  quite  freely — two  loads  of  muck  to  one  of  stable 
manure  being  a  fair  proportion.  To  each  load  of  material  twenty-five  pounds  of 
plaster  should  be  added.  Some  farmers  mix  ashes  in  the  compost  heap,  but  we 
consider  them  more  valuable  to  use  alone  as  a  special  fertilizer.  Others  throw  in 
old  boots  and  shoes,  soapsuds,  brine,  sawdust,  kitchen  slops  and  all  such  refuse. 
From  these  materials  a  considerable  quantity  of  plant  food  may  be  obtained,  and, 
if  properly  used,  they  may  be  made  to  help  very  much  in  the  process  of  decom- 
position. 

The  addition  of  two  hundred  pounds  of  good  superphosphate  of  lime  to  each 
cord  of  the  other  materials,  if  well  mixed  with  the  whole  mass,  will  prove  of 
immense  benefit.  This  material  most  farmers  would  be  obliged  to  purchase. 
Those  who  can  obtain  it  without  paying  excessive  rates  for  transportation  will 
probably  be  gainers  by  using  it.  Finely  ground  bone  is  also  a  very  good  addition 
to  a  compost  heap,  and,  if  the  superphosphate  cannot  well  be  obtained,  this  may 
take  its  place.  Of  course  the  top  of  a  compost  heap  should  be  covered  with  muck 
or  loam.  In  a  few  days,  if  the  weather  is  Avarm,  fermentation  will  set  in.  This 
will  gradually  increase  to  a  certain  point  and  then  slowly  die  away.  Some  farm- 
ers attempt  to  control  this  fermentation  by  the  use  of  water,  which  they  apply 
liberally  if  they  think  the  pile  is  getting  too  hot.  Others  consider  water  an  injury 
and  rely  upon  the  plaster  to  keep  the  contents  of  the  heap  uninjured.  In  itself 
this  fermentation  is  a  great  advantage.  The  only  danger  is  that  it  will  proceed 
too  rapidly  and  cause  the  loss  of  some  of  the  most  valuable  elements.  If  this 
takes  place,  it  will  be  indicated  by  the  escape  of  vapor  which  has  a  strong  pun- 
gent odor  similar  to  hartshorn.  If  this  odor  is  not  apparent  the  heap  is  suffering 
no  loss;  but  when  it  does  appear  ammonia  begins  to  escape,  and  the  value  of  the 
material  will  be  rapidly  reduced  if  the  fermentation  is  not  at  once  retarded. 
There  are  two  ways  of  checking  this  evil — the  application  of  water,  or  still  better, 
a  covering  of  plaster  and  a  final  light  coating  of  dry  earth.  Some  guard  against 
too  rapid  fermentation  by  making  the  compost  heap  in  October,  and  relying  upon 
the  cold  weather  to  retard  decomposition.  When  this  is  done,  the  heap  should 
be  shoveled  over  once  or  twice  in  the  spring.  When  any  other  system  is  followed, 
it  is  always  a  good  plan  to  throw  over  the  heap  before  it  is  used.  Sometimes 
freshly  slacked  lime  is  used  in  compost  heaps,  but  the  practice  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended. It  will  hasten  decomposition  and  get  the  heap  in  condition  to  use  much 
sooner  than  it  otherwise  could  be,  but  it  involves  the  loss  of  too  much  nitrogen 
to  make  it  profitable. 

The  time  required  for  the  proper  composting  of  manures  will  vary  greatly 
with  the  nature  and  qualities  of  the  materials  which  are  used,  the  way  in  which 
they  are  handled,  and  the  degree  of  exposure  to  cold  and  rain  to  which  they  are 
subjected.  The  progress  should  not  be  hastened  by  lime  and  the  materials  should 
not  be  used  until  it  is  thoroughly  broken  up  and  separated  into  its  elements. 
From  six  months  to  one  year  is  usually  required,  though  Mr.  Waring  claims  that 
by  the  proper  use  of  liquid  manure,  soapsuds,  slops  and  similar  material  (with 


MANURES  AND  THEIR  APPLICATION.  75 


which  a  tank  is  filled  when  the  heap  is  begun  and  from  which  it  is  pumped  over 
the  mass  once  or  twice  a  week  and  through  which  it  filters  back  into  the  tank), 
a  heap  can  be  reduced  to  fine  condition  in  a  single  month.  We  think,  however, 
a  longer  process  is  more  desirable. 

WOOD   ASHES. 

Ashes  should  be  carefully  saved;  they  should  hold  an  important  place  among 
the  mineral  resources  of  the  farms  in  those  sections  in  which  wood  is  used  for 
fuel.  They  furnish  large  quantities  of  potash  in  an  easily  available  condition,  act 
quickly,  energetically  and  with  a  considerable  degree  of  permanence.  They 
should  be  saved  carefully,  and  kept  dry  until  they  are  used.  Ashes  from  hard 
woods  are  much  better  than  those  from  soft  species,  though  these  are  valuable. 
Leached  ashes  on  some  soils  give  good  results,  but  for  general  use  they  are  inferior 
to  those  which  remain  in  their  natural  condition.  Leaching  removes  much  of  the 
potash  together  with  a  part  of  the  phosphoric  acid  and  lime,  but  enough  of  the 
latter  remains  to  make  them  very  useful  to  crops  in  which  potash  in  large  quan- 
tities is  not  an  essential  ingredient.  Coal  ashes  are  of  but  little  value  for  fertilizing 
purposes,  but  are  said  to  be  useful  in  small  quantities  around  pear  trees,  and  they 
sometimes  improve  the  mechanical  condition  of  heavy  soils. 

CLOVER    AS    A    FERTILIZER. 

A  correspondent  of  the  "Country  Gentleman"  writes:  In  May,  1869,  Dr. 
Voelcker,  in  a  lecture  before  the  Ro}^al  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  said: 
I  have  frequently  been  struck  with  the  remarkably  luxuriant  appearance  of 
wheat  after  a  heavy  crop  of  clover  has  been  removed  from  the  land.  I  at  first 
doubted  it;  but  at  last  I  was  obliged  to  confess  that  it  invariably  follows  when 
you  get  a  good  crop  of  clover,  that  you  also  get  a  good  crop  of  wheat.  An 
enormous  amount  of  nitrogenous  organic  matter  is  left  in  the  land  after  the 
removal  of  the  clover  crop,  and  this  gradually  decays  and  furnishes  ammonia. 
Also  that  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  very  best  preparation,  the  very 
best  manure,  if  I  may  say  so,  is  a  good  crop  of  clover.  Now,  at  first,  nothing 
seems  more  contradictory  than  to  say  that  you  can  remove  a  very  large  quantity 
of  both  mineral  and  organic  plant  food  from  the  soil,  and  yet  make  it  more  pro- 
ductive, as  in  the  case  of  clover.  Nevertheless  it  is  a  fact  that  the  larger  the 
amount  of  mineral  matter  you  remove  in  a  crop  of  clover,  and  the  larger  the 
amount  of  nitrogen  which  is  carried  off  in  clover  hay,  the  richer  the  land 
becomes.  This  is  a  chemical  anomaly  which  Dr.  Voelcker  had  been  investi- 
gating ten  years,  and  only  during  the  previous  season  had  he  been  able  explain  it. 
Then  he  found  that  in  a  chemical  point  of  view,  clover  is  the  most  exhausting 
crop  you  can  grow,  while  in  a  practical  point  of  view  it  is  the  most  restorative 
crop,  and  the  best  preparation  for  wheat  you  can  possibly  grow.  The  amount  of 
nitrogen  and  of  mineral  matter  secured  by  one  year's  growth  of  clover,  is  several 
times  as  much  as  is  needed  for  a  crop  of  wheat.  A  vast  amount  of  mineral 
matter  is  brought  within  the  reach  of  the  Avheat  crop  by  growing  clover.  By 
means  of  its  long  roots  clover  penetrates  a  large  mass  of  soil;  it  gathers  up  the 
phosphoric  acid  and  the  potash,  which  are  reached  by  its  long,  deep  roots,  and 
when  the  land  is  plowed  the  roots  are  left  in  the  surface  soil,  and  decaying,  they 


76  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


furnish  the  mineral  substances  most  needed  by  the  wheat  plant.  Without  the 
help  of  clover  roots,  a  large  portion  of  these  substances  must  remain  in  a  locked- 
up  condition,  in  which  they  are  not  available  for  the  growing  wheat.  The  accumu- 
lation of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  by  growing  clover  is  also  very  large.  The  clover 
plants  take  the  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere,  and  manufacture  it  into  their  own 
substance,  which,  on  decomposition  of  the  clover  roots  and  leaves,  produces 
abundance  of  ammonia.  In  reality,  the  growing  of  clover  is  equivalent,  to  great 
extent,  to  manuring  with  Peruvian  guano;  and  there  is  a  larger  amount  of  nitro- 
gen accumulated  in  the  surface  soil  than  in  the  heaviest  application  of  guano  any 
farmer  would  think  of  making.  Dr.  Voelcker  also  shows,  as  the  result  of  frequent 
and  thorough  examinations,  that  when  clover  is  pastured  there  is  much  less  plant 
food  accumulated  in  the  surface  soil  than  when  it  is  cut  for  hay,  and  that  there  is 
less  when  clover  is  cut  twice  for  hay,  than  when  cut  once  and  allowed  to  go  to 
seed.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  there  is  much  less  growth,  especially  of  roots, 
Avhere  clover  is  pastured;  as  to  the  second,  that  a  large  amount  of  clover  leaves 
drop  and  enrich  the  soil  when  clover  goes  to  seed. 

Now,  Messrs.  Johnston  and  Geddes  have  been  two  of  the  best  practical  farmers 
in  the  country;  and  Dr.  Voelcker,  though  one  of  the  best  agricultural  chemists  of 
the  day,  has,  at  least  in  great  part,  been  brought  to  his  present  views,  as  against 
his  previous  scientific  opinions,  by  the  very  beneficial  effects  secured  by  farmers 
in  growing  clover.  Hence  we  find  science  and  practical  experience  agreeing  in 
regard  to  the  remarkable  fertilizing  effects  and  results  secured  by  raising  clover. 
And  it  must  now  be  apparent  to  every  intelligent  reader,  that  the  three  most 
important  constituents  of  crops,  to-wit,  nitrogen,  potash,  and  the  phosphates,  can 
be  obtained  much  easier  and  cheaper  by  growing  clover  than  in  any  other  way — 
hence  it  is  claimed  that,  at  least  on  grain  farms,  where  a  rotation  of  crops  and 
frequent  seeding  to  clover  can  be  practiced,  there  is  no  need  of  the  very  heavy 
and  expensive  manuring  which  was  formerly  recommended. 

Still,  it  may  not  be  best  to  go  to  the  other  extreme,  and  depend  altogether  on 
clover;  the  best  course  is  to  make  all  the  barn-yard  manure  that  can  be  secured, 
by  feeding  all  suitable  crops  on  the  farm,  and  then  grow  clover  enough,  with  the 
help  of  this  manure,  to  make  the  land  rich. 

PEA   FALLOW. 

The  experience  of  farmers  with  artificial  fertilizers  since  the  war  ought  to  be 
sufficient  to  open  their  eyes  to  the  folly  of  such  a  system  of  farming,  and  clearly 
show  the  necessity  of  adopting  a  different  one — a  system  that  .will  obviate  the 
outlay  of  so  large  an  amount  of  money,  and  will,  while  it  yields  a  good  return  in 
crops,  give  "permanent"  improvement  to  the  land.  Any  expenditure  of  money 
and  labor  on  the  farm  that  does  not  give  a  corresponding  increase  to  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  is  bad  farming.  Any  investment  of  money  in  the  growing  crop,  be 
the  return  ever  so  large,  is  unwise  and  impolitic  if  it  does  not  give  to  the  land  a 
proportionate  "increased  capability"  to  yield  large  succeeding  crops.  The  mer- 
chant whose  capital  does  not  increase  in  proportion  with  his  annual  amount  of 
sales,  will  conclude  he  is  doing  a  losing  business.  Land  is  the  capital  of  the 
farmer,  and  to  do  a  safe  business  he  must  see  an  evident  improvement,  or  increase, 
in  the  productiveness  of  his  hind  each  succeeding  year,  and  thus  his  capital  will 


MANURES  AND  THEIR  APPLICATION.  77 


show  such  an  annual  augmentation  as  will  stimulate  and  encourage  labor  and 
make  farming  remunerative. 

We  make  the  following  suggestion  of  a  system  (and  for  it  we  do  not  claim  origi- 
nality), which,  if  persistently  carried  forward  for  a  number  of  consecutive  years, 
we  know  from  experience  and  an  extensive  observation,  will  give  the  most  satisfac- 
tory results. 

For  the  crop  of  cotton  lay  off  two  lots,  or  fields,  each  containing  the  number 
of  acres  the  planter  has  the  ability  to  cultivate  each  alternate  year.  In  the  month 
of  June  sow  one  lot,  or  field,  in  black  peas  for  the  next  year's  crop;  one  bushel  per 
acre  broadcast  is  sufficient.  As  soon  as  the  first  crop  matures  sufficiently  to  allow 
it,  gather  enough  of  the  pea  for  the  next  year's  sowing,  then  fallow  in  the  vines 
deep,  being  careful  to  cover  them  up  well.  During  early  winter  sow  over  the 
fallow  as  large  a  quantity  of  lime  as  can  be  afforded.  Cotton  will  bear  a  large 
application  of  lime  and  be  all  the  better  for  it.  If  any  artificial  fertilizer  be  used, 
let  it  be  applied  to  the  pea  crop,  thereby  increasing  the  volume  of  the  fallow,  which 
will  add  proportionately  and  alike  to  the  increase  of  the  crop  and  the  fertility  of 
the  soil. 

In  the  cultivation  of  the  corn  crop,  let  the  corn  beds  be  made  five  feet  wide 
and  with  a  small  turn  plow,  in  the  month  of  June,  make  a  single  lap  in  the  water 
furrow — or  midway  between  the  corn  rows — open  this  with  a  trowel  hoe  and  sow 
the  black  peas,  covering  lightly.  As  soon  as  the  first  ripen,  gather  for  the  next 
year's  sowing,  and  then  cover  up  the  vines  well  with  a  turn  plow.  After  the  corn 
is  gathered,  during  the  winter  or  early  spring,  cut  down  the  corn  stalks  and  lay 
them  along  in  the  furrow  made  by  the  plow  in  covering  the  vines,  and  finish  the 
corn  bed  on  them.  Before  planting,  lime  (ten  to  twenty  bushels  an  acre)  should 
be  sowed  over  the  land. 

Let  the  same  field  be  thus  cultivated  for  several  consecutive  years,  until  it  will 
bring  clover  well,  or  wheat  that  will  pay  for  the  cultivation.  In  five  years  the 
crop  of  corn  will  probably  reach  eight  or  ten  barrels  per  acre,  and  the  land  will  be 
capable  of  growing  profitably  any  crops  desired,  and  will  be  correspondingly 
increased  in  value.  If  it  be  preferred,  the  peas  may  be  sown  broadcast  in  the  corn 
in  June  and  fallowed  in  as  soon  as  the  corn  can  be  cut  clown  and  the  lime  sown 
as  before.  To  make  a  permanent  improvement  of  our  soil  in  this  piney  country, 
lime  must  be  applied  in  sufficient  quantity  to  make  the  soil  calcareous.  This  is 
the  basis  of  all  improvement. 

Since  the  close  of  the  war  many  thousands  of  dollars  have  been  expended  in 
artificial  fertilizers,  and  can  any  planter  sjiow  any  increase  in  the  productiveness 
of  his  cotton  lots  thereby  at  all  commensurate  with  this  large  expenditure?  By 
no  means.  But  if  the  same  amount  of  money  had  been  used  in  pea  fallows  and 
lime  these  same  cotton-fields  would  now  be  growing  two  and  three  bales  of  cotton 
per  acre,  with  corn,  wheat,  and  all  other  crops  increased  in  the  same  ratio;  and, 
instead  of  groaning  under  the  present  existing  poverty  and  depression,  farmers 
would  be  a  prosperous,  independent  and  happy  people,  and  all  branches  of  trade 
be  equally  flourishing. 

This  is  a  simple,  economical,  and  positively  sure  svstem  of  improvement. 


78  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


HUMUS    IX   THE    SOIL. 

Samuel  A.  Cook,  of  Milledgeville,  Georgia,  says:  This  important  adjunct  to 
successful  farming  and  gardening  must  be  contained  in  the  soil  or  else  failure  of 
crops.  Humus  is  a  pulverulent  brown  substance  formed  by  the  action  of  air  on  solid 
animal  or  vegetable  matter,  without  which  the  soil  becomes  compact,  and  in  an 
unsuitable  condition  for  the  growth  of  plants.  Farmers,  generally,  are  not  aware 
how  much  of  this  important  material  lies  loose  about  the  farm,  that  could  be  given 
the  soil  to  the  great  benefit  of  the  crops : 

Humus  or  vegetable  mould,  as  ought  to  be  known,  is  simply  vegetable 
matter  that  has  become  decomposed  in  the  soil.  All  vegetable  matter  contains  a 
small  percentage  of  mineral  or  inorganic  matter  known  as  ash,  a  small  percentage 
also  of  nitrogen;  and  however  dry  it  may  have  become  through  the  influence  of 
air  and  sun,  contains  a  certain  proportion  of  water.  The  ash  and  water  being 
deducted,  the  remainder  is  denominated  "organic  matter"  of  vegetation.  For 
instance,  one  hundred  pounds  of  wheat  straw,  that  has  been  exposed  to  the  sun 
and  air  until  it  has  become  perfectly  cured  as  hay,  still  contains  fourteen  pounds 
of  water,  (hygroscopic  water,  this  is  termed).  This  fourteen  pounds  of  water  can 
be  extracted  from  the  straw  only  by  exposing  it  to  a  temperature  of  212  degrees — 
a  degree  of  heat  far  above  what  the  sun  can  give  in  this  climate.  Deducting  this 
fourteen  pounds  from  one  hundred  leaves  eighty-six  pounds  of  perfectly  dry  straw; 
and  if  this  eighty-six  pounds  of  straw  is  burned  it  will  be  converted  into  five  and 
a  half  pounds  of  ashes,  the  visible  remainder,  the  other  eighty  and  a  half  pounds 
having  gone  into  the  atmosphere  as  so  much  smoke.  This  eighty  and  a  half 
pounds  is  the  organic  matter  of  the  one  hundred  pounds  of  straw  which,  when 
decomposed  in  the  soil,  constitutes  humus.  This  organic  part  is  composed  of  the 
four  atmospheric  elements — carbon,  nitrogen,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  Now,  if  this 
eighty  and  a  half  pounds  of  organic  or  vegetable  matter  is  decomposed  through 
heat,  but  protected  from  the  air,  it  would  assume  the  form  of  charcoal — losing 
about  fifty  per  cent,  of  its  weight. 

We  see  that  humus  and  charcoal  are  the  same  substances,  in  a  little  different 
form.  This  charcoal — again  exposed  to  heat  in  the  forge  of  the  blacksmith,  with 
a  current  of  oxygen  from  the  bellows — is  again  decomposed  and  forced  into  the 
atmosphere,  with  its  small  proportion  of  mineral  matter  left  as  ashes  on  the  hearth. 
As  humus  or  charcoal,  the  solid  and  tangible  part  of  vegetable  matter  is  carbon. 
Now,  just  as  nitrogen  is  available  only  as  it  becomes  converted  into  ammonia,  so 
also  carbon  is  of  little  avail  until  it  has  become  converted  into  carbonic  acid,  so 
far  as  plant  food  is  concerned.  We  know  very  well  that  neither  humus  nor  char- 
coal is  taken  up  by  the  roots  of  plants  in  their  unmatured  state,  but  is  useful  and 
essential  in  the  soil  as  a  storehouse  of  carbonic  acid. 

Humus  or  vegetable  mould  in  the  soil  renders  the  soil  more  porous,  prevents 
it  from  baking  or  crusting,  and  enables  the  air  to  enter,  more  freely  than  it  would 
in  soil  composed  only  of  mineral  or  earthy  matter.  Humus,  also,  is  a  great  absorb- 
ent of  moisture — catching  it  up  and  holding  it  after  a  rain  much  longer,  and  in 
much  greater  quantity,  than  ordinary  earthy  matter  can;  and,  again,  as  the  soil 
dries  off  it  has  a  greater  capacity  for  bringing  back  the  water  of  the  subsoil  below 
it- — aiding  capillary  attraction.  Humus  is  also  credited  with  the  power  of  strain- 
ing out  from  water  any  ammoniacal  matter  that  may  have  become  dissolved  in 


(79) 


Dinner  is  Ready. 


80  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


it,  and  thus  prevent  its  escape  into  the  subsoil  where  it  would  be  out  of 
the  reach  of  the  lateral  roots  of  plants.  Humus  from  some  form  of  vegetable 
matter  is  much  richer  in  certain  elements  than  that  from  other  forms.  Wheat 
and  pine  straw,  for  instance,  are  very  much  inferior  to  the  vine  of  clover,  vetch, 
pea  and  other  leguminous  plants.  These  latter  are  five  to  seven  times  richer  in 
nitrogen  than  the  straw  of  any  of  the  small  grain;  and  all  this  nitrogen  is  secured 
to  the  soil  when  the  matter  is  turned  under  at  the  proper  stage.  Our  common  rag 
weed  is  also  superior  to  the  straw  of  grain  in  this  respect.  This  is  the  chief  rea- 
son why  the  leguminous  plants  are  esteemed  as  the  most  suitable  for  providing 
vegetable  matter.  Wherever  vegetable  matter  is  covered  up  by  the  soil,  whatever 
nitrogen  is  in  it  by  decomposition  is  yielded  up  to  and  absorbed  by  the  soil.  Cai  - 
bonic  acid  and  ammonia  are  the  two  requisites  for  a  luxuriant  growth  of  stalk  or 
weed;  and  both  must  be  obtained  chiefly  through  the  soil,  and  to  a  great  extent 
through  the  influence  of  humus. 

Soils  that  are  persistently  devoted  to  hoed  crops  in  our  climate,  with  its  long 
summers  and  scorching  sun,  are  more  rapidly  exhausted  of  their  humus  than  the 
soils  of  the  North  where  the  summer  is  shorter  and  where  a  more  rational  system 
of  culture  is  practiced.  A  great  loss  of  humus  follows  the  turning  up  of  soil  and 
exposing  it  afresh  to  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  from  June  to  September;  and 
a  wise  system  of  farming  will  guard  against  turning  up  in  the  summer  any  more 
than  possibly  can  be  avoided.  It  can  be  justified  only  where  the  object  is  to  plant 
a  quick  growing  crop  that  will  soon  shade  the  land  and  ultimately  be  given  to  the 
land.  Our  field  pea  is  about  the  only  plant  that  is  adapted  to  this  purpose  for 
summer  planting.  With  good  cultivation,  a  crop  of  peas  can  be  made  even  when 
planted  in  July;  but  how  many  of  the  plants  have  we  that  we  can  successfully 
plant  in  mid  summer  ?  Very  few  farmers,  as  yet,  have  found  that  the  pea  has 
any  great  value  as  a  money  crop,  as  it  is  an  expensive  crop  to  market,  and  it  is 
valued  chiefly  as  a  manurial  or  fallow  crop — holding  the  position  here  that  clover 
does  in  the  North.  As  fallow  crops  it  is  not  probable  that  Ave  will  ever  find  two 
plants  more  suitable  for  general  use  than  the  clover  and  the  pea.  While  other 
plants  may  be  resorted  to  casually,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  humus  to  the  soil, 
these  two  will  be  the  common  reliance  for  that  purpose  for  a  long  time  to  come. 
It  may  be  said  that  we  have  not  entered  on  their  use  yet  for  this  purpose,  com- 
paring the  present  use  Avith  what  we  will  make  of  them  in  the  future,  when  Ave 
come  to  farm  more  scientifically  than  Ave  do  iioav.  We  can  only  apply  vegetable 
matter  economically  by  groAving  it  in  the  soil.  We  cannot  haul  vegetable  matter 
on  and  apply  it  to  soil  as  Ave  Avould  manure — that  is,  in  the  bounds  of  a  reasonable 
economy.  If  Ave  had  an  unlimited  amount  of  barn-yard  manure,  and  facilities 
for  applying  it  in  unlimited  quantity,  of  course  there  Avould  be  no  need  for  grow- 
ing  any  vegetable  crop  to  supply  humus.  But  until  that  condition  of  affairs  (abun- 
dance of  manure)  exists  on  a  farm,  we  Avill  have  to  obtain  our  vegetable  matter 
from  planting  special  crops  for  the  purpose,  or  by  a  judicious  use  of  the  sponta- 
neous growth  that  results  from  leaving  the  land  unploAved  for  a  Avhile.  In  thou- 
sands of  instances,  on  our  Southern  soils,  it  is  practicable  to  maintain  a  sufficiency 
of  humus  in  the  soil  by  simply  alloAving  every  part  of  the  farm  to  come  into  the 
rotation  of  small  grain  once  in  every  three  or  four  years;  and  after  the  grain  is 
cut  off  in  May  or  June,  letting  the  land  groAV  up  in  rag  Aveeds  and  other  sponta- 
neous growth,  and  leaving  it  undisturbed  until  spring — rotating  small  grain  with 


MANURES  AND  THEIR  APPLICATION.  81 


corn  or  cotton  or  other  summer  growing  crops.  Such  soils  as  are  well  set 
with  this  valuable  renovating  weed  are  very  easily  kept  up  to  a  high  standard  of 
fertility,  with  hardly  any  expense  at  all.  The  heretofore  common  practice  of  pas- 
turing stubble  land,  in  all  kinds  of  weather,  has  had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  its 
impoverishment.  Generally  crab  grass  or  other  edible  plants  come  along  spon- 
taneously with  the  weeds,  and  the  farmer  could  not  or  did  not  resist  the  tempta- 
tion to  turn  his  stock  in  on  it — deeming  it  an  extra  crop  and  thus  prevented  any 
accumulation  of  vegetable  matter  to  the  soil.  By  winter  such  fields  were  pretty 
well  deprived  of  all  covering,  and  lay  exposed  to  the  sun  and  to  washing  rains; 
and  instead  of  being  benefited  by  the  small  grain  crop  the  land  was  actually 
injured.  A  small  grain  crop  should  almost  invariably  lead  to  the  improvement 
of  the  land  on  which  it  was  grown.  The  first  concern  of  a  farmer  should  be  not 
so  much  to  bring  up  any  worn  out  soil  to  a  medium  state  of  fertility  as  to  keep 
his  good  soil,  that  pays  him  to  cultivate,  up  to  a  certain  standard.  If  he  can  do 
both,  well  and  good;  but  it  is  much  easier  to  make  rich  land  richer  than  it  is  to 
make  poor  land  rich.  If  a  farmer  has  an  acre  of  land  that  produces  500  pounds 
of  lint  cotton  or  fifty  bushels  of  oats  now,  his  aim  should  be  to  keep  it  up  to  that 
condition  as  long  as  he  cultivates  it.  It  may  not  be  that  such  land  will  require 
an  annual  application  to  effect  this.  It  may  be  that  manure  applied  every  other 
year,  and  a  bountiful  supply  of  humus  every  three  or  four  years,  will  accomplish 
the  object  more  economically  than  annual  applications  would.  It  is  a  matter  that 
every  farmer  will  have  to  settle  for  himself,  as  he  is  the  only  person  who  knows 
the  condition  of  the  land  and  what  it  needs  to  keep  it  up.  As  remarked,  while 
spontaneous  growth  may  be  utilized  to  a  considerable  extent  in  keeping  land  sup- 
plied with  humus,  still  our  principal  reliance  no  doubt  in  the  years  to  come  will 
be  clover  and  field  peas.  While  both  of  them  are  leguminous  plants,  there  is  a 
very  great  difference  between  them  in  respect  to  hardiness.  One  is  perfectly  hardy, 
withstanding  the  severest  weather  of  winter  uninjured,  while  the  other  is  tender 
and  can  barely  withstand  the  slightest  frost  of  winter  or  autumn.  The  hardy 
clover  can  be  sown  in  the  South  late  in  the  fall  or  early  winter,  and  then  again  in 
early  spring.  The  pea  can  be  sown  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of 
August.  Sowings  at  the  latter  date  are  not  likely  to  produce  peas,  but  a  fall  crop 
of  vines  may  be  had  if  the  weather  is  fairly  seasonable. 

The  value  of  clover,  as  a  producer  of  humus,  is  greatly  enhanced  from  the  fact 
that  it  may  be  grown  in  connection  with  another  crop.  We  can  sow  it  along  with 
small  grain  in  October  and  November,  or  we  can  sow  it  on  the  small  grain  in  early 
spring  and  it  will  take  possession  of  the  land  after  the  grain  is  cut  off.  When 
soAvn  with  grain  in  the  late  fall,  it  comes  up  promptly  but  grows  very  slowly 
through  the  winter — almost  dormant  in  fact — and  does  not  diminish  the  yield  of 
grain  appreciable.  The  grain  stubble  acts  as  a  mulch  in  the  summer  and  the 
clover  grows  very  rapidly  and  soon  shades  the  land.  In  October  or  November 
after  plowing  in  the  oats  or  other  grain,  twenty  pounds  of  mammoth  red  clover 
seed  should  be  broadcasted  per  acre ;  the  seed  requires  no  covering.  If  the  seed 
are  known  to  be  perfectly  good  and  the  land  very  rich,  ten  pounds  of  seed  will 
suffice,  but  generallv  twenty  is  better.  Where  the  sowing  has  been  deferred  until 
spring  the  grain  should  be  harrowed  and  the  clover  sown  immediately  afterwards. 
Wherever  practicable,  the  clover  should  be  started  in  the  fall,  however.  On  rich  land 
the  first  growth  of  clover  should  be  converted  into  hay,  the  second  growth  coming 

6 


82  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


on  very  promptly  to  shade  the  land,  and  will  yield  a  bountiful  supply  of  vegetable 
matter  for  turning  under  in  the  spring. 

Our  old-time  practice  of  sowing  peas  in  the  corn  middles  is  one  that  should 
be  kept  up.  By  having  the  rows  as  close  together  as  the  nature  of  the  soil  will 
permit  of,  a  very  liberal  supply  of  vegetable  matter  may  be  secured  without  any 
very  great  reduction  in  the  yield  of  the  corn,  and  after  doing  this  we  should  see 
to  it  that  the  soil  is  not  pastured  to  death  by  permitting  stock  to  run  on  it  in  all 
kinds  of  weather. 

Where  sugar  cane  (or  sorghum)  is  grown  to  any  extent,  it  will  pay  to  haul 
out  the  bagasse  or  refuse  and  apply  in  furrows  and  list  upon,  if  practicable,  sprink- 
ling it  with  lime  before  covering.  While  it  is  desirable  to  save  every  particle  of 
vegetable  matter  that  can  be  secured  at  a  reasonable  cost,  I  do  not  believe  that  one 
farmer  in  twenty  will  find  the  hauling  of  pine  straw  on  the  land  to  be  a  profitable 
method  of  applying  vegetable  matter.  In  some  special  cases,  and  in  small  ways, 
it  may  be  very  profitably  hauled  on  and  applied  as  a  mulch  for  Irish  potatoes, 
especially  on  clay  lands;  but  as  a  source  of  humus  on  an  extended  scale,  its  use 
will  be  found  neither  practicable  or  economical.  *         *         *• 

A  great  deal  has  been  said  of  late  in  our  agricultural  papers  about  the  unprofita- 
bleness of  farming  in  the  South,  and  the  question  as  to  whether  there  is  any  pay 
to  be  gotten  out  of  it  nowadays  has  been  warmly  discussed  by  many  intelligent 
farmers.  From  the  evidence  presented,  it  is  clear  that  while  a  few  farmers  here 
and  there  are  managing  to  make  it  pay,  yet  the  great  mass  of  farmers  are  making 
but  little  headway;  most  of  them,  perhaps,  losing  mone}^. 

The  chief  reason,  of  course,  for  this  condition  of  affairs  is  that  the  soil  they 
cultivate  is  too  poor  to  produce  profitable  crops,  and  this  poverty  is  owing  to  the 
almost  complete  exhaustion  of  the  humus  from  it.  We  should  proceed  diligently 
to  restore  it. 

That  eminent  horticulturist,  Peter  Henderson,  in  an  essay  on  manures  and 
their  application,  presents  many  valuable  suggestions  and  views,  and  although 
intended  for  horticulturists,  they  apply  generally  as  well  to  agriculturists.  We 
append  the  main  points  as  being  especially  valuable. 

The  subject  of  manures  is  one  of  the  greatest  importance  to  every  operator 
in  the  soil,  whether  farmer,  market-gardener,  florist,  or  such  as  cultivate  only  for 
their  own  use,  for  under  few  conditions  can  crops  be  long  grown  without  the  use 
of  fertilizers.  Although  I  have  already  given  general  instructions  about  fertili- 
zers in  all  my  works  on  gardening,  yet  I  find  from  the  number  of  inquiries 
received  from  even  such  as  have  my  works,  that  the  matter  has  not  been  there 
treated  sufficiently  in  detail  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  varied  conditions  under 
which  the  necessity  for  the  use  of  fertilizers  arises.  The  comparative  value  of 
manures  must  be  regulated  by  the  costs.  If  rotted  stable  manure,  whether  from 
horses  or  cows,  can  be  delivered  on  the  ground  at  three  dollars  per  ton,  it  is  about 
as  valuable  for  fertilizing  purposes  as  Peruvian  guano  at  sixty-five  dollars  per  ton 
or  pure  bone-dust  at  forty  dollars  per  ton.  It  is  better  than  either  of  these  or  any 
other  concentrated  fertilizer,  from  the  fact  of  its  mechanical  action  on  the  land; 
that  is,  its  effect  from  its  light  porous  nature  in  aerating  and  pulverizing  the  soil. 
Guano,  bone-dust,  or  other  fine  commercial  fertilizers  act  only  as  such  without  in 
any  way  assisting  to  improve  what  may  be  called  the  physical  condition  of 
the  soil. 


MANURES  AND  THEIE  APPLICATION.  83 


All  experienced  cultivators  know  thai  the  first  year  that  land  is  broken  up 
from  sod,  if  proper  culture  has  been  given  by  thorough  plowing  and  harrowing 
(provided  the  land  has  been  drained  artificially  or  naturally  so  as  to  be  free  from 
water  and  relieved  from  "sourness"),  the  land  is  in  better  condition  for  any  crop 
than  land  that  has  boon  continuously  cropped  without  a  rest.  The  market-gardeners 
in  the  vicinity  of  Now  York  arc  now  so  well  convinced  of  this,  that  when  twenty 
acres  arc  under  cultivation  at  least  five  acres  arc  continually  kept  in  grain,  clover 
or  grass  to  be  broken  up  successively  every  second  or  third  year  so  as  to  get  the 
land  in  the  condition  that  nothing  else  but  rotted,  pulverized  soil  will  accomplish. 
IThis  is  done  in  cases  where  land  is  as  valuable  as  five  hundred  dollars  per  acre, 
experience  having  proved  that  with  one-quarter  of  the  land  resting  under  grass 
more  profit  can  be  got  than  if  the  whole  wore  under  culture. 

When  the  rotation,  by  placing  a  portion  of  the  land  under  grass  cannot  be 
done,  then  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  use  stable  manure,  at  least  to  some  extent, 
if  the  best  results  are  to  be  desired  for  continuous  cropping  of  the  soil.  Where 
concentrated  fertilizers  only  are  used,  they  will  not  continue  to  give  satisfactory 
results  after  the  grass  roots  or  other  organic  matter  has  passed  from  the  soil — all 
of  which  will  be  entirely  gone  by  the  third  or  fourth  year  after  breaking  up.  I 
have  long  held  the  opinion  that  the  idea  of  lands  having  been  permanently 
exhausted  by  tobacco  or  other  crops  is  a  fallacy.  What  gives  rise  to  this  belief,  I 
think,  is  the  fact  that  when  lands  are  first  broken  up  from  the  forest  or  meadow 
lands,  for  three  or  four  years  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  the  roots  of  grasses, 
leaves,  etc.,  not  only  serves  to  feed  the  crops  but  it  keeps  the  soil  in  a  better -state 
of  pulverization,  or  what  might  be  called  aerated  condition,  than  when  in  the 
course  of  cropping  for  a  few  years,  it  has  passed  away.  Stable  manure  best  sup- 
plies this  want,  but  on  farm  lands  away  from  towns  it  is  not  often  that  enough 
can  be  obtained  to  have  any  appreciable  effect  on  the  soil,  and  hence  artificial  fer- 
tilizers are  resorted  to,  which  often  fail,  not  from  any  fault  in  themselves  but  from 
the  fact  that  exerting  little  mechanical  influence  on  the  land,  it  becomes  compact 
or  sodden,  the  air  cannot  get  to  the  roots,  and  hence  failure  or  partial  failure  of 
crop. 

Thus  we  see  that  to  have  the  best  results  from  commercial  fertilizers  it  is  of 
great  importance  to  have  the  land  "rested"  by  a  crop  of  grain  or  grass  every  three 
or  four  years. 

The  best  known  fertilizers  of  commerce  are  Peruvian  guano  and  bone-dust, 
though  there  are  numbers  of  others,  such  as  fish  guano,  diy-blood  fertilizer,  blood 
and  bone  fertilizer,  with  the  various  brands  of  super-phosphates,  all  of  more  or 
less  value  for  fertilizing  purposes.  It  is  useless  to  go  over  the  list,  and  Ave  will 
confine  ourselves  to  the  relative  merits  of  pure  Peruvian  guano  and  pure  bone- 
dust.  Guano,  at  $65  per  ton,  we  consider  relatively  equal  in  value  to  bone-dust 
at  $40  per  ton,  for  in  the  lower-priced  article  we  find  we  ha"  e  to  increase  the 
quantity  to  produce  the  same  result.  Whatever  kind  of  concentrated  fertilizer  is 
used  we  find  it  well  repays  the  labor  to  prepare  it  in  the  following  manner  before 
it  is  used  on  the  land : 

To  every  bushel  of  guano  or  bone-dust  add  three  bushels  of  either  leaf-mold 
(from  the  woods),  well  pulverized  dry  muck,  sweepings  from  a  paved  street,  stable 
manure  so  rotted  as  to  be  like  pulverized  muck,  or  if  neither  of  these  can  be 
obtained,  any  loamy  soil  will  do;  but  in  every  case  the  material  to  mix  the  fer- 


84  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


tilizers  with  must  be  fairly  dry  and  never  in  a  condition  of  mud — the  meaning  of 
the  operation  being  that  the  material  used  is  to  act  as  a  temporary  absorbent  for 
the  fertilizer.  The  compost  must  be  thoroughly  mixed,  and  if  guano  is  used,  it 
being  sometimes  lumpy,  it  must  be  broken  up  to  dust  before  being  mixed  with  the 
absorbent. 

The  main  object  of  this  operation  Is  for  the  better  separation  and  division  of 
the  fertilizer,  so  that  when  applied  to  the  soil  it  can  be  more  readily  distributed. 
Our  experiments  have  repeatedly  shown  that  this  method  of  using  concentrated 
fertilizers  materially  increases  their  value,  probably  twenty-five  per  cent.  The 
mixing  should  be  done  a  few  months  previous  to  spring,  and  it  should,  after  being 
mixed,  be  packed  away  in  barrels  and  be  kept  in  some  dry  shed  or  cellar  until 
wanted  for  use.  Thus  mixed,  it  is  particularly  beneficial  on  lawns  or  other  grass 
lands.  The  quantity  of  concentrated  fertilizer  to  be  used  is  often  perplexing  to 
beginners.  We  give  the  following  as  the  best  rules  we  know,  all  derived  from  our 
own  experience  in  growing  fruits,  flowers,  and  vegetables: 

Taking  guano  as  a  basis,  we  would  recommend  for  all  vegetable  or  fruit  crops, 
if  earliness  and  good  quality  are  desired,  the  use  of  not  less  than  1,200  pounds 
per  acre  (an  acre  contains  4,840  square  yards,  and  cultivated  for  private  use  any 
one  can  easily  estimate  from  this  the" quantity  they  require  for  any  area),  mixed 
with  two  tons  of  either  of  the  materials  before  mentioned  Of  bone-dust  about 
one  ton  per  acre  should  be  used  mixed  with  three  tons  of  soil  or  other  materials 
named. 

BARN-YARD   MANURE. 

Farm  manures,  as  a  general  rule,  may  be  regarded  as  containing  all  the  essen- 
tial elements  of  plant  food,  hence,  are  complete  fertilizers.  In  this  respect  they 
differ  from  commercial  fertilizers,  any  one  of  which  contains  but  a  portion  of  the 
requisite  elements  appropriated  by  plants  in  their  growth.  Animal  excrement 
was  formerly  almost  the  only  reliance  of  the  farmer  for  replenishing  his  lands, 
he  depending  mainly  for  the  supply  upon  what  was  furnished  by  the  barn-yard, 
'  the  pig-sty,  and  the  sheep-fold;  and  even  these  manures  were  usually  lessened  in 
value  by  being  left  until  wanted  for  use,  where  their  most  valuable  fertilizing  ele- 
ments would  be  leached  out  by  the  rains  and  evaporated  by  the  sun.  The  improve- 
ments  in  the  system  of  agriculture  during  the  last  half  or  quarter  of  a  century, 
while  they  bring  new  aids  to  the  farmer  by  the  use  of  concentrated  fertilizers  of 
various  kinds,  have  furnished  nothing  that  has  caused  this  old  time-honored  fer- 
tilizer to  be  less  valued,  or  less  useful;  but  since  the  old  source  of  supply  is  not  at 
present  sufficient  for  the  demands  of  the  soil  in  crops  produced,  these  furnish 
important  and  valuable  substitutes,  or  rather  are  supplementary  aids  to  that 
which  our  forefathers  depended  upon  principally.  Though  there  has  been  a  great 
improvement  within  a  few  years  with  regard  to  preventing  the  waste  of  stable 
manure  among  farmers  generally  still  there  is  a  great  loss  in  this  respect  on  many 
farms,  which  a  little  pains  taking  and  care  would  prevent.  The  soil  needs  all  the 
manure  that  can  be  made  upon  the  farm,  both  liquid  and  solids,  which,  if  saved 
and  applied  will  result  in  larger  crops,  and  consequently  larger  profits;  hence,  a 
Avaste  of  anything  that  can  increase  the  productiveness  of  the  farm  is  a  loss  in 
money  to  the  farmer.  Among  the  fifty  important  theses  published  by  Liebig  as 
axioms  of  his  theory,  he  says:  In  the  'productions  of  the  field,  through  the  har- 


MANURES  ANL>  THEIR  APPLICATION. 


85 


vests,  a  great  quantity  of. the  elements  of  the  soil  which  have  become  elements  of 
the  plants  is  taken  away  and  removed  from  the  soil;  before  the  sowing,  the  soil 
is  richer  than  after  the  harvest — the  composition  of  the  soil  is  changed  after  the 
harvest.  The  lost  fertility  is  again  restored  by  means  of  manures  (stable  manures), 
excrement  of  man  and  animals. 


POTJLTUY    MANURE 


This  valuable  fertilizer,  and  any  farmer  who  has  been  accustomed  to  neglect 
his  flock  of  hens,  caring  little  or  nothing  for  their  products  or  the  care  they 
received,  would  be  surprised  at  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  guano  thev  manu- 
facture when  properly  fed,  and  which  might  be  utilized  by  being  saved  from  their 


Young  Farmfr^. 


roosting  place.  The  droppings  of  the  poultry  should  be  secured  from  under  their 
roosts  every  few  days  and  mixed  with  earth,  or  with  a  compost,  as  they  are  very 
soluble.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  scatter  a  little  sand  over  the  floor  of  the  hen-house 
every  day  or  two,  which  has  a  tendency  to  keep  the  place  clean.  When  applied 
to  the  soil,  it  should  be  harrowed  in  lightly,  since  the  excrement  of  fowls  contains 
both  the  fceces  and  urine  combined ;  it  is  peculiarly  rich  in  the  fertilizing  elements, 
and  is  considered,  in  this  respect,  next  in  value  to  night  soil.  Poultry  should 
always  be  provided  with  warm  quarters  for  roosting,  and  we  hope  no  farmer  is  so 
far  behind  the  times  in  this  respect,  or  so  inhuman  as  to  adhere  to  the  old  and 


■86  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


"barbarous  custom  of  forcing  hens  to  roost  in  trees,  and  take  care  of  themselves  on 
the  scanty  pittance  they  are  able  to  glean  from  the  barn-yard. 

This  is  the  richest,  most  concentrated  and  most  active  of  all  farm  manures. 
The  food  of  fowls  is  principally  seeds  and  insects,  all  of  which  are  rich  with 
fertilizing  matter.  The  urine  is  evacuated  with  the  excrement,  combining  the 
solid  and  liquid  in  a  profitable  manner.  When  dry,  hen  manure  is  worth  about 
as  much  as  Peruvian  guano,  which  costs  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  dollars  per 
ton.     Unless  kept  perfectly  dry  it  is  rapidly  wasted. 

Probably  the  best  method  of  preserving  is  to  keep  loose  dry  soil  on  the  floor 
in  the  hen-house,  upon  which  the  droppings  will  fall.  Spade  or  fork  this  over 
occasionally,  and  it  soon  becomes  as  rich,  as  a  fertilizer,  as  the  clear  manure. 

Care  must  be  taken  in  applying  this  variety  of  manure,  since  there  is  danger 
in  using  too  much.  It  is  a  very  strong  article  and  comparatively  little  goes  a 
good  ways.  It  may  be  scattered  quite  sparingly,  if  applied  dry.  A  better  method 
is  to  take,  say  half  a  bushel  of  the  manure  as  it  comes  from  the  coop,  put  into  a 
tight  barrel  (an  old  pork  barrel  does  well),  and  then  fill  the  barrel  with  water. 
Stir  it  occasionally,  and  next  evening  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  A  common  sprink- 
ling pot  may  be  used.  For  gardens  this  is  decidely  the  best  farm  manure  that 
can  be  found. 

.  NECESSITY    FOR    CHANGE. 

The  caterer  of  plant  food  finds  that  plants,  like  animals,  are  fond  of  a  variety. 
Barn-yard  manure  is  the  staple  fertilizer,  and,  like  bread  in  the  economy,  makes 
the  best  steady  diet.  But  this  manure  is  better  when  made  up  or  composted  of 
the  excrements  of  different  animals.  Let  a  farmer  feed  a  piece  of  land  with  the 
droppings  of  the  sheep  alone,  or  cows  alone,  for  a  series  of  years,  and  he  will  find 
that  the  effect  is  not  so  great  after  a  time,  and  that  a  little  horse  manure  put  for 
a  change  upon  the  same  land  will  work  wonders.  Night  soil  is  one  of  the  most 
efficient  fertilizers,  and  has  been  much  used  by  market  gardeners  near  our  cities, 
yielding  in  its  first  applications  immense  crops,  but  after  a  time  it  loses  its  mag- 
ical influence;  and  a  market  gardener  once  said  to  us  that  he  was  so  well  convinced 
of  the  necessity  of  a  change  in  plant  food,  even  where  night  soil  was  used,  which 
he  considered  the  best  for  growth  of  vegetables,  that  once  in  the  course  of  six  or 
eight  years  he  would  prefer  a  dressing  of  muck  or  rotted  sods,  or  leaf  mould,  or 
even  good  loam,  to  any  pure  nitrogenous  manure.  A  compost  made  of  nitrogenous 
manure,  salt,  lime,  ashes,  bone-dust,  refuse  vegetables,  and  refuse  of  almost  every 
nature,  will  make  a  fertilizer  of  which  plants  will  not  soon  tire. 

FISH    GUANO,    ETC. 

Fish  have  long  furnished  manure  for  agricultural  purposes  to  this  and  other 
countries,  and  will  probably  continue  to  be  one  of  the  chief  resources  of  supply  for 
the  future,  since  it  is  richer  in  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen,  two  valuable  elements 
of  plant  food.  The  aboriginies  of  our  country  were  acquainted  with  its  value  as 
a  fertilizer,  and  wore  accustomed  to  place  one  or  two  fish  in  a  hill  when  planting 
their  maize,  burying  them  with  seed,  that  their  decomposition  might  enrich  the 
soil  by  the  time  the  seed  had  Avell  started  in  growth.  Tins  practice,  as  well  as  that 
of  plowing  them  into  the  soil,  of  course  involves  much  waste,  as  the  slight  cover- 


MANURES  AND  THEIR  APPLICATION. 


87 


ing  of  earth  would  not  l>c  sufficient  to  retain  the  gases  produced  by  the  decompo- 
sition.    Various  species  of  small  fish  are  used  for  this  purpose,  the  menhaden 


being  used  the 


most  extensively  in  this  country.  The  best  and  only  propermode 
of  using  them  for  a  fertilizer  is  to  first  compost  them  with  dry  earth  or  muck. 
This  should  be  done  by  making  a  compost 
of  alternate  layers  of  fish  and  earth,  one 
above  the  other,  to  the  desired  height,  and 
ooveringthe  pile  at  the  top  with  three  or  four 
feet  of  soil.  The  pile  should  have  about  a 
foot  of  earth  at  the  bottom,  upon  which  a 
layer  of  fish  should  be  spread  from  four  to 
five  inches  deep;  upon  this  a  layer  of  earth 
about  a  foot  deep,  followed  by  another  layer 
of  fish,  and  so  on  till  the  pile  is  complete, 
the  top  to  be  covered  with  a  foot  of  soil. 

As  the  fish  decomposes,  the  soil  acts  as 
an  absorbent  and  deodorizer,  which  is  so 
effectual  that  no  annoyance  will  be  occasion- 
ed by  the  escape  of  any  effluvia  offensive  to 
the  most  fastidious  olfactories.  In  a  few 
weeks,  if  the  Aveather  be  warm,  the  pile  can 
be  shoveled  over  and  thoroughly  mixed  with 
the  earth.  It  may  be  applied  at  any  time  to 
the  soil,  but  should  not  be  left  exposed  to  the 
storms,  as  the  rains  will  leach  out  its  valu- 
able properties;  when  not  intended  for  im- 
mediate use,  it  should,  therefore,  be  kept 
under  a  shed  or  cover  of  some  kind. 

Upon  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  menhaden 
fish  are  used  principally  for  this  purpose 
being  very  abundant  and  furnish  a  large 
portion  of  our  fish  guanos.  The  fish  are 
usually  first  subjected  to  a  process  that  ex- 
tracts a  great  portion  of  the  oil,  and  the 
pomace  is  then  dried  and  ground,  ready  for 
use.  The  flesh  of  fish,  like  that  of  all  do- 
mestic animals,  contains  about  fifteen  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen,  and  a  fish  guano  that  con- 
tains the  largest  amount  of  nitrogen  is,  of 
course,  the  most  valuable.  When  an  undue 
amount  of  heat  is  applied  in  extracting  the 
oil  from  the  fish,  the  guano  is  injured  for 
agricultural  purposes  in  a  proportionate  de- 
gree. Prof.  Goessmann  says:  Nobody  familiar  with  the  nature  of  a  good  fish 
guano  considers  it  less  efficient  for  agricultural  purposes  than  any  other  animal 
refuse  matter  of  a  corresponding  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid'  and  nitrogen. 
In  fact,  all  true  guanos,  the  Peruvian  not  excepted,  owe  their  most  valuable  con- 
stituents, in  a  controlling  degree,  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  fish. 


Menhaden  Fisherman, 


CHAPTER  V. 


Sfllincral  fertilizers 


BY  J.  W.  FITZ. 


IME  is  a  most  important  fertilizer.  On  this  subject  Prof. 
Puryear,  of  Richmond,  Va.,  says:  Lime  and  the  compounds 
of  lime  have  in  all  ages  largely  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
tillers  of  the  soil,  and  opinion  as  to  their  value  and  action 
has  been  various  and  discordant.  Lime  in  the  form  of  its 
carbonate,  a  compound  of  carbonic  acid  and  lime,  constitutes 
about  one-seventh  of  the  rocky  crust  of  the  globe.  If  it  be 
really  valuable,  therefore,  its  value  and  its  great  abundance 
make  it  a  matter  of  the  highest  interest  to  the  farmer.  It  will 
be  our  object  in  this  article  to  show  the  functions  of  lime  in 
vegetable  growth,  and  to  explain  why  in  some  cases  it  satisfies,  and  in  others  disap- 
points, the  hopes  of  the  husbandman. 

(I)  Lime  is  a  constituent  of  the  ash  of  all  plants.  The  amount  of  lime  in 
the  ash  of  plants  varies  with  the  plant,  being  small  in  the  ash  of  the  cereals,  but . 
quite  large  in  the  ash  of  the  grasses  and  of  the  wood  of  trees.  The  amount  in  the 
ash  of  hay  is  22  per  cent.;  in  tobacco  37  per  cent.  Now,  the  substances  that  con- 
stitute the  ash  of  plants  being  solid,  come,  and  come  of  necessity,  from  the  soil. 
They  do  not  exist,  and  cannot  exist,  in  the  atmosphere.  The  same  substances: 
but  in  very  different  proportions,  make  up  the  ash  of  all  plants.  It  may  be  well  to 
mention  them.  They  are  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  oxide  of  iron,  silica, 
chlorine,  sulphuric  and  phosphoric  acids.  In  some  plants,  then,  notably  tobacco, 
the  amount  of  lime  in  their  ash  is  more  than  a  third  of  the  entire  ash,  made  ivp, 
as  it  is,  of  nine  constituents.  Lime,  then,  being  a  part  of  the  ash  of  all  plants,  and 
of  many  a  very  large  part,  is  an  essential  constituent  of  all  fertile  soils. 

(II)  Lime  possesses  caustic  or  disorganizing  properties.  If  we  wrap  up  a  lump 
of  lime  in  a  neAvspaper,  or  in  a  piece  of  cloth,  we  Avill  find  in  a  short  time  on  unwrap- 
ping it,  that  the  cloth  or  paper  will  not  hold  together;  it  falls  into  pieces;  it  is 
rotten,  as  we  say.  So  in  tanning,  the  hair  is  easily  rubbed  from  hides  that  have 
been  duly  steeped  in  a  solution  of  lime. 

In  agriculture  we  make  use  of  this  property  of  lime  in  hastening  the  decom- 
position of  vegetable  matter.  When  a  heavy  sod  is  turned  under,  or  a  heavy  crop 
of  peas,  the  application  of  lime  is  always  indicated.  It  may  perform  both  the  func- 
tions we  have  attributed  to  it,  that  is,  it  may  both  act  as  plant  food  itself,  and  also  rot 
the  vegetable  matter,  which  is  valuable  only  as  it  rots.  When  both  these  objects 
are  accomplished,  the  good  effects  of  the  application  of  lime  will  be  strikingly 
conspicuous.     The  farmer  will  be  exultant  in  the  result  and  enthusiastic  in  his 

(88) 


MINERAL  FERTILIZERS. 


89 


praise.  The  final  issue,  however,  may  abate  the  ardor  of  his  zeal;  perhaps  may 
turn  his  praise  into  malediction.  Let  us  see.  Encouraged  by  the  good  results, 
he  continues  the  application.  The  natural  deficiency  of  the  soil  in  lime  is  satis- 
fied— is  more  than  satisfied.  Hence  the  lime  will  cease  to  supply  a  want,  and  one 
of  the  good  effects  produced  by  the  first  application  will  therefore  vanish.  But  more. 
Lime  has  done  so  well  that  he  thinks  its  continued  application  all  that  is  neces- 
sary to  his  continued  success.  Perhaps  he  cultivates  his  land  every  year,  removes 
the  crops  closely,  allows  no  rest  or  recuperation  in  a  crop  of  grass.  Dazed  hy  suc- 
cess, he  now  falls  into  a  damaging  conclusion.  Again,  let  us  see.  There  is  no 
thick  sod,  no  matted  vines,  to  be  turned  under,  as  he  plows  his  land  for  wheat  or 
corn.  Still  he  puts  on  the  lime,  but  the  soil  now  has  lime  enough,  and  there  is 
but  little  vegetable  matter  to  be  decomposed  by  the  action  of  the  lime.  The  two 
prime  conditions,  under 
which  the  lime  acted  so 
well,  are  now  both  ab- 
sent; of  course  the  good 
results  do  not  appear, 
and  the  man  is  mad — 
mad  with  the  lime,  in- 
stead of  being  mad  with 
himself  for  not  having 
read  the  instructive 
pages  of  "Profitable 
Farming." 

Indeed,  there  are 
cases,  as  might  be  in- 
ferred from  the  fore- 
going remarks,  when 
the  application  of  lime 
is   positively  injurious.  primitive  cooking. 

When  the  soil  has  lime  enough,  and  there  is  very  little  vegetable  matter  to  be 
decomposed,  the  application  of  lime  is  contra-indicated.  Lime,  in  such  a  case, 
would  cause  the  too  rapid  decomposition  of  the  small  amount  of  organic  matter 
in  the  soil,  using  it  up  before  the  crop  is  fully  matured. 

Again,  we  may  say  in  this  connection,  that  the 
natural  guanos  or  the  excrements  of  our  domestic  animals  is  always  injurious. 
If  we  take  a  piece  of  muriate  of  ammonia,  a  compound  of  muriatic  acid  and 
ammonia,  and  triturate  it  in  a  mortar  with  a  little  caustic  lime,  the  pungent  odor 
at  once  perceived  indicates  the  escape  of  that  most  valuable  gas,  ammonia.  What 
has  happened?  The  lime  has  combined  with  the  acid,  and  ammonia  is  set  free 
as  a  gas,  which  being  but  little  more  than  half  as  heavy  as  the  air  rises  and 
escapes.  Now,  the  excrements  of  animals  contain  salts  of  ammonia,  and  lime 
mixed  with  them  sets  free  in  the  same  Avay  the  gas,  ammonia,  which  gives  to 
these  fertilizers  their  chief  value. 

(Ill)  Lime  sometimes  performs  another  important  function.     It  corrects  the 
acidity  of  soils,  just  as  we  use  it  to  correct  the  acidity  of  the  stomach. 

In  the  language  of  chemistry,  acids  and  alkalis  are  antipodal  in  their  effects 
and  relations.     When  an  acid  combines  with  a  base,  a  new  compound  is  formed, 


mixing  of  lime  with  the 


90  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


which  has,  as  a  general  statement,  none  of  the  properties  of  either  of  its  constit- 
uents. When  lime — an  alkali — combines  with  an  acid,  a  neutral  salt  is  formed, 
having  the  properties  neither  of  the  acid  nor  of  lime.  Now  soils  are  frequently 
sour  from  the  presence  of  vegetable  acids.  Soils  permanently  wet  are  always 
sour,  because  the  water  excludes  the  atmosphere  and  so  prevents  the  complete 
decomposition  of  the  vegetable  matter.  Vegetable  acids,  under  such  circum- 
stances, are  formed  out  of  the  elements  of  the  organic  matter,  which  undergoes 
only  partial  decomposition  in  consequence  of  the  exclusion  by  water  of  atmospheric 
oxygen.     These  acids  are  injurious  to  the  crops  we  generally  cultivate. 

The  only  permanent  remedy  is  thorough  drainage,  by  which  Ave  get  rid  of  the 
excess  of  water,  and  as  the  soil  shrinks  and  cracks-,  air  finds  access,  the  organic 
matter  is  completely  decomposed,  and  so  these  acids  are  no  longer  formed.  When 
a  marsh  is  drained,  therefore,  the  atmosphere  itself  would  correct  the  acidity  of 
the  soil,  but  not  at  once.  WTe  wish  to  get  the  benefit  the  first  year  of  the  expense 
incurred  in  draining.  The  application  of  lime  will  surely  accomplish  this  result, 
combining  with  and  neutralizing  the  free  acids  as  it  sinks  through  the  soil,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  decomposing  the  large  amount  of  vegetable  matter  which  has 
been  so  long  accumulating  in  such  localities. 

LIMESTONE    AND    LIME. 

The  following  article,  from  the  "American  Agriculturist,"  is  the  best  on  this 
subject  that,  in  the  author's  opinion,  can  be  written:  Limestone,  in  agriculture,  is 
the  rock  ground  into  powder.  Lime  is  the  same  burned  in  a  kiln.  Limestone  is 
a  most  widely  distributed  mineral,  one  of  its  purest  forms  being  known  as  marble, 
and  is  found  almost  all  over  the  United  States,  of  various  qualities  and  degrees 
of  purity. 

It  is  a  carbonate  of  lime;  that  is,  lime  combined  with  carbonic  acid.  If  a 
fragment  of  limestone  is  placed  in  a  glass  of  water  and  a  little  strong  acid  is  added, 
the  carbonic  acid  is  set  free,  and  we  see  it  pass  off  as  bubbles  rising  through  the 
water.  Limestone  is  so  slightly  dissolved  by  water  that  it  is  tasteless.  It  takes 
one  thousand  six  hundred  parts  of  water  to  dissolve  one  part  of  limestone.  Water 
in  which  there  is  much  carbonic  acid  dissolves  a  considerable  amount  of  carbonate 
of  lime.  If  a  small  piece  of  limestone  be  kept  at  a  strong  red  heat  for  some  hours 
it  will  be  only  half  as  heavy  as  the  original  stone.  What  has  it  lost  in  the  burn- 
ing? If  tested  with  acid,  as  before,  no  bubbles  of  gas  will  be  given  off.  The  heat 
has  driven  out  all  the  carbonic  acid;  it  is  no  longer  a  carbonate  of  lime,  but  simply 
lime  (an  oxide  of  the  metal  calcium  or  calic  oxide,  as  the  chemist  have  it). 
Limestone  burned  in  kilns  produces  lime  often  called  quicklime.  If  a  lump  of 
freshly  burned  lime  have  water  gradually  put  upon  it,  it  soon  becomes  hot,  and  in 
a  little  while  it  swells  up,  cracks  and  falls  into  a  very  white  powder;  though  much 
water  has  been  added,  the  powder  is  quite  dry.  The  water  has  united  with  the 
lime,  making  a  solid  caustic  or  slacked  lime.  Lime  exposed  takes  up  moisture 
from  the  air,  and  we  have  air-slacked  lime.  Slacked  lime,  with  enough  water, 
forms  whitewash  or  "milk  of  lime."  On  standing,  the  greater  part  of  the  lime 
will  settle,  leaving  clear  lime-water — a  saturated  solution  of  lime;  that  is,  the 
water  has  taken  up  all  it  can  dissolve,  for  at  ordinary  temperature  it  requires  sev- 
eral hundred  parts  of  water  to  dissolve  one  part  of  quicklime. 


< 

z 


(91} 


92 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


If  clear  lime  water  be  placed  in  a  glass  and  with  a  straw  or  pipe-stem  the 
breath  be  forced  into  it,  the  lime  water  will  soon  become  cloudy  and  then  milky. 
Set  the  glass  aside  and  a  fine  white  powder  will  settle  at  the  bottom  leaving  the 
water  clear  above.  The  breath  contains  carbonic  acid,  this  when  forced  into  the 
lime  water,  unites  with  the  lime,  forming  carbonate,  the  same  as  unburned  lime- 
stone which,  being  little  soluble,  separates  as  a  white  powder.  If  we  continue  to 
breathe  into  the  lime  water  after  it  has  become  milky,  it  will  soon  become  perfectly 
clear  as  at  the  start.  The  continued  breathing  supplies  more  carbonic  acid  than 
is  needed  to  convert  the  lime  into  an  insoluble  carbonate.  The  excess  of  carbonic 
acid  in  the  water  re-dissolves  the  carbonate.  Heating  this  solution  drives  off  the 
carbonic  acid  and  the  carbonate  of  lime  will  be  deposited  again.  Carbonic  acid 
is  always  present  in  the  atmosphere,  and  when  slacked  lime  is  long  exposed,  it 
takes  up  this  acid  and  slowly  becomes  carbonate  of  lime. 

QUICKLIME    UPON    LAND. 


The  reason  we  use  quicklime  upon  land  is  that  all  cultivated  plants  contain 
lime  in  their  ashes,  and  it  is  considered  necessary  to  their  proper  growth.     But 

soils  generally  contain 
enough  lime  for  the  use 
of  the  plants,  and  we 
apply  it  for  its  action 
upon  the  other  constit- 
uents of  the  soil,  and 
acids  in  converting 
them  into  forms  in 
which  they  can  be  taken 
up  by  the  plants,  espe- 
cially in  liberating  pot- 
ash from  its  combina- 
tions. The  effect  of  lime 
upon  the  mechanical 
condition  of  the  soil  is 
an  important  feature. 
Upon  heavy  clay  soils 
its  effect  is  most  mark- 
ed ;  the  particles  lose 
leading 
ground. 


Hot  Water  Reservoir  and  Warming  Oven,  1875. 


their  adhesiveness  and  allow  air.  and  water  to  enter.  These  are  the 
effects  that  follow  the  use  of  lime.  In  view  of  the  claims  made  for 
unburned  limestone,  it  is  an  important  question  how  far  it  can  produce  the 
above  effects.  The  unburned  limestone  will'  supply  the  demands  of  the  plant 
for  lime;  that  it  may  slowly  neutralize  organic  acids  and  help  the  mechanical 
texture  of  the  soil,  seems  very  probable.  But  that  it  will  perform  one  of  the  most 
important  offices,  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  and  convert  that 
into  plant  food,  seems  improbable,  because  the  ability  of  lime  to  do  this  depends 
in  a  great  measure  upon  its  avidity  for  carbonic  acid,  while  limestone,  being 
already  a  carbonate,  has  no  need  of  more.  That  limestone  cannot  produce  all  the 
effects  of  lime  is  shown  by  the  well-known  fact  that  soils  underlaid  by  limestone.. 


MINERAL  FERTILIZERS.  U3 


and  naturally  containing  a  large  proportion  of  finely  divided  carbonate  of  lime, 
are  as  much  benefited  by  the  use  of  quicklime  as  are  soils  deficient  in  limestone. 

In  addition  to  the  preceding  remarks  on  lime  and  its  uses,  which  will  doubt- 
less be  appreciated,  as  lime  is  an  important  factor  in  the  successful  treatment  of 
all  soils,  we  will  give  some  valuable  opinions  and  views  by  John  A.  Read,  author 
of  "  Farming  for  Profit." 

Although  the  use  of  lime  is  considered  by  many  .armers  and  by  some  agri- 
cultural writers  as  the  very  foundation  of  successful  farm  business,  it  is  by  others 
believed  to  be  useless,  if  not  actually  injurious.  We  do  not  think  it  is  as  valu- 
able as  it  has  many  times  been  called,  but  believe  it  may,  in  many  sections,  be 
very  useful.  As  far  as  the  feeding  of  plants  is  concerned,  we  consider  its  appli- 
cation of  not  much  use — certainly  so  on  all  soils  of  granite  or  of  limestone  forma- 
tion. Only  a  very  small  quantity  of  lime  is  used  by  plants,  and  enough  to  supply 
their  wants  can  be  found  in  almost  any  soil.  But  it  often  proves  a  great  aid  to 
the  farmer  by  hastening  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter  which  is  already  in  the 
land,  but  in  a  condition  in  Avhich  it  is  unavailable  for  plant  food.  It  thus  fur- 
nishes nitrogen,  and  by  breaking  up  and  fining  the  coarser  particles  of  soil,  libe- 
rates the  mineral  elements  which  crops  require.  Upon  soils  which  contain  too 
much  acid  and  produce  sorrel  and  other  weeds  better  than  they  do  corn  and  wheat, 
lime  is  especially  useful,  as  it  corrects  the  acidity  and  fits  the  land  for  the  produc- 
tion of  useful  plants.  The  idea  which  many  have  that  lime  exhausts  the  soil  is 
not  supported  either  by  theory  or  practice.  When  properly  applied,  lime  will 
work  such  changes  in  the  soil  as  will  make  the  fertilizing  elements  immediately 
available,  but  will  not  allow  their  escape  in  air.  The  crops  will  be  larger,  and 
large  crops  to  Avhich  no  real  plant  food  has  been  applied  always  means  exhaustion 
to  the  soil.  But  in  such  cases  the  exhaustion  is  caused  by  the  crops,  of  which  the 
farmer  has  the  full  benefit. 

Lime  should  always  be  sown  upon  the  surface,  never  plowed  in.  It  sinks 
in  the  soil  and  should  be  only  slightly  covered,  or  not  covered  at  all.  We  strongly 
favor  using  small  quantities  at  frequent  intervals.  Ten  bushels  per  acre  oh  ordi- 
nary soils  is  enough  to  begin  Avith.  If  the  effect  is  favorable,  the  same  or  a  larger 
application  can  be  made  in  tAvo  or  three  years. 

Upon  soils  Avhich  are  badly  worn  and  contain  but  little  organic  matter,  lime 
should  be  used  quite  sparingly,  if  at  all,  while  on  land  containing  large  quantities 
of  organic  matter  it  can  be  applied  more  freely.  Shell  lime  is  considered  the  best, 
but  in  many  sections  cannot  be  obtained  except  at  great  cost  for  transportation. 
When  stone  lime  is  used,  the  purest  kind  should  be  obtained.  It  should  be  slacked 
with  salt  Avater  before  being  applied,  except  in  those  cases  in  Avhich  it  is  used 
merely  to  decompose  organic  matter  in  the  soil.  For  this  purpose  it  may  be  applied 
Avithout  slacking. 

LIME    IN    CROPS. 

Limestone  soils  are  far  more  fertile  and  lasting  than  sandy  or  freestone  lands. 
The  reason  is,  that  all  crops  require  more  or  less  of  lime,  while  sand  is  of  very  little 
use  for  crop  food.  Besides,  all  limestone,  which  is  the  base  rock  in  limestone 
lands,  always  contains  seAreral  other  original  elements  in  addition  to  lime,  such  as 
manganese,  sulphur,  magnesia,  soda,  &c,  Avhich  are  continually  disintegrating 
and,  by   percolation,    reneAving  the    dirt  aboAre  the  rocks  AArith  these    elements. 


(94) 


Three  Friends  on  the  Farm. 


MINERAL  FERTILIZERS.  95 


There  is  comparatively  little  of  any  one  element  taken  from  the  soil  in  the  pro- 
duction of  Our  crops.  Professor  Caldwell,  before  the  Elmira  Farmers'  Club  of 
New  York,  gives  the  amount  of  lime  required  for  some  of  the  most  common 
staples,  as  follows: 

The  total  quantity  of  lime. taken  up  from  the  soil  of  an  acre  by  an  average 
corn  crop  of  fifty  bushels  of  sixty  pounds  to  the  bushel,  and  0,000  pounds  of  stover, 
would  not  exceed  twenty-live  pounds.  A  good  crop  of  clover,  5,000  pounds  of  hay 
in  two  cuts,  would  require  about  120  pounds  of  lime.  A  crop  of  wheat  of  twenty- 
five  bushels,  with  2.">(>0  pounds  of  straw,  would  not  require  more  than  ten  pounds. 
A  fair  crop  of  potatoes,  9,000  pounds  or  150  bushels  at  00  pounds  to  the  bushel, 
would  not  need  more  than  three  pounds.  A  crop  of  20,000  pounds  of  beets  only 
seven  pounds,  and  of  3,000  pounds  of  timothy  hay  about  thirty-four  pounds  of 
lime.  When  Ave  look  a  little  further  into  the  matter,  and  see  how  small  a  propor- 
tion of  the  lime  is  actually  exported  from  the  farm  in  the  crops  ordinarily  sold,  and 
how  large  a  proportion  goes  back  to  the  soil  from  which  it  came  in  the  manure, 
the  little  need  of  taking  pains  to  supply  lime  to  plants  for  food  will  become  still 
more  plainly  apparent.  On  any  well  managed  farm  the  hay  is  all  eaten  by  the 
stock  so  that  none  of  the  lime  in  that  part  of  the  produce  of  the  farm  is  exported ;  what 
little  is  retained  by  the  young  growing  animals  for  the  production  of  bone  substance 
is  more  than  made  good  by  the  lime  in  the  water  which  the  animals  drink ;  in  cases 
where  a  careful  comparison  has  been  made  between  the  composition  of  the  manure 
of  a  mixed  herd  of  cattle  more  lime  has  been  found  in  the  total  manure  than  in 
the  total  fodder  supplied  and  this  excess  could  have  been  derived  from  no  other 
source  than  the  water.  (This  must  apply  to  limestone  regions).  The  lime  in 
the  clover  and  timothy  is  not  then  lost  to  the  farm  if  the  manure  is  cared  for  in 
any  ordinary  manner;  the  same  is  true  of  wheat  and  other  straws,  of  the  corn- 
stalks and  the  roots.  But  in  the  acre's  yield  of  Indian  corn,  taking  the  grain 
alone,  there  is  only  about  twro  pounds  of  lime  and  in  wheat  but  little  more  than 
one  pound.  In  the  other  cereal  grains  Ave  should  have  similar  insignificant 
quantities  of  lime  and  if  the  potatoes  are  sold  off  the  farm  as  is  often  the  case  to 
the  large  extent  of  only  three  pounds.  At  these  rates  of  demand  it  would  take 
a  long  time  to  make  much  impression  on  the  reserve  supply  of  lime  in  the  soil 
when  such  reserves  amount  to  from  1,600  to  2,000  pounds. 


GYPSUM    OR    PLASTER. 

The  following  by  Professor  B.  Puryear,  LL.  D.,  gives  us  a  very  clear  idea  of  this 
question :  There  is  another  compound  of  lime,  to  which  we  will  briefly  invite  atten- 
tion, to-wit:  Gypsum.  This  is  the  sulphate  of  lime.  It  contains  46  per  cent,  of  sul- 
phuric acid  in  combination  with  33  per  cent,  of  lime,  and  besides  21  per  cent,  of 
water  existing  as  the  water  of  crystallization.  An  ocular  demonstration  of  the 
value  of  gypsum  as  a  fertilizer  is  said  to  have  been  made  many  years  ago  by  a 
farmer  writing  with  his  cane  in  his  freshly  sown  wheat-field,  in  large  letters,  the 
words:  "  See  the  effects  of  gypsum,"  filling  up  with  gypsum  the  little  trenches 
formed  in  making  the  letters  and  then  leveling  them  off.  In  the  spring  the 
passer-by  saw  from  the  road  the  wheat  spelling,  "See  the  effects  of  gypsum,"  and 
attracting  attention  in  consequence  of  being  conspicuously  taller  there  than  else- 
where. 


96 


PKOFITABLE  FARMING. 


How  and  when  gypsum  is  valuable  are  matters  of  diverse  and  conflicting 
opinion.  The  action  of  gypsum  is  the  pons  asinorum  of  scientific  agriculture. 
Some  things,  however,  which  will  not  admit  of  dispute,  may  be  said. 

(1)  Both  the  constituents  of  gypsum,  sulphuric  acid  and  lime,  are  found  in 
the  ash  of  all  plants,  and  the  ash  of  plants  comes  only  from  the  soil.  Now,  if  a 
soil  should  be  deficient  in  both  these  constituents,  the  application  of  gypsum, 
supplying  two  wants,  would  produce  excellent  results  and  elicit  the  warm  support 
and  hearty  praise  of  the  farmer.  But  another  farmer  using  it  on  land,  which 
needed  neither  sulphuric  acid  nor  lime,  would  fail  to  see  any  benefit  and  condemn 

it  as  a  fertilizer.  Here 
are  two  opinions,  both 
right  and  both  wrong. 
The  first  farmer  thinks 
it  good  for  his  land, 
and  so  it  is,  so  long  as 
the  natural  deficiency 
of  his  soil  in  sulphu- 
ric acid  and  lime  is  not 
fully  satisfied ;  but  of 
course  it  is  but  little 
worth  when  this  con- 
dition is  attained,  or  has 
never  existed.  The  sec- 
ond erroneously  infers 
because  it  is  not  remu- 
nerative on  his  lands, 
it  is  worthless  on  all 
lands. 

(2)  The  most  marked  effects  of  gypsum  are  seen  when  it  is  applied  to  the 
grasses  and  for  a  reason  which  has  already  been  hinted  at.  The  heaviest  demand 
of  the  grasses  upon  the  soil  is  for  lime,  and  gypsum  meets  this  demand.  Gypsum 
applied  to  a  crop  needing  lime  but  little  would  not  produce  such  obvious  effects 
from  the  simple  fact  that  the  crop  can  get  sufficient  lime  from  the  unhelped  soil. 
The  only  safe  way  to  determine  the  agricultural  value  of  gypsum  is  to  use  it  on 
alternating  strips  of  land  planted  or  sowed  in  different  crops,  and  noting,  in  each 
case,  the  comparative  effects.  It  is  very  cheap,  and  experiments  conducted  in 
this  way  would  soon  tell  the  farmer  when  and  where  to  use  it. 

(3)  But,  no  doubt,  the  chief  effects  of  gypsum  are  due  to  a  cause  yet  to  be 
mentioned.  We  send  our  ships,  at  least  we  used  to  do  it,  thousands  of  miles, 
doubling  Cape  Horn,  to  the  western  coast  of  South  America,  for  guano,  and 
farmers  found  it  profitable  to  buy  it  at  from  $60  to  $90  per  ton.  Now,  guano  is 
so  valuable  chiefly  for  the  ammonia  it  contains.  But  the  ammonia  which  these 
guanos  contain  is  ammonia  in  combination,  and  mixed  besides  with  other  mate- 
rial worth  little  or  nothing.  Why  is  ammonia  so  valuable  to  plants?  Because 
it  is  the  source  of  their  nitrogen.  It  is  a  compound  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen. 
The  supply  of  the  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen  of  plants  is  abundant.  The 
carbonic  acid  gas  and  aqueous  vapor  of  the  atmosphere  furnish  these  three 
elements  to  an  unlimited  extent.     But  the  supply  of  nitrogen  is  scant  and  preca- 


Portable  Range,  A.  D.  1875. 


Happy  Boyhood 


98  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


rious;  at  least,  it  is  somewhat  obscure.  Again,  the  compounds  of  plants  that 
contain  nitrogen,  the  nitrogenous  compounds  briefly,  are  the  only  parts  which 
are  capable  of  assimilation,  and  conversion  into  the  vital  tissues  of  animals. 
Wheat,  for  instance,  contains  woody  fibre,  starch,  sugar,  gum  and  gluten.  All 
these  compounds  except  gluten  are  hydro-carbons,  that  is,  they  are  made  up  of 
carbon  and  the  elements  of  water;  but  gluten  contains  nitrogen  in  addition,  and 
is  identical  in  composition  with  the  nerves  and  muscles  of  animals.  Brought  to 
the  liquid  state  by  the  solvent  action  of  the  secretions  employed  in  digestion,  the 
gluten  streams  with  the  vital  current  through  our  tissues,  which  pick  it  out  to 
repair  their  constant  waste,  and  assimilate  it  as  a  part  of  their  own  substance. 
The  gluten  that  we  eat  in  wheat  then  and  in  all  other  vegetable  forms  reappears  in 
the  body  as  nerves  and  muscles.  Not  so,  however,  with  the  fibre,  starch,  sugar, 
gum,  the  hydro-carbons.  They  do  not  remain  in  the  body;  they  do  not  become 
a  part  of  the  body.  They  are  only  burnt  off,  maintaining  animal  heat,  and  escape 
back  into  the  atmosphere  from  the  lungs  and  skin  as  carbonic  acid  and  water.  The 
value  then  of  ammonia  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  it  is  the  source  of  the  nitrogen 
of  plants,  and  by  the  further  fact  that  plants  must  have  nitrogen  to  form  the  only 
compound  they  contain  that  is  capable  of  conversion  into  the  vital  tissues  of  the 
animal.     Hence  the  high  price  of  all  fertilizers  containing  the  salts  of  ammonia. 

Now,  ammonia  is  always  forming  as  the  result  of  the  decomposition  of  all 
organic  substances  that  contain  nitrogen.  Being  much  lighter  than  air,  its 
tendency  is  to  rise,  and  frequently  it  does  rise,  and  mingle  with  the  general  atmos- 
phere. It  is  endowed,  however,  with  a  wonderful  property  which  largely  coun- 
teracts this  tendency.  Water  absorbs  700  times  its  volume  of  ammonia.  When 
we  see  a  quart  of  hartshorn  or  aqua  amnionic,  we  have,  if  the  water  be  saturated, 
nearly  two  hundred  gallons  of  the  gas,  ammonia,  imprisoned  in  a  quart  bottle. 
People  talk  a  great  deal  about  ammonia,  but  mortal  eye  has  never  seen  it.  We 
can  make  the  invisible  gas,  ammonia,  and  learn  its  properties  by  experiment,  but 
we  cannot  see  it.  People  talk  flippantly  about  ammonia,  and  would  maintain 
that  they  had  often  seen  and  handled  it.  Not  so;  they  have  only  seen  and  handled 
its  salts,  as  the  solids,  the  sulphate,  the  nitrate  and  the  muriate  of  ammonia. 

When  ammonia  is  liberated  in  the  soil  as  the  result  of  the  decomposition  of 
vegetable  matter,  or  of  putrescent  manures,  it  is  not  so  liable,  as  many  think,  to 
rise  by  its  levity  and  lose  itself  in  the  atmosphere.  Nature  'does  not  so  bungle 
her  work.  The  water  of  the  soil  absorbs  it  and  so  arrests  its  escape,  and  when 
this  water  enters  the  plant,  the  ammonia  goes  with  it.  But  ammonia  does  escape, 
and  sometimes  to  a  wasteful  extent,  from  our  horse  stalls  and  manure  piles,  and 
also  from  the  dry  soil.  Now,  as  ammonia  is  a  matter  of  so  much  importance  to 
the  farmer,  whether  he  considers  its  scant  and  precarious  source  of  supply,  or  its 
necessary  presence  in  the  soil  for  furnishing  to  plants  the  nitrogen  required  for 
the  formation  of  their  most  important  compound,  it  is  obvious  that  any  device 
which  will  catch  and  hold  all  the  ammonia  that  is  formed  on  his  field  or  farm  pen 
will  be  greatly  welcomed.  Such  a  device,  cheap  and  simple,  is  gypsum.  Let  us 
see.  Go  into  your  stable  on  a  warm  spring  morning.  The  pungent  odor  that 
greets  your  nose  is  due  to  ammonia.  But  a  test  better  than  your  nose  will  show 
that  ammonia  is  rising  and  escaping.  A  feather  dipped  in  muriatic  acid  will  be 
wreathed  with  a  thick  white  smoke,  the  fumes  of  muriate  of  ammonia.  If,  how- 
ever, the  stalls  or  manure  piles  be  constantly  sprinkled  with  gypsum,  neither  of 


MINERAL  FERTILIZERS. 


S9 


these  tests  will  ever  indicate  the  presence  of  ammonia  in  the  atmosphere  of  your 
stable  or  over  your  manure  pile.  Why?  Because  the  sulphate  of  Lime  is  decom- 
posed by  the  ammonia,  the  sulphuric  acid  leaving  the  lime  and  combining  with 

the  ammonia,  funning  sulphate  of  ammonia,  which  being  a  solid  cannot  rise  and 
escape  into  the  atmosphere. 

We  say,  then,  that  sulphate  of  lime  fixes  ammonia,  the  most  costly  of  fertil- 
izing constituents,  and  in  doing  this  presents  to  plants  in  the  form  of  soluble  sul- 
phate of  ammonia,  the  purest  and  most  valuable  plant  food. 

When  sown  upon  grass,  sulphate  of  lime,  or  gypsum,  will  arrest  and  fix  the 
ammonia  likely  to  es- 
cape from  the  top  dress- 
ing of  manure  now  dry, 
or  from  vegetable  mat- 
ter slowdy  but  constant- 
ly decomposing  in  the 
soil,  and  at  the  same 
time  furnish  lime  so 
much  demanded  by  the 
grasses,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  sulphuric  acid, 
needed  but  not  so  large- 
ly as  lime,  in  the  now 
soluble  form  of  sulphate 
of  ammonia. 

The  application  of 
this  subject  in  other  di- 
rections  might  be  easily  Gasoline  Vapor  Stove-  a-  d-  1878- 

shown  but  the  article  has  already  grown  beyond  our  expectation,  and  hence  we 
must  here  close  without  additional  remarks. 


MARL. 


Marl  is  soil  containing  clay,  carbonate  of  lime,  sand,  and  sometimes  sulphate 
and  phosphate  of  lime,  differing  in  its  composition  in  different  localities,  some 
containing  more  or  less  of  these  ingredients  than  others.  It  is  often  applied  to 
lands  to  increase  their  fertility,  the  lime  it  contains  being  the  most  essential  ele- 
ment. When  it  is  found  in  the  proximity  of,  or  lying  under  sandy  or  peaty  soils, 
its  application  in  large  quantities  is  attended  with  the  best  effects.  It  is  adapted 
to  all  soils  that  have  not  already  a  sufficient  supply  of  lime.  It  is  especially  adapted 
to  grass  and  clover.  The  clay  marl  produces  the  best  effect  on  light,  sandy  soils, 
and  the  sandy  marl  on  clay  and  heavy  soils.  It  is  better  to  be  well  exposed  to  the 
sun  and  air  before  applying  it  to  any  kind  of  soil.  The  green  sand  marl,  of  which 
there  are  extensive  beds  in  New  Jersey  and  in  Virginia,  contains  a  large  amount 
of  potash,  besides  lime,  magnesia,  sulphuric  acid,  phosphoric  acid,  silica,  and 
various  other  substances,  and  is  a  valuable  fertilizer.  It  has  long  been  a  staple 
manure  in  those  States,  and  in  many  localities  is  easily  excavated.  It  seems  espe- 
cially adapted  to  the  use  of  vegetation  as  plant  food,  its  application  having  a 
speedy  effect.     The  result  of  its  use  is  seen  in  a  remarkable  degree  in  the  improve- 


100  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


ment  of  the  light,  sandy  soils  of  Eastern  New  Jersey,  where  large  tracts  of  sandy 
and  almost  worthless  lands  have  been  transformed  into  a  garden.  It  must  be 
applied  in  large  quantities,  often  several  tons  to  the  acre,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
best  results,  and  then  furnishes  potash  and  other  fertilizing  properties  with  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  permanency. 

COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS. 

The  question  often  asked  by  the  farmer  is,  Do  commercial  fertilizers  pay  ?  In 
other  words,  is  the  amount  expended  in  artificial  fertilizers  realized  in  benefit  to 
the  crops  ?  In  answering  this  question,  many  considerations  must  of  necessity 
be  taken  into  account.  They  may  be  very  beneficial  and  well  repay  the  expendi- 
ture involved  in  increasing  the  quantity  and  often  the  quality  of  the  crops,  or  they 
may  result  in  a  serious  loss  to  the  farmer,  with  an  injury  to  the  soil,  much  depend- 
ing upon  the  kind  and  quantity  used  and  the  manner  of  using.  In  the  use  of  all 
fertilizers,  the  needs  of  the  soil  and  requirements  of  the  crop  to  be  produced  must 
be  taken  into  account;  it  must  also  be  properly  applied.  If  a  farmer  expends 
large  sums  of  money  for  phosphoric  acid  and  applies  it  to  the  soil,  when  nitrogen 
is  what  that  soil  needs  in  producing  the  desired  crop,  disappointment  will  be  the 
result;  or,  if  he  supplies  to  a  soil  nitrogen  when  phosphoric  acid  is  the  element 
needed,  the  result  will  be  no  more  satisfactory  than  the  former;  or,  as  is  often  the 
case,  if  too  small  a  quantity  of  the  proper  kind  be  applied  to  produce  any  change 
in  the  productive  capacity  of  the  land,  or  if  an  unwarranted  amount  of  certain 
kinds  be  used  and  in  a  short  time  it  exhausts  certain  elements  of  the  soil,  with 
other  undesirable  results — in  either  of  these  cases  the  fault  would  not  be  with  the 
fertilizer  itself,  but  with  the  lack  of  skill  in  the  one  who  selected  and  applied  it. 
Soils  widely  differ  in  their  capacity  for  supplying  crops  with  plant  food,  and  cor- 
respondingly in  their  demands  for  aid  from  fertilizers;  some  soils  will,  conse- 
quently, give  the  best  results  with  one  kind  of  fertilizer,  and  others  with  another 
kind,  while  others  still  will  not  respond  to  any  application  whatever  until  the  con- 
ditions are  changed,  which  can  only  be  effected  b}r  suitable  drainage,  irrigation, 
the  use  of  lime,  or  proper  tillage. 

In  order  to  attain  the  highest  results  in  agriculture,  as  with  everything  else, 
we  must  make  use  of  the  right  materials  in  the  right  place;  and  if  artificial  fer- 
tilizers are  thus  used,  they  cannot  bring  results  otherwise  than  satisfactory,  pro- 
viding the  season  and  other  circumstances  be  favorable.  The  world-renowned 
experiments  at  Rothamsted,  England,  by  Mr.  Lawes,  embracing  a  period  of  over 
forty  years,  besides  those  from  other  noted  scientific  agriculturists  covering  a 
more  limited  space  of  time — all  prove  conclusively  that  artificial  fertilizers,  when 
rightly  used,  will  prove  the  most  potent  aids  in  agriculture,  and  that,  the  only 
means  of  determining  what  a  soil  needs  is  to  study  it  by  careful  observation  and 
experiment.  In  making  this  statement  favorable  to  artificial  fertilizers,  we  do 
not  wish  to  be  understood  as  recommending  them  as  substituting  entirely  the 
various  farm  manures  that  the  farmer  has  recourse  to  in  improving  his  lands  and 
crops;  we  do  not  recommend  them  as  supplanting,  but  supplementing  the  farm 
manure.  We  think  it  would  be  a  very  poor  policy  indeed  for  any  farmer  to  allow 
the  farm  manure  to  go  to  waste,  and  expend  money  for  commercial  fertilizers. 
We  believe  in  using  all  the  available  wastes  of  the  farm  possible  for  manure  (the 


MINERAL  FERTILIZERS. 


101 


for  him  to 

■ 


compost  heap,  cesspool,  privy  vault,  ashes,  old.  bones,  and  everything  that  can 
add  to  that  best  of  all  fertilizers,  stable  manure,)  to  aid  in  furnishing  plant  food 
to  crops.  It  would  be  poor  economy  for  a  farmer  to  neglect  to  gather  his  own 
crops  and  buy  of  his  neighbor,  and  it  would  be  equally  poor  economy 
neglect  to  make  use  of  his  farm 
manure,  and  buy  commercial 
manures  to  take  their  place.  The 
poor  farm  management  in  the 
one  case  would  be  equal  to  that 
of  the  other.  We  simply  advise 
that  the  farmer  use  the  artificial 
fertilizers  to  supplement  or  help 
out,  as  it  were,  the  farm  manure, 
as  most  farms  require  more  ma- 
nure than  the  farm  furnishes  for 
keeping  them  up  in  their  best 
condition  in  soil,  and  giving  the 
best  results  in  crops.  It  is  thought 
by  many  of  our  leading  agricul- 
turists that  a  liberal  supply  of 
barn-yard  manure  increases  the 
effect  of  the  commercial  fertili- 
zers, and  vice  versa,  when  the 
two  are  used  together. 

There  are  cases  where  half- 
dressing  has  produced  good  ef- 
fect and  but  little  profit,  while  a 
full  dressing  would  have  produced 
a  paving  crop.  A  plant  must  be 
well  fed  to  do  its  best.  We  may 
feed  a  cow  a  little  more  than  she 
needs  for  mere  existence,  and 
get  a  fair  quantity  of  milk,  with- 
out being  enough  to  furnish  profit 
on  the  value  of  the  food  consum- 
ed and  the  labor;  a  little  more 
food  may  increase  the  yield  to  a 
degree  which  shall  amply  remu- 
nerate.' It  is  just  so  with  feed- 
ing the  plant.     The  man  who 


After  the  CRors  are  Gathered. 

starves  his  field  is  as  unwise  as  the  man  who 


starves  his  cow.  Enough  food  for  a  cow  is  proper;  more  than  enough  is  waste. 
Enough  food  for  the  plant,  in  the  dung  or  fertilizer,  should  be  used,  but  no  more. 
It  takes  an  observant  man  to  strike  the  happy  mean  of  plant  feeding — the  giving 
of  an  ample  but  neither  a  too  great  nor  too  small  supply  for  profit.  First  get  the 
land  to  its  maximum  condition  of  fertility;  then  calculate  the  amount  of  plant 
food  removed  by  the  last  crop,  and  apply  that  amount  to  the  field  in  order  to  grow 
the  next  crop.  This  is  a  practical  and  useful  direction  which  every  farmer  ought 
to  educate  himself  to  apply. 


102  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Much  has  already  been  said  upon  the  importance  of  the  subject  of  manures, 
but  too  much  cannot  be  said  upon  a  subject  which  is  the  very  bed-rock  of  agri- 
culture.    The  more  it  is  investigated  the  more  important  it  becomes. 

SALT. 

In  Great  Britain  the  use  of  salt  as  a  fertilizer  is  extensive,  while  in  this  coun- 
try some  prejudice  exists.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  incomplete  trial,  and  the 
erroneous  idea  that  it  kills  every  green  thing  it  touches.  Its  benefits  may  be 
summarized : 

1.  It  keeps  land  cool  and  moist,  being  more  of  an  absorbent  than  fertilizer 
proper. 

2.  It  neutralizes  drouth. 

3.  It  exterminates  all  soil  vermin. 

4.  It  is  said  to  prevent  potato  rot. 

5.  It  glazes  and  stiffens  straw,  preventing  crinkling  and  rust. 

6.  It  keeps  the  soil  in  such  condition  that  the  berry  of  all  kinds  of  grain  fills 
plumply,  regardless  of  hot,  dry  weather. 

Experimenters  differ  as  to  quantity  necessary  to  secure  the  above  results. 
From  one  to  six  bushels  per  acre,  applied  when  the  grain  is  a  few  inches  high, 
each  spring  for  three  years,  and  then  seed  to  grass,  are  recommended.  Eight 
bushels  to  the  acre  have  been  used  profitably,  but  on  the  majority  of  soils  one- 
half  that  quantity  is  probably  sufficient,  and  one-eighth  better  than  none  at  all. 
On  grass  and  on  all  the  grains  there  is  no  shadow  of  doubt  but  that  a  liberal  top- 
dressing  of  salt  is  highly  valuable.  A  mixture  of  one  part  of  salt  to  four  of  wood 
ashes,  applied  a  handful  to  the  hill,  will  make  corn  thrive  and  keep  away  crows, 
squirrels,  and  pests  of  the  soil  generally. 

APPLICATION    OF   THE    SUBJECT. 

All  successful  farmers  must  learn,  first,  from  the  appearance  of  the  crop  to 
judge  what  the  soil  needs;  and  second,  to  learn  the  cheapest  and  most  direct  way 
to  supply  that  want. 

If  the  crop  has  a  pale  green  color,  bordering  on  yellow,  it  lacks  ammonia. 
To  supply  this,  use  liberally  of  composted  stable  or  barn-yard  manure.  In  the 
usual  method  of  saving  manure,  the  ammonia — the  most  valuable  part  of  the 
manure — is  lost. 

The  supply  of  ammonia  may  be  increased  by  a  liberal  use  of  land-plaster, 
either  as  a  top  dressing  or  harrowed  in  with  a  fall  crop.  Plaster  contains  no 
nitrogen,  but  by  sulphuric  acid;  but  this  acid  prefers  ammonia  to  lime,  and  when 
the  ammonia  in  the  air  or  in  the  rain  water  comes  in  contact  with  gypsum,  the 
acid  leaves  the  lime  and  goes  over  to  the  ammonia,  forming  a  salt  that  is  not 
volatile,  and  will  not  go  back  again  into  the  air  with  the  first  hot  sunshine,  and 
yet  is  soluble  in  water  for  the  use  of  the  crop. 

AVhatever  increases  the  proportion  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  increases 
the  supply  of  ammonia.  When  vegetables  rot,-  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  chiefly 
return  to  the  form  of  water,  the  nitrogen  escapes  as  ammonia,  and  the  carbon  is 
slowly  converted  into  a  carbonic  acid;  but,  if  there  is  not  a  free  exposm-e  to  the 
air   and   sunshine,  only  a  portion  of  the  carbon   is  thus   consumed — the  residue 


MINERAL  FERTILIZERS. 


lo 


remaining  as  vegetable  mould  in  the  form  of  small  particles  of  carbon,  giving  a 
dark  color  to  the  earth  with  which  they  arc  mixed.  This,  like  uncombined  carbon 
everywhere,  is  a  good  absorbent  of  ammonia,  and  when  made  mellow  and  porous, 
the  air  penetrating  the  soil  leaves  its  ammonia  with  the  carbon  to  enrich  growing 
crops.  In  this  manner  clover  and  other  green  crops  plowed  under  enrich  the 
soil  by  adding  to  its  carbon,  and  thus  increasing  its  power. to  absorb  and  retain 
ammonia.  The  stock  of  ammonia  in  the  air  is  public  property,  and  that  farmer 
gets  the  largest  share  of  it  who  sets  the  best  trap  to  catch  it.  Plowing  and  pul- 
verizing the  earth  has  its  chief  end  in  making  the  soil  a  good  absorbent  of  gases 
and  moisture. 

If  the  crops  have  a  good  color,  but  the  straw  is  soft  and  liable  to  fall,  then  be 
assured  that  your  soil  lacks  alkalies — a  defect  that  is  best  remedied  by  a  free  use 
of  fresh  slacked  lime, 
wood  ashes,  or  German 
potash.  In  some  of  our 
prairie  soils  this  is  a 
primitive  defect,  and 
can  not  be  remedied  but 
by  supplying  alkalies 
from  abroad,  but  in  most 
of  our  western  soils,  if 
the  straw  and  stalks  be 
returned  to  the  fields, 
either  in  the  crude  state 
or  as  composted  ma-  _ 
nure,  this  defect  will  sel- 
dom appear.  It  will  be!; 
well,  however,  to  econo-' 
mize  all  the  lime  and 
wood  ashes  that  can  be 
conveniently    obtained 


Gas  Cooking  Stove,  A.  D.  1880. 


They  improve  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil,  render  it  more  easily  pul- 
verized and  prevent  a  tendency,  in  clay  soils,  to  bake. 

If  the  crop  shows  a  good  color  and  grows  strong  and  vigorous,  but  disap- 
points you  in  yield  of  grain,  then  know  that  your  soil  is  deficient  in  phosphates. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  common  defects  in  our  rich  western  loams.  The  remedy 
is  in  the  use  of  bone-meal,  the  mineral  phosphates,  the  waste  of  slaughter  houses, 
or  imported  guano.  There  is  scarcely  a  farm  in  this  country  that  would  not  be- 
greatly  improved  in  its  grain  yield  by  a  judicious  use  of  bone-meal.  Our  cities 
that  consume  the  bread  and  meat  of  our  farms  are  great  sinks  in  which  are  buried 
the  phosphates  of  our  soil,  while  no  means  are  left  of  reproducing  it  from  the 
earth. 

But  farm  crops  do  not  depend  altogether  on  the  supply  of  "ant  food  in  the 
soil,  nor  even  on  the  available  form  of  that  food.  What  may  be  called  the  mechan- 
ical condition  of  the  soil  has  much  to  do  in  securing  the  farmer  a  liberal  return 
for  his  labor.  By  this  is  meant  the  loose,  porous  condition  of  the  earth  that 
admits  of  free  circulation  of  the  air  through  it.  To  secure  this  requires  that  the 
soil  should  never  be  saturated  with  water  for  any  Considerable  length  of  time. 


104  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 

Soils  resting  on  a  compact  clay  subsoil,  however  rich  they  may  he  in  the  elements 
of  plant  food,  or  however  fine  and  loose  they  may  be  in  the  dry  season  of  the  year,  yet 
during  the  early  spring  months,  when  crops  should  be  getting  a  good  start,  these  soils 
should  be  saturated  with  water  at  a  few  inches  below  the  surface,  which  prevents 
the  penetration  of  the  roots,  and  the  evaporation  of  which  keeps  the  soil  cold,  and 
retards  the  early  starting  of  crops.  To  secure  the  best  condition  for  vegetable 
growth  requires  that  the  soil  be  moist,  but  if  there  is  more  water  than  can  be  held 
by  the  capillary  attraction  of  the  particles  of  which  the  soil  is  composed,  the  redun- 
dant moisture  will  fill  the  pores  and  completely  exclude  the  air  from  the  soil.  A 
few  plants  will  grow  with  their  roots  in  the  soil  saturated  Avith  water,  but  our  cul- 
tivated crops  demand  that  their  roots  have  free  access  to  the  air.  Without  this 
they  turn  pale  and  ultimately  die.  The  remedy  for  this  condition  is  found  in 
thorough  underdraining.  Rain  water  should  not  be  permitted  to  run  from  the 
surface  of  the  soil  if  it  can  be  prevented.  It  carries  away  tbe  finer  particles  of 
the  earth  and  all  the  soluble  organic  matter.  If  it  be  leached  through  three  feet 
of  clay  loam,  into  the  tile,  it  carries  nothing  away. 

The  purchase  of  fertilizers  should  be  the  last  resort  of  the  farmer ;  the  resort 
for  increased  acreage  and  increased  crops  over  what  can  be  produced  by  the  manure 
of  the  farm.  If  the  dung  of  the  farm  will  go  over  thoroughly  but  five  acres,  let 
the  farmer  ask  himself  whether  increasing  the  field  cultivated  to  ten  acres  will 
not  diminish  the  cost  of  production  and  give  more  crop  to  be  sold  from  the  farm. 
If  an  affirmative  reply  comes,  then  seek  fertilizers  to  add  to  your  manure,  thinly 
spread  over  ten  acres,  or  to  use  by  itself  on  the  extra  acreage.  If  the  latter  course 
be  pursued,  then  there  is  an  additional  value  gained — the  knowledge  of  just  what 
the  fertilizer  bought  is  doing  for  this  year  of  use,  and  whether  it  will  pay  for 
its  use. 

If  the  home  product  ^s  insufficient,  commercial  fertilizers  must  be  purchased. 
All  experience  indicates  that  the  efficacy  of  fertilizers  seems  more  manifest  with 
their  continuous  application.  One  year's  application  may  fail  to  show  a  marked 
.effect,  either  on  account  of  the  season  or  the  crop,  and  yet  produce  a  marked 
influence  on  the  crop  of  the  following  year.  The  farmer  who  should  try  a  yearly 
dressing  of  fertilizers  on  a  small  plot,  and  continue  it  for  three  years  even,  would 
be  educated  to  the  point  of  largely  using  fertilizers  on  his  farm  at  the  end  of  this 
period.  Then,  again,  a  fertilizer  will  occasionally  produce  a  large  crop  the  first 
year,  and  apparently  fail  the  second  year;  yet  the  next  year,  if  continued,  the 
results  will  be  so  noteworthy  as  to  satisfy  him  that  one  year's  small  return  was  due 
to  other  causes  than  lack  of  virtue  in  plant  food  purchased. 

[Note. — The  cuts  of  stoves  in  this  chapter  are  intended  to  illustrate  the 
growth  in  their  mechanical  construction.] 


CHATTER  Vf. 


preparation  ano  Cultloatton  of  lite  Soil. 


BY.    J.  W.  FITZ. 


REPARATION  of  the  soil  is  a  leading  and  important  part  of 
husbandry,  and  thorough  cultivation  cannot  be  accomplished 
without  the  aid  of  well-broken  and  well-harrowed  fields.  The 
land  having  been  properly  prepared  by  plowing,  and  suffi- 
ciently manured,  and  the  crop  planted  with  regard  to  the 
capacity  of  the  soil,  the  most  important  matter  to  the  farmer 
is  thorough  culture,  or  keeping  the  earth  fine  and  mellow  in 
the  field  and  among  the  plants.  Stirring  the  soil  can  scarcely 
be  repeated  too  often  during  the  earlier  periods  of  growth,  or 
until  there  is  danger  of  injury  to  the  roots  or  to  the  tops  of 
plants  by  the  cultivator.  The  ground  may  be  too  wet,  but  never 
too  dry  for  stirring;  because  the  more  frequently  it  is  broken  up,  fined 
and  aerated,  the  more  moisture  will  the  soil  absorb  from  the  atmosphere. 
This  is  an  operation  that  should  be  performed  after  every  rain  sufficient  to 
cause  incrustation  or  baking,  which  would  prevent  a  free  admission  of  air 
into  the  soil.  The  most  obvious  benefit  of  stirring  the  soil  is  the  destruction  of 
the  weeds;  for  no  crop  can  become  remunerative  if  crowded  by  weeds,  which 
deprive  it  of  air,  light  and  moisture,  and  even  a  large  part  of  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  intended  for  the  benefit  of  the  crops.  A  war  of  extermination  should  be 
waged  against  all  weeds,  although  at  times  they  become  a  necessary  evil  to  the 
farmer,  who  only  cultivates  the  soil  between  the  rows.  Breaking  the  lumps  gives 
free  scope  to  the  finer  roots  to  secure  all  the  available  nutriment  within  the  extent 
of  their  ramifications,  as  these  finer  roots  are  not  capable  of  penetrating  large  clods, 
and  thus  may  be  debarred  from  reaching  a  large  part  of  the  food  contained  in  the 
soil.  Thorough  and  frequent  culture  of  the  soil  admits  air  to  the  rootlets  of  the 
growing  plant ;  it  increases  the  capillary  attraction  of  the  soil,  by  which  its  humidity 
is  rendered  more  uniform;  by  presenting  a  larger  number  of  points  of  radiation, 
the  deposit  of  dew,  so  beneficial  in  dry  weather,  is  augmented ;  the  temperature 
of  the  soil  is  increased  by  the  freer  admission  of  warm  rain  and  air,  and  by  the  chemi- 
cal processes  thereby  facilitated ;  and  finally  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  augmented 
through  the  ammonia,  nitric  acid,  etc.,  which  are  introduced  with  the  air.  The 
plow,  horse-hoe,  and  cultivator  are  to  be  used,  whenever  available;  but  the  hand- 
hoe  must  always  be  relied  on  for  the  finer  and  more  careful  work  in  the  garden 
and  truck-patch,  and  in  field  culture  in  the  latter  stages  of  crops;  and,  in  all 
cases,  late  in  the  season,  only  superficial  stirring  is  advisable,  as  the  roots  in  late 
culture  should  not  be  broken  or  disturbed. 

(105) 


106 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


When  plants  are  grown  in  a  crowded  state,  darkness  and  want  of  air  elongate 
the  stems  and  leaves  at  the  expense  of  the  roots  and  of  a  general  healthy  condi- 
tion. The  operations  of  thinning  and  hand-weeding  are  performed  in  connection 
with  hoeing,  in  garden  culture,  to  admit  a  free  circulation  of  air  around  the 
remaining  plants;  in  field  culture,  thinning  is  done  by  hand  alone  or  by  hand 
and  hoe.  Thinning  also  permits  the  influence  of  the  sun  on  all  plants,  and 
thereby  aids  in  developing  the  proper  form,  bulk,  and  other  qualities. 

WHY    DO    AVE    CULTIVATE    THE    SOIL? 


Were  the  above  question  put  squarely  to  the  mass  of  farmers,  doubtless  nine- 
tenths  of  them  would  answer  in  substance,  "To  keep  down  weeds  and  grass  and 
give  the  crop  a  chance  to  grow";  and  many  of  them  Avould  not  think  of  assigning 
,-.__  any    other    reason.      But  is 

this  the  only  reason  why  we 
cultivate  and  pulverize  the 
soil?  By  no  means.  There 
are  various  other  considera- 
tions just  as  necessary  to 
be  taken  into  the  account  as 
the  above,  t bough  the  de- 
struction of  weeds  and  grass 
is  of  course  essential.  Let 
us  glance  briefly  at  some  of 
the  reasons  for  and  advan- 
tages of  pulverising  the  soil. 
Cultivation  of  the  sur- 
face soil  serves  the  purpose 
of  putting  it  in  a  condition 
wsk  cultivator,  1880.  for  drawing  u]»  and  retain- 

ing the  moisture  of  the  subsoil,  and  thus  prevents  it  from  becoming  dry  and 
parched  to  a  great  depth  during  the  heat  of  summer.  Were  the  depth  of  dry 
surface  soil  to  go  on  increasing  with  each  additional  day  of  sunshine,  it  would 
soon  be  parched  to  a  depth  below  the  roots  of  plants,  and  all  vegetation  would 
die.  A  well  pulverized  soil  attracts  moisture  both  from  above  and  beloAV,  and 
thus  serves  to  keep  the  soil  about  the  roots  of  plants  in  a  condition  the  most 
favorable  to  aid  the  growth  and  development  of  the  plant. 

Cultivation  increases  the  comminution  of  the  soil,  and  thereby  enables  it  the 
better  to  attract  and  retain  the  ammonia,  carbonic  and  nitric  acid  of  the  atmos- 
phere— all  acknowledged  to  be  most  powerful  and  essential  fertilizers.  Thus  it  is 
that  thorough  cultivation  supersedes  to  a  great  extent  the  use  of  manures,  and 
the  finer  and  more  pulverine  the  soil  the  greater  its  capacity  for  taking  in  the 
fertilising  elements  of  the  atmosphere.  Therefore,  in  seasons  when  farmers  have 
not  the  means  of  purchasing  the  usual  supply  of  commercial  fertilizers,  they  may 
by  good  and  careful  culture,  abstract  from  Heaven's  rich  dowry,  the  boundless 
atmosphere,  the  very  elements  for  which  they  have  heretofore  paid  the  merchants 
good  round  sums. 


"  GOOD   MORNING." 


(107) 


108  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


'  Cultivation  increases  the  temperature  of  the  soil  in  the  spring  by  admitting 
the  warm  air  into  it,  and  thus  accelerating  the  growth  of  the  plant.  For  this 
reason,  early  and  careful  spring  working  is  a  mattter  of  the  first  importance. 

Stirring  the  soil  gives  free  scope  for  the  roots  of  plants  to  spread  out  in  search 
of  food.  A  hard,  compact  soil  dwarfs  the  growth  of  plants  by  preventing  the  free 
action  of  their  numerous  feeders. 

A  loose  soil  permits  the  rains  and  dews,  which,  as  well  as  the  air,  contain  fer- 
tilizing gases,  to  penetrate  readily  and  supply  the  rootlets  Avith  the  food  and  nour- 
ishment they  need  It  also  intercepts  radiation  from  the  subsoil,  thereby  preventing 
the  land  from  being  dried  to  too  great  a  depth.  When  land  is  worked  after  a  rain 
it  is  well  known  that  the  surface  dries  rapidly,  but  it  is  the  surface  only.  Two  or 
three  inches  of  loose  surface  soil,  interposed  between  the  subsoil  and  the  air,  keeps 
the  former  cool  and  moist,  just  as  a 'layer  of  saw-dust  keeps  a  block  of  ice  from 
melting  on  a  hot  day. 

It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  there  are  more  reasons  for  the  cultivation  of  crops 
than  the  commonly  received  one  of  keeping  down  weeds  and  grass.  It  will  be 
readily  understood,  too,  that  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  cutlivation  increase 
in  proportion  to  the  "thoroughness"  of  the  work.  Thorough  cultivation  pays 
just  as  poor  cultivation  does  not  pay.  This  fact  is  evident,  and  based  upon  sound 
philosophical  principles.     Cannot  the  reader  discover  food  for  reflection  ? 

PREPARATION    OF    SOIL. 

The  proper  preparation  of  the  soil  to  fit  it  for  a  crop  involves  a  variety  of 
processes,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the  loosening  of  the  soil  by  plowing 
or  digging,  and  the  comminution  or  pulverizing  of  it  to  allow  the  roots  easily  to 
run  through  it  and  to  take  up  their  nutriment  from  it.  Subsoil  plowing  is  a  most 
necessary  operation  whenever  the  subsoil  is  heavy  and  retentive.  Vegetables  and 
fruits,  as  much  as  the  grain  crops,  require  deep  working  of  the  soil.  A  moderately 
heavy  soil  that  has  been  underdrained  and  subsoiled,  and  then  carefully  worked, 
is  capable  of  producing  the  heaviest  crops.  A  deep,  rich  soil  is  wonderfully 
favorable  to  a  bank  account.  All  the  processes  in  the  preparation  of  a  piece  of 
land  for  a  crop  require  good  tools,  and  in  their  purchase  the  aim  should  be  to  get 
the  best.  A  good  tool  will  quickly  pay  for  itself,  but  a  poor  one  is  very  expensive. 
A  man  must  be  well  off  who  can  afford  to  use  poor  tools.  While  a  good  plow  will 
do  better  work  than  a  poor  one,  it  also  enables  the  team  to  do  more  of  it.  Tools 
and  implements  should  not  only  be  of  the  best  kinds,  but  they  should  be  carefully 
kept  in  order,  and  be  keen  and  bright,  and  be  stored  in  a  proper  place,  where  they 
can  always  be  found  when  wanted,  without  running  across  lots  to  find  them  where 
they  were  thrown  when  last  used. 

POROSITY   OF   THE    SOIL. 

B.  W.  Jones,  of  Surry  county,  Virginia,  says:  Proper  mechanical  condition 
of  the  soil  is  a  matter  of  the  highest  importance  in  farming.  More  than  half  the 
labor  expended  on  some  soils  is  in  consequence  of  a  close  adhesive  quality  that 
makes  them  soft  and  sticky  when  wet,  or  hard  like  brick  when  dry.  Of  all  the 
conditions  that  render  a  soil  easy  to  till,  porosity  is  the  first  and  most  necessary. 


PREPARATION  AND  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  SOIL  100 

A  porous,  open  soil  will  not  on]}'  bo  easy  to  cultivate,  but,  other  things  equal, 
highly  productive. 

Porous  land  is  quickly  rid  of  any  excess  of  water  that  may  occur,  can  bo 
worked  to  much  better  advantage  in  every  respect,  responds- readily  to  manure, 
costs  less  to  cultivate,  and  is  more  productive  one  season  with  another  than  adhe- 
sive soil.     Some  lands  are  naturally  porous,  others  have  to  be  made  so. 

Small  gravel,  loose  sand,  decaying  vegetable  matter,  are  generally  the  most 
accessible  materials  for  making  a  field  porous.  Stiff  land  would  be  benefited  one 
hundred  per  cent,  by  a  top-dressing  of  loose  sand,  and  two  hundred  per  cent. 
[were  the  layer  made  two  inches  deep. 

Improving  the  mechanical  state  of  soils  is  equivalent,  for  the  time  being,  to 
fertilizing  them.  It  causes  them  to  be  better  worked,  and  better  work  insures 
better  crops.  Porosity,  openness,  is  what  all  tenacious  soils  most  need.  Loose  sand 
and  small  broken  shells  from  a  river  shore,  crushed  rock  and  crushed  brick,  saw- 
dust, rotten  wood  and  bark,  and  the  like,  ai*e  fit  materials  for  making  soils  porous. 
Plenty  of  vegetable  matter  alone  will  do  it,  but  this  is  constantly  decaying  and 
has  to  be  renewed  yearly,  while  sand,  etc.,  once  supplied,  will  remain. 

Clayey,  tenacious  land  would  generally  be  the  most  productive  of  any,  did  it 
possess  the  one  indispensable  quality  of  porosity.  Flat,  clayey  land  will  hold  all 
the  manure  you  put  upon  it.  Sandy  and  rolling  ground  will  not.  Make  the  clay 
land  open  by  giving  it  a  sufficient  application  of  sand  or  crushed  rock,  that  is, 
give  it  porosity,  and  one  acre  of  it  is  worth  two  or  three  of  the  sandy  soil. 

The  mechanical  state  of  the  farm  is  about  the  first  subject  for  a  farmer  to 
consider  and  provide  for.  Labor  is  the  one  great  item  of  expense.  Make  the 
soil  porous,  and  you  lighten  labor  and  save  money.  It  makes  work  easy  and  saves 
wear  and  tear. 

CULTIVATING   WET    SOIL. 

A  late  spring  followed  by  continued  heavy  rains,  gives  farmers  much  trouble. 
It  has  been  a  question  as  to  whether  Ave  should  plow  or  let  the  grass  and  weeds 
grow  undisturbed  until  the  soil  should  get  into  proper  condition  for  work.  I  have 
always  found  serious  damage  done  to  crops  by  cultivating  when  the  land  is  out 
of  condition,  unless  the  rain  continues.  This  fact  we  cannot  always  determine,  as 
it  belongs  to  the  future.  If  the  rains  cease  after  such  work,  the  crop  and  the  land 
are  both  damaged.  When  I  am  driven  to  the  extremity  of  choice  between  entire 
loss  of  my  crop  and  possible  hope  of  a  partial  recovery  I  go  into  it,  when  ordi- 
narily I  would  know  I  was  doing  harm. 

Many  farmers  think  they  are  driven  to  the  necessity  of  plowing  their  land 
wet,  and  their  crops  and  land  show  very  plainly  the  evil  results  of  having  been 
worked  while  wet.  Others  who  wait  only  a  day  or  two  longer  have  the  satisfac- 
tion of  seeing  their  fields  and  crops  in  fine  condition. 

I  advocate  early  cultivation  so  as  to  give  the  plants  a  good  start,  but  delay 
always  if  the  land  is  wet,  unless  I  am  satisfied  that  a  rain  will  immediately  follow. 

SHADING  THE    SOIL. 

Few  people,  in  the  opinion  of  Prof.  J.  P.  Stelle,  of  the  Mobile  (Ala.)  "Register," 
fully  understand  every  secret  connected  with  improving  a  soil  by  growing  certain 
crops  upon  it,  as  clover,  peas,  buckwheat  and  the  like.     A  writer  for  the  Philadel- 


110 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


phia  "Farm  and  Garden"  says  the  improvement  of  the  soil  by  clover  has  been 
ascribed  to  the  great  mass  of  roots  left  in  the  ground  after  removing  the  crop ;  but 
clover  does  more,  it  shades  the  soil.  We  are  all  familiar  with  the  fact  that  a  loose 
board  left  on  the  ground  for  a  period  of  time  darkens  the  soil,  invites  earth  worms, 
and  enriches  the  location  occupied  by  it.  Darkness  is  an  essential  matter  in  the 
process,  and  as  but  little  moisture  is  evaporated,  and  retention  of  such  made  easy 
by  capillary  attraction,  we  can  easily  divine  the  cause  of  the  change. 

The  darkness  and  protection  from  the  sun's  ra}rs  afforded  by  the  board  are 
favorable  conditions  toward  the  promotion  of  humus;  and  although  not  a  pound 
of  manure  or  other  fertilizer  may  be  present,  the  elements  of  the  soil  themselves 
are  converted  into  plant  food,  and  of  a  quality  better  suited  for  appropriation  than 
can  be  effected  in  any  other  manner.  It  is  this  fact,  also,  which  prompts  our 
farmers  to  prefer  barn-yard  manure  to  commercial  fertilizers,  for  it  not  only  adds 

to  the  soil  its  own 
richness,  but, 
during  the  pro- 
c  e  s  s  of  decom- 
position, when 
placed  on  the  soil 
causes  humus  to 
form  quickly; 
while  fertilizers 
must  first  act  and 
react  chemically 
on  the  minerals 
of  the  soil  to  do 
the  same  thing. 
Every  advantage 
of  giving  shade 
or  darkness,  be  it 
but  little,  i  s  in 
favor  of  the  ma- 
nure ;  and  when 

spread  over  a  large  surface  this  is  no  inconsiderable  quantity.  Most  scientists 
base  their  estimates  of  the  fertilizing  material  left  by  clover  on  the  value 
of  the  accumulated  humus  in  the  soil  ;  and  while  we  are  not  prepared  to 
dispute  the  claim  that  the  roots  are  quite  a  considerable  mass,  yet  the  shading 
of  the  soil  by  the  crop  has  more  to  do  with  the  increased  fertility  than  may  be 
supposed.  We  do  not  believe  we  would  be  far  out  of  the  way  to  make  the  claim 
that  if  any  farmer  will  cover  a  rod  of  ground  with  boards  and  leave  them  therefor  a 
Avhile,  on  removing  them  the  soil  underneath  will  be  found  quite  fertile,  even  if 
previously  barren.  This  at  once  gives  an  insight  into  the  problem  of  how  clover 
renovates  soils  and  a  few  experiments  by  some  of  our  friends,  by  way  of  testing 
the  matter,  will  be  found  not  only  interesting,  but  valuable. 

BURNING-   RUBBISH. 

The  burning  of  stubble,  corn-stalks  and  weeds  is  the  greatest  folly,  and  yet 
we  see  it  recommended  by  some  writers.      To  say  that  the  ashes  of  vegetable 


Spring  Cultivator,  1884. 


"MISSED  THEM.: 


(Ill) 


112  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


growth  is  as  valuable  as  the  decayed  remains,  is  to  ignore  altogether  vegetable 
moulds,  which  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  manures  from  its  quantity  and  quality 
combined;  for  by  burning,  all  but  the  mineral  elements  are  lost.  But  by  burning 
stubbles,  &c,  the  whole  vegetable  mould  is  not  only  lost,  but  the  fire  drives  out  of 
the  soil  all  rich  elements  that  are  already  there,  leaving  the  surface  hard  and  use- 
less as  a  brick-kiln.  For  forty  }rears  I  have  never  allowed  anything  to  be  burned 
on  my  lands.  The  bushes  and  briars  are  put  thinly  on  the  poor  points,  so  as  to 
stop  the  washes  and  allow  weeds  and  grass  to  grow  through  them  and  thus  restoi'e 
the  soil.  The  stubble  is  turned  under  and  corn-stalks  cut  in  two  with  the  hoe  and 
plowed  in  also,  so  that  nothing  is  lost.  Thus,  while  some  of  my  neighbors'  farms 
have  gone  to  ruin,  mine  has  ever  increased  in  fertility  and  value.  While  I  recom- 
mend summer  plowing  where  wheat  or  other  grain  will  hold  the  soil  in  winter,  I 
would  not  have  the  soil  plowed  in  £he  fall  without  some  cover  on  rolling  lands  to 
save  them  from  winter  washing. 

USE    THE    CULTIVATOR    MORE. 

There  is  no  implement  known  to  agriculture,  the  use  of  which  is  more  gene- 
rally beneficial  than  the  cultivator.  It  is  greatly  superior  to  the  plow  in  the 
cultivation  of  corn  and  other  crops,  for  the  reason  that  it  completely  stirs  and 
pulverizes  the  surface,  and  does  not  throw  the  land  into  ridges,  nor  cut  and  mangle 
the  roots  of  the  growing  crop.  It  is  more  effective  in  the  destruction  of  weeds 
and  grass  than  any  other  implement.  The  great  object  in  cultivating  land  is  to 
keep  it  loose  and  pulverine,  so  .that  showers  and  dews  may  be  readily  absorbed 
into  the  soil.  A  loose  soil  will  retain  moisture  near  the  surface,  just  where  it  is 
most  needed;  and  it  gives  free  passage  for  the  rootlets  of  the  plants  which  are  the 
life  of  the  crop.  Again,  if  the  surface  is  kept  stirred,  no  matter  to  how  small  a 
depth,  grass  cannot  grow.  Plowing  deeply  while  the  crop  is  growing,  besides  the 
direct  injury  inflicted  on  the  crop,  does  not  serve  more  effectually  to  keep  the  sur- 
face loose  than  a  shallow  stirring  with  the  cultivator,  and  is  far  more  laborious  to 
the  team.  It  is  necessary  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  to  break  land  deeply, 
because  it  has  become  settled  and  packed  by  the  tramping  of  the  harvesters  and 
stock,  and  the  effect  of  the  continued  rains  of  winter,  but  one  thorough  and  deep 
breaking  ought  and  will  suffice  for  the  season.  Deep  plowing  should  not  be 
attempted  while  the  crop  is  growing.  The  sloven  custom  of  planting  a  crop  and 
breaking  the  land  afterwards  should  fall  before  the  onward  march  of  enlightened 
ideas.  The  light,  handy,  one-horse  cultivator  is  just  the  thing  for  all  sorts  of  crops, 
running  near  to  the  rows,  pulverizing  the  whole  surface,  and  leaving  the  land  as 
level  as  a  lawn.  It  is  really  a  pleasure  to  follow  after  it,  and  feel  that  not  a  step 
is  lost.     As  it  becomes  better  known,  it  will  become  more  generally  appreciated. 

MULCHING   AND    CULTIVATION. 

Experience  has  shown  that  mulching  the  ground  not  only  adds  to  its  fertility 
by  the  decay  of  the  mulch  itself,  but  it  also  retains  a  large  amount  from  the  air. 
All  have  observed  that  the  soil  covered  with  mulch  keeps  more  porous  and  friable 
than  when  left  exposed  to  the  sun  and  drying  winds.  Earth-worms  contribute 
toward  fertility  by  their  holes,  through  which  the  air  easily  penetrates,  imparting 


PREPARATION  AND  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  SOIL. 


113 


fertility,  which  the  soil  absorbs.     A  piece  of  ground,  a  part  of  which  had  been 

in  strawberries  and  mulched  with  salt  hay  for  three  years,  showed  a  great  advan- 
tage from  the  mulch.  When  plowed,  this  mulched  part  broke  up  very  finely, 
while  the  other  part  was  very  lumpy.  It  was  all  planted  the  same  day  with  corn, 
which  came  up- in  five  days'  on  tins  mulched  portion,  and  was  about  two  weeks 
coming  up  on  the  rest,  and  much  of  it  failed  to  come  up  at  all.  The  after-culture 
was  alike,  yet  there  was 


vigorous 


much  more 
growth  on  the  part  which 
had  been  mulched.  Soils 
not  only  have  the  power 
o  f  absorbing  ammonia 
from  the  air,  but  also 
from  water  that  holds  it 
in  solution;  by  retaining 
the  water  so  enriched, 
mulch  adds  to  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil.  Besides 
the  advantages  already 
mentioned,  it  is  an  easy 
way  to  keep  clear  of 
weeds.  The  hay  from 
the  salt  niarshes  is  excel- 
lent for  this  purpose;  but 
when  it  is  expensive  or 
inconvenient  to  procure, 
other  material  will  be 
found  serviceable. 

Frequent  stirring  of 
the  surface  serves  the  pur- 
pose of  a  mulch,  by  break- 
ing up  the  clods,  and  more 
freely  admitting  the  air. 
In  India,  very  fair  crops 
of  wheat  are  grown  on 
poor  soils,  chiefly  enrich- 
ed by  the  absorption  of 
the  nitrogen  in  ammonia 
from  the  air;  these  poor 
soils  are  stirred  by  the 
rude  plows  of  the  natives, 
on  an  average,  about 
twenty    times    to   each  plowing. 

crop.     Sometimes  thirty  plowings  are  used,  and  never  less  than  ten,  to  prepare  for 
a  crop.     The  value  of  tillage  is  thus  well  demonstrated. 

Most  interesting  experiments  have  been  made  in  Massachusetts  and  New 
York,  to  determine  the  difference  of  the  evaporation  from  both  sand}'  and  clayey 
soils  when  stirred  to  the  depth  of  four  inches,  and  when  undisturbed.     The  soils 


114  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


stirred  by  tillage,  acting  as  a  mulch,  evaporated  much  less  than  those  unfilled. 
It  would  be  an  interesting  experiment,  also,  to  determine  the  difference  of  evapo- 
ration from  a  soil  mulched,  and  an  equal  space  beside  it  untilled.  In  the  labora- 
tory of  the  chemist  at  the  experimental  stations,  fertilizers  are  treated  "with 
powerful  acids  to  determine  their  value;  but  in  the  soil,  nature's  laboratory,  air 
and  water  are  the  great  decomposing  agencies  to  prepare  food  for  plants.  By 
mulching  and  tillage  we  facilitate  their  operations,  helping  both  to  penetrate  the 
earth  and  follow  the  ramifications  of  roots  with  greater  ease. 

VIEWS    OX   TILLAGE. 

Good  husbandry  gives  to  every  soil  its  proper  tilth.  The  stiffest  and  poorest 
soils  require  the  greatest  amount  of  tillage.  Light  soils,  however,  are  rarely  over- 
cultivated.  As  Tull,  in  his  philosophy  of  tillage,  has  pointed  out,  much  plowing 
and  pulverizing  of  a  naturally  light  soil  will  not  make  it  more  loose  and  open,  but 
have  the 'contrary  effect,  making  its  natural  porousness  less  and  its  density  greater. 

It  is  possible,  of  course,  to  have  a  soil  too  loose,  for  it  must  have  a  certain 
tendency  to  retain  moisture  and  support  plants;  but  too  great  looseness  is  a  rare 
fault,  and  one  not  without  its  remed}^.  By  harrowing  the  land  while  it  is  still 
damp,  and  by  heavy  rolling  as  it  becomes  drier,  the  necessary  degree  of  firmness 
may  always  be  obtained. 

In  dry  weather  clay  soils  are  brought  to  the  finest  tilth  with  the  least  labor 
by  harrowing  immediately  after  plowing  or  cultivating,  and  accompanying  this 
operation,  when  necessary,  with  the  use  of  the  roller.  In  a  similar  season,  light 
dry  soils  must  be  sown  and  finished  up  as  quickly  as  possible  after  plowing.  In 
a  wet  season,  the  best  tilth  is  obtained  by  harrowing  when  the  soil  is  in  the  stage 
"twixt  wet  and  dry." 

The  mechanical  condition  of  a  good  seed-bed  should  be  regulated  more  by  the 
kind  of  crop  to  be  grown  than  by  the  character  of  the  soil.  We  know  the  impor- 
tance of  a  solid  bottom  and  a  fine  surface  for  barley.  Nor  will  wheat  and  oats 
grow  in  a  very  loose  subsoil,  though  a  fine  top  is  of  less  consequence,  to  wheat  at 
least.  Root  crops,  on  the  other  hand,  require  a  seed-bed  which  is  neither  firm  or 
loose,  but  fine  and  deep.  Grasses  and  clovers  flourish  best  on  a  firm  hard  soil 
with  a  fine  surface. 

SUBSOILING  AND  OTHER  PLOWING  AND  TILLAGE  OPERATIONS. 

These  operations  tend  to  loosen  the  hard  earth  and  ameliorate  the  soil  so  as 
to  facilitate  the  spreading  and  progress  of  the  roots  of  plants,  so  as  to  enable  them 
to  reach  and  secure  the  food  supply  with  greater  facility,  including  moisture.  The 
subsoil  plow  is  especially  useful  to  loosen  the  hard  earth  below  the  reach  of  the 
ordinary  plow,  to  cause  the  escape  of  water  from  the  surface;  to  promote  the  cir- 
culation of  air;  afford  a  more  extended  range  for  the  gathering  of  plant  food,  and 
securing  of  crops  against  drought  bv  enabling  the  roots  to  penetrate  the  regions 
of  moisture. 

The  subsoil  plow  merely  stirs  and  opens  the  subsoil;  it  does  not  turn  a  fur- 
row. A  common  plow  goes  before,  throwing  out  a  large  open  furrow-slice  of  the 
active  soil;  the  subsoil  plow  follows,  entering  to  a  depth  of  six  or  eight   inches 


PREPARATION  AND  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  SOIL.  U5 


below  the  bottom  of  the  surface  furrow;  and  the  next  furrow  of  active  soil  is 
thrown  over  the  last  opened  furrow  of  the  suhsoiler. 

Trench  or  deep  plowing  is  advantageous  to  such  lands  as  are  of  the  same 
nature  to  a  considerable  depth.  For  those  lower  parts  of  the  soil,  which  havo 
become  filled  with  manure,  which  the  rains  have  carried  down  below  the  surface, 
are  thus  thrown  up,  to  contribute  to  the  nourishment  of  crops.  Deep  plow- 
ing is  also  useful  on  thin  lands,  where  the  upper  layer  is  too  clayey  and  compact 
and  rests  upon  a  bed  of  sand  or  limestone.  By  deep  plowing,  the  sand  or  lime  is 
mixed  with  the  clay  above,  rendering  it  more  fertile  than  it  could  be  made  by  any 
other  means.  There  are,  however,  cases  in  which,  from  the  defective  composition 
of  the  subsoil,  or  other  causes,  it  does  more  harm  than  good.  Good  effects  can 
be  obtained  from  trench  plowing  when  the  chemical  composition  of  the  lower  soil 
is  such  as  to  supply  in  increased  quantity  the  essential  constituents  of  plant 
growth. 

Where  the  subsoil  is  inferior,  the  deepening  of  the  soil  must  be  made  a  grad- 
ual operation  and  a  very  small  quantity  of  the  raw  material  brought  to  the  surface 
at  a  time.  The  subsoiler  effects  this  object  much  better  than  the  trench  plow,  as 
in  the  former  case  the  subsoil  is  opened  up  and  exposed  to  the  weathering  action 
of  the  atmosphere  without  bringing  it  abruptly  to  the  surface. 

In  plowing  we  break  up  the  ground  into  furrow-slices,  turning  them  over  in 
such  a  manner  that  a  new  surface  is  presented  to  the  atmosphere.  This  or  some 
other  mode  of  loosening  and  turning  up  the  under  parts  of  soils  is  necessary  to 
fit  them  for  the  reception  of  the  seed  and  the  growth  of  the  crops. 

The  object  of  plowing  being  to  expose  the  up-turned  soil  to  the  atmosphere 
and  to  create  the  greatest  quantity  of  mould  the  furrow-slices  can  produce,  it 
follows  that  the  furrow-slice  which  shows  the  greatest  surface  will  answer  these 
ends  most  effectually.  In  the  case  of  a  square-cut  furrow-slice  this  is  found  to 
result  when  it  is  laid  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees ;  and  to  this  end  its  width 
must  be  to  its  depth  as  about  ten  to  seven.  If  the  furrow-slices  are  rugged,  open 
and  broken,  and  if,  being  cut  of  various  depths,  they  are  laid  at  different  heights, 
the  work  is  inferior.  A  uniform  depth  of  tilth  cannot  then  be  provided  by  the 
harrow,  and  the  seed  will  be  unequally  buried. 

On  lea  ground  the  furrow  is  usually  eight  to  ten  inches  in  breadth  by  five  to 
seven  in  depth.  The  medium  depth  of  good  plowing  is  six  or  seven  inches. 
Shallower  plowing  is  often  inevitable  on  thin  soils,  while  on  deep  land  the  stubble 
furrow  may  be  ten  inches  or  more  in  depth. 

The  points  of  merit  in  plowing  are,  (1)  a  straight  furrow  of  uniform  width 
and  depth;  (2)  a  clean  cut  slice,  both  on  its  land  side  and  floor;  (3)  a  well  laid 
furrow-slice,  having  regard  to  compactness  and  form;  (4)  a  complete  burial  of 
the  grass  or  stubble  turned  in;  (5)  a  uniformly  ploAved  ridge;  (6)  a  finish  showing 
an  open  furrow  with  a  clean  narrow  bottom,  the  last  furrow-slice  being  equal  in 
width  and  length  with  the  others. 

Many  calculations  have  been  made  to  prove  the  waste  of  time  consequent  upon 
short  furrows.  Under  average  circumstances  a  pair  of-  horses  will  plow  an  acre 
of  grass  land  in  a  clay  of  nine  hours.  On  turnip  land  of  the  same  quality  rather 
more  than  an  acre  will  be  plowed  a  day,  and  on  stubble  land  one  and  one-quarter 
acres.  A  considerable  difference  will,  of  course,  be  found  in  the  work  accom- 
plished by  different  horses  and  men,  even  on  the  same  land.     With  a  furrow  nine 


11G  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


inches  wide,  exactly  eleven  miles  are  traveled  in  plowing  an  acre.  A  quarter  of 
the  day  or  more  is  generally  used  in  turning  at  the  head-lands. 

The  cultivator  merely  stirs  the  soil,  and  does  not  turn  it  over  like  the  plow; 
but  it  can  work  to  an  equal  depth.  It  is  especially  useful  in  a  spring  fallow  after 
autumn  plowing,  as  the  winter-weathered  tilth  is  thereby  retained  on  the  surface, 
and  the  moisture  of  the  soil  is  less  than  when  the  land  is  spring  plowed — a  point 
of  the  first  importance,  especially  in  turnip  cultivation.  It  is  also  much  used  in 
preparing  light  land  just  cleared  of  roots  for  being  sown  with  spring  grain  and 
seeds,  as  it  furnishes  a  line  mould  and  keeps  the  manure  near  the  surface.  Fitted 
with  broad  points,  and  worked  at  a  shallower  depth,  the  cultivator  is  the  most 
effective  implement  in  use  for  stubble  cleaning  after  harvest.  The  substitution, 
when  possible,  of  the  cultivator  for  the  plow  is  attended  with  a  considerable 
saving,  both  of  time  and  labor. 

Cultivators  are  adapted  for  either  two  or  four  horses,  though  the  same  imple- 
ment which  can  be  worked  with  ease  by  two  horses  on  a  light  soil  or  at  a  shallow 
depth,  will  often  require  three  or  four  horses  on  very  stiff  land,  or  where  deeper 
working  has  to  be  practiced.  If  the  nature  of  the  soil  admits  of  it,  however,  two 
horses  in  a  light  cultivator  will  do  more  than  half  the  work  of  four  yoked  to  a 
larger  implement,  as  they  stop  more  freely  and  Avith  greater  ease  to  themselves. 
On  light  land  a  two-horse  cultivator  should  work  five  acres  of  fallow  to  a  depth 
of  about  six  inches,  and  four  acres  to  a  less  depth  on  land  where  roots  have  been 
fed  off;  on  stiff  land,  or  working  to  a  greater  depth,  a  three  or  four  horse  culti- 
vator would  do  about  six  acres  in  a  day. 

Harrowing  (1)  pulverizes  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches  and 
reduces  to  fineness  the  surface  clods  and  lumps  that  are  left  after  plowing,  culti- 

. vating  or  digging;  (2)  it  shakes  out  and  separates 

Riding  cultivator,  1884.  the  winter  sown  wheat  in  spring  and  break  up  the 

weathered  pan  upon  the  surface. 
The  usual  direction  of  harrowing  after  seed  is.  sown  is  first  along  the  furrows, 
then  across  and  finally  along  again.  The  quantity  of  land  harrowed  a  day  depends 
in  a  measure  on  the  kind  of  harrowing  as  well  as  on  the  kind  of  harrow  used  and 
on  the  nature  of  the  soil.  A  two-horse  set  of  ordinary  harrows  covers  usually  a 
width  of  seven  and  one-half  feet.  That  is  equal  to  ten  nine  inch  furrows  with  the 
plow;  so  that  if  the  teams  traveled  at  the  same  pace,  a  pair  of  horses  ought  to 
harrow  as  much  land  in  one  day  as  they  could  plow  in  ten.  But  horses,  as  a  rule, 
travel  a  good  deal  faster,  and  consequently  further  when  harrowing  than  when 
plowing.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  if  a  plow,  traveling  at  the  rate  of  eleven  miles 
a  day,  with  a  nine-inch  furrow,  turns  over  exactly  one  acre  of  land,  a  set  of  har- 
rows covering  ten  times  the  width  of  a  nine-inch  furrow,  and  traveling  one-fourth 
to  one-third  faster  than  the  plow,  must  get  over  twelve  or  thirteen  acres  a  day ; 
that  is,  when  giving  one  turn  of  the  harrow,  or  a  single  time,  as  it  is  called.     With 


PREPARATION  AND  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  SOIL.  117 


double  turn,  only  half  that  quantity  of  land  would  be  covered  a  day.     These  are 
average  quantities  on  average  land. 

ROLLING  THE   SOIL. 

Rolling  (1)  breaks  those  clods  or  lumps  which  have  resisted  the  action  of  the 
harrow;  (2)  it  presses  down  surface  stones,  etc.,  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  way  of 
the  scythe  or  reaping  machine;  (3)  it  gives  a  greater  degree  of  compactness  to 
soil  which  is  too  light  and  friable,  making  it  firmer  around  the  roots  of  plants,  and 
at  the  same  time  a  less  favorable  breeding-ground  for  many  kinds  of  insects, 
while  the  smoother  surface  presents  fewer  points  of  evaporation;  (4)  it  presses 
down  and  makes  Arm  the  ground  about  newly  sown  seeds;  and  sometimes  (5) 
when  very  small  seeds  are  to  to  be  sown,  it  is  well  to  roll  the  ground  first,  so  as 
to  level  it  thoroughly,  and  facilitate  a  more  equal  distribution  of  the  seed  than 
could  otherwise  take  place;  (G)  it  is  used  to  press  into  the  ground  the  roots  of 
those  plants  sown  in  the  preceding  autumn  which  have  been  raised  or  detached 
by  frost. 

A  spring  rolling  on  a  field  of  winter  grain  will  often,  by  firming  the  soil 
about  its  roots,  save  the  crop;  and  it  is  equally  beneficial  in  a  similar  way  on  grass 
lands.  On  light  soils  the  loosening  effects  of  frequent  freezing  and  thawing  are 
more  or  less  avoided  by  an  autumn  rolling.  Grass  lands  cannot  be  too  heavily 
rolled;  and  on  all  light  lands  under  tillage  the  use  of  the  roller  is  indispensable 
for  closing  the  pores  and  preventing  the  evaporation  of  moisture. 

Using  the  same  power  in  each  case,  more  land  will  be  rolled  in  the  same  time 
on  grass  than  on  a  wheat  seed-bed;  and  more  on  a  wheat  seed-bed  than  on  rough 
fallow  land.  A  light  one-horse  roller,  covering  about  six  feet  in  width,  will  get 
over  twelve  to  thirteen  acres  on  grass  land,  ten  acres  on  wheat  seed-bed,  and  eight 
or  nine  acres  on  fallow  land  in  a  working  day  of  ten  hours.  A  two-horse  roller 
should  get  over  twelve  to  fifteen  acres  on  grass,  ten  or  twelve  acres  on  wheat  seed- 
bed, and  ten  acres  on  fallow. 

HOW    DEEP   TO    CULTIVATE. 

This  of  course  depends  upon  the  depth  and  texture  of  the  soil,  and  uj>on  its 
condition  and  the  nature  and  habit  of  the  crop  to  be  grown,  &c. 

Wet  lands  should  not  be  plowed  deeply  until  they  have  been  thoroughly 
drained.  Alluvial  soils  and  deep  clay  loams,  where  the  surface  and  subsoils  do 
not  materially  differ,  can  scarcely  be  tilled  too  deep.  Thin  soils,  however,  should 
not  for  present  profit  be  plowed  below  the  layer  of  mould;  but  their  ultimate  fer- 
tility and  capacity  may  be  greatly  increased  by  subsoiling  and  heavy  manuring 
for  a  series  of  years.  It  takes  twice  as  much  manure  to  fertilize  when  it  is  plowed 
to  a  depth  of  ten  inches,  as  when  it  is  plowed  five  inches;  and  the  converse  is 
equally  true,  that  by  plowing  only  five  inches  the  soil  will  be  exhausted  much 
quicker  than  when  the  plowing  is  ten  inches.  But  whether  it  involves  the  neces- 
sity of  additional  manure  or  not,  a  tillage  depth  of  six  to  ten  inches  is  vastly  pre- 
ferable to  a  less  depth.  Von  Thaer  estimated  that  each  inch  of  mould  between  six 
and  ten  inches  increased  the  value  of  the  soil  eight  per  cent. 

The  importance  of  deep  tillage  may  be  inferred  from  the  great  depth  to  which 
the  roots  of  some  plants  will  penetrate  the  soil,  when  conditions  favor  thei;  doing 
so.     A  deep  soil  is  as  beneficial  for  the  supply  of  moisture  during  dry  v   ather; 


118 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


as  to  give  room  for  the  roots  of  plants  to  extend  themselves.  Further,  the  deeper 
the  stratum  not  only  renders  the  sod  less  subject  to  drought,  but  it  makes  a  better 
retainer  of  heat,  and  furnishes  a  better  medium  for  the  action  of  all  the  agents 
engaged  in  promoting  the  vigorous  growth  of  plants. 

Some  crops  require  the  additional  moisture  attending  deep  tillage,  and  yet 
their  cultivation  should  be  quite  shallow,  their  roots  running  near  the  surface, 

whilst  others  are  intermediate;  and  yet,  others 
do  best  with  the  deepest  preparation  for  the 
accommodation  of  their  large  penetrating 
roots.  So  that  judgment  should  be  exercised, 
and  the  preparation  made  to  suit  the  require- 
ments of  the  different  plants. 


HAND-HOEING. 

The  use  of  the  hoe  is  indispensable  for 
many  crops.     Hoes  of  every  kind,   and  for 
different  pur- 
it  poses,  s  h  o  u  1  d 
I?  be  kept  in  good 
order.  No  farm- 
er or  gardener 
can    afford   to 
and  bad  work  is  the 


Ipsa^       --•■■-    - 

Primitive  Hand-Broom. 

use  dull  hoes,  as  more  labor 

result. 

This  operation  is  mostly  proceeded  with  while 

the  crop  is  growing,  and  it  fulfills  two  important 

objects.  First,  it 
extirpates  weeds 
and  keeps  the  land 
clean ;  and,  second- 
ly, it  stirs,  loosens,  v- s  Patent  u«»d-Broom. A- D- i**- 
and  pulverizes  the  surface  soil.  The  extirpa- 
tion of  weeds  is,  of  course,  indispensable  to  good 
cultivation.  But  the  second  principle  of  hoeing 
is,  if  possible,  still  more  important.  Deep  and 
continuous  hoeing  is  wonderfully  effective  in  pro- 
moting the  growth  of  plants.  It  prevents  the 
soil  reverting  to  its  natural  solidity,  admits  air 
and  water,  and  by  breaking  and  sub-dividing  it, 
causes  it  to  retain  moisture  and  to  present  innu- 
u.  s.  ratei.tr sweeper,  a.  d.  1852.  merable  surfaces  and  fresh  particles  to  the  young 

roots.      The  effect  is  visible  in  the  faster  growth  of  the  plants  every  time  the 

earth  is  stirred  about  them. 

Hoeing,  hoAvever,  can  only  be  practiced  in  the  case  of  crops  in  drills  or  hills. 

Broadcast  work  is  thus  incompatible  with  thorough  cultivation,  even  in  the  case 


of  grain  crops.     If  horse-hoeing  is  intended 


among  the  grain  crops,  the  drilling 


PREPARATION  AND  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  SOIL. 


1 1 9 


Drilling  is 


squally 


HKllS 


jpen- 


should  correspond  with  the  horse-hoe  to  bo  used, 
sable  to  all  hand-hoeing. 

Modern  improved  modes  of  corn  culture,  especially  in  the  Southern  States, 
do  not  require  much  hoe  work,  especially  where  the  field  is  worked  both  ways 
with  the  cultivator  or  plow.  Only  the  most  rampant  weeds  are  chopped  out  to 
aid  good  cultivation.  For  the  garden,  good  and  suitable  hoes  are  indispensable; 
and  they  should  be  kept  in  good  order  and  out  of  the  weather  to  avoid  rust  and 
loose  helves. 

USE    OF    STEAM    POWER. 


In  many  cases  tillage  by  the  wealthy  farmer  may,  in  part  at  least,  be  advan- 
tageously performed  by  steam  power.     It  (1)  gives  cheaper,  deeper,  and  more 

efficient  tillage  than  horse  power;  it  (2)  enables 
the  work  to  be  done  with  rapidity  and  at  the  best 
season;  it  (3)  enables  land  to  be  more  quickly 
and  effectually  cleaned  and  kept  free  from  weeds ; 
it  (4)  promotes  good  drainage  by  rendering  tena- 
cious soils  more  friable  and  porous;  and  it  (5)  not 
only  effects  a  considerable  diminution  in  the  num- 
ber of  horses,  but,  by  relieving  them  of  their 
heaviest  work,  enables  you  to  keep  those  Avhich  are 
,  still  necessary  at  less  expense. 
i  Of  the  two  main  systems  of  cultivation  by 
'steam,  the  double-engine  system  necessarily  in- 
volves the  largest  outlay  to  begin  with;  but  where 
the  farm  is  large  enough  to  afford  a  reasonable 
amount  of  work  for  the  tackle,  it  will  cultivate  at  a 
less  cost  per  acre  than  the  single-engine  tackle. 
The  use  of  steam  power  in  agriculture,  in  this  country,  is  yet  in  its  infancy. 
Doubtless  as  it  is  improved  and  simplified,  and  the  cost  reduced,  our  farmers  who 
may  have  the  means  will  find  it  much  to  their  interest  to  employ  this  motive  power 
on  large  farms.  With  the  improvements  which  doubtless  will  be  made,  both  in 
machinery  and  in  its  practical  use,  immense  advantages  will,  in  the  near  future, 
be  attained. 


U.  S.  Patent  Hand-Broom,  A.  D.  1852. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


^Drainage* 


BY    J.    W.    FITZ. 


RAINAGE,  or  the  removal  of  the  surplus  water  from  the  soil  by 
artificial  means,  maybe  accomplished  by  the  use  of  open  ditches, 
covered  trenches,  plank  or  stone  drains,  tiles,  etc.;  the  best  and 
most  popular  method  being  tile  draining. 
r^Hyir 'EkIS  Perhaps  no  part  of  farm  husbandry  pays  a  larger  per  cent, 

of  profit  on  the  money  invested  than  the  proper  and  judicious 
drainage,  where  the  conditions  are  such  that  the  lands  will  be 
benefited  by  this  system,  since  it  not  only  removes  stagnant 
water  from  the  lands,  but  relieves  them  of  their  excess  of  moisture, 
rendering  them  productive, 'and  more  healthful  to  both  vegeta- 
ble and  animal  life.  It  also  deepens  the  soil,  makes  it  more 
friable,  and  by  drawing  the  water  from  the  surface,  not  only 
adapts  it  to  earlier  cultivation  in  the  spring,  thereby  insuring 
an  earlier  and  more  abundant  crop,  and  also  prepares  it  to  be  worked  advantage- 
ously in  the  autumn,  but  the  surface  rain-water,  being  warmer  than  the  soil,  such 
drainage  increases  the  temperature  of  the  soil  as  it  sinks  downward. 

Mr.  Parks,  the  English  Agricultural  Engineer,  found  by  making  simultaneous 
observations  on  a  drained  portion  of  a  field,  that  from  a  mean  of  thirty-five  obser- 
vations, during  the  spring  and  early  summer,  the 
drained  soil,  at  seven  inches  depth,  was  ten  degrees 
warmer  than  the  undrained,  at  the  same  depth.  The 
highest  temperature  of  the  undrained  soil  was  forty- 
seven  degrees,  while  that  of  the  drained  went  up  to 
sixty-six  degrees  at  seven  inches,  and  forty-eight 
degrees  at  thirty-one  inches  under  a  thunder  storm. 
A  wet  soil  can  never  be  properly  pulverized,  hence 
cannot  be  well  tilled;  it  is  always  cold;  and  as 
drainage  renders  the  land  warmer,  the  roots  of  the 
plants  will  never  go  below  the  water-line,  always  Drainage, 

striking  deeper  in  under-drained  soils,  which  explains  the  fact,  often  surprisingly 
manifest,  why  lands  well  under-drained  should  endure  the  evil  effects  of  a 
drouth  better  than  those  not  drained  at  all.  This  mystery  is  solved  when  we  con- 
sider that  roots  in  such  soils  strike  much  deeper  than  in  lands  not  drained,  that 
they  are  constantly  in  moist  soils,  however  dry  the  surface  may  be;  besides  such 
lands  are  more  porous  and  permeable  to  the  dews  and  showers.  Under-draining 
often  prevents  surface  washing,  by  allowing  the  water  to  percolate  through  the 

(120) 


DEAINAG] 


121 


soil  and  thus  whatever  fertilizing  matter  it  contains  is  retained.  It  renders  winter 
killing  of  crops  less  liable  and  preserves  a  more  uniform  degree  of  moisture  in 
the  soil,  since  it  not  only  causes  its  saturation  with  water  to  be  impossible,  but 
keeps  it  in  a  such  a  porous  and  pulverized  condition,  that  in  times  of  drouth  it, 
absorbs  moisture  from  the  air  and  never  becomes  baked  and  bard,  thus  the  evil 
effects  of  extreme  wet  and  dry  seasons  are  avoidable.  Much  land  otherwise 
almost  worthless  for  cultivation  has  become  by  this  means  very  valuable.  Lands 
well  under-drained  can  also  be  used  with  safety  in  hauling  loads  and  are  less  liable 
to  injury  from  the  treading  of  cattle,  etc. 

Thornton,  an  eminent  English  authority,  sums  up  the  benefits  of  drainage 
as  follows:  An  earlier  seed-time  and  harvest,  better  crops,  a  healthier  live  stock, 
and  an  improved  style  of  husbandry,  are  the  usual  and  well-known  sequence  of 
judiciously  conducted  drainage  operations.  In  short,  the  most  experienced  and 
skillful  agriculturists  now  declare  with  one  consent,  that  good  drainage  is  an 
indispensable  preliminary  to  good  cultivation. 

In  England  and  Scotland  the  improvement  of  the  lands  by  drainage  has  long 
been  practiced,  and  it  is  by  no  means  a  modern  improvement,  though  it  has  com- 
paratively but  recently  been  reduced  to  a  system  based  on  scientific  principles. 
The  Romans  were  careful  to  keep  their  arable  lands  dry  by  means  of  open 
trenches,  and  there  are  some  indications  of  their  having  used  covered  drains  for 
the  same  purpose. 

WHAT    LANDS    REQUIRE    DRAINING. 

All  lands  containing  an  excess  of  water  are  greatly  benefited  by  draining,  and 
these  are  usually  heavy,  tenacious  clays — those  soils  having  a  hard  clayey  subsoil 
that  will  not  admit  of  the  water  passing  through  them,  and  peatty  or  swampy 


Leveling  Instruments. 


lands.  A  large  proportion  of  the  lands  in  cultivation  are  sufficiently  drained  by 
nature.  No  land  with  a  subsoil  so  porous  as  never  to  retain  a  surplus  of  water 
requires  an  extensive  drainage.  Sometimes  a  farm  that  requires  no  thorough 
drainage  may  be  benefited  by  a  partial  one;  for  instance,  many  farms  contain 
small  swamps  or  swales,  so  located  in  a  field  as  to  greatly  hinder  cultivation  and 
retard  the  growth  of  crops.  These  have  probably  been  formed  by  the  water  that 
has  passed  through  the  porous  soil,  meeting  with  an  obstruction  in  the  form  of 
an  impervious  stratum.  This  stratum  may  be  horizontal,  or  nearly  so,  and  the 
water  may  follow  it  to  the  surface  of  a  lower  level,  and  thus  the  swale  is  formed — 
a  permanent-  nuisance  in  an  otherwise  valuable  tract  of  land.  In  such  cases  a 
partial  drainage  of  the  lands  will  entirely  remedy  this  evil.  In  the  United  States 
the  average  amount  of  rainfall  is  about  three  inches  per  month,  and  frequently 
an  inch  of  rain  (which  is  equal  to  a  little  more  than  three  hundred  and  sixty 
hogsheads  of  water,)  falls  upon  an  acre  of  land  in  a  single  shower.  The  question 
arises:  "What  becomes  of  all  this  water?     It  must  either  be  disposed  of  by  sink- 


122  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


ing  into  the  soil,  by  evaporation,  or  it  remains  upon  the  surface.  Moist  land  con- 
duces to  good  cultivation,  but  not  wet  lands  ;  therefore,  if  the  soil  or  subsoil  is  of 
such  a  nature  that  the  water  does  not  percolate  through  it  readily  and  leave  it  in 
a  good  condition  drainage  is  the  only  remedy  for  the  evil.  When  the  land  is 
very  level,  admitting  of  no  surface  draining  and  the  soil  retentive  and  clayey, 
drainage  will  be  required  for  any  improvement  in  the  conditions. 

Swamps  and  peat-beds  frequently  occur  in  a  hilly  country.  Sometimes  their 
origin  is  in  numerous  springs  from  adjoining  hills;  when  this  is  the  case,  often  a 
ditch  dug  around  the  entire  outer  edge  of  it,  where  it  meets  the  ascending  land, 
will  cut  off  the  water  supply,  and  generally  remedy  the  evil;  but  open  ditches  are 
very  objectionable  for  many  reasons,  and  tiles  are  preferred.  It  is  stated  that  Mr. 
John  Johnson,  of  Geneva,  New  York,  who  was  the  first  farmer  to  use  tiles  for 
drainage  in  this  country,  once  drained  a  quagmire  so  that  it  produced  eighty 
bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  and  in  that  case  the  cost  of  draining  was  paid  by  the 
increase  of  one  crop.  The  draining  of  lakes  and  marshes  requires  great  capital 
and  engineering  skill,  and  is  sure  to  become  a  very  important  branch  of  agricul- 
tural improvement  in  our  Southern  and  Western  States. 

The  reclaiming  of  the  everglades  of  Florida  by  draining  Lake  Okeechobee 
sufficiently  to  prevent  its  overflow,  is  an  instance  of  what  may  be  accomplished  by 
this  means.  This  may  be  clone  by  a  canal  ten  miles  long,  connecting  Lake  Okee- 
chobee with  the  headwaters  of  the  Caloosahatchie  river,  which  flows  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  the  month  of  which  is  twenty-three  and  a  half  feet  lower  than  the 
lake.  It  is  the  overflow  of  the  lake  which  causes  the  everglades  to  be  submerged 
in  water,  the  lake  having  no  natural  outlet,  while  the  everglades  are  surrounded 
by  a  limestone  ridge,  which  acts  as  a  dam  to  the  water,  and  after  the  overflow  of 
the  lake,  it  can  only  be  reduced  by  evaporation,  which,  being  so  slow  a  process, 
keeps  the  ground  almost  constantly  under  water.  Should  the  above  drainage  not 
prove  sufficient  to  prevent  the  overflow,  and  render  the  lands  reclaimed  suited  to 
agricultural  purposes,  another  canal  to  the  eastward,  cut  to  the  St.  Lucie  river, 
twelve  miles  long,  which  will  carry  the  water  into  the  Atlantic  ocean,  will  remedy 
the  evil,  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lucie  river  being  twenty-five  feet  lower  than  the 
basin  of  Lake  Okeechobee.  In  Holland,  steam-pumps,  windmills  and  tide-gates 
are  used  extensively  in  drainage,  the  great  Haarlemer-meer  being  not  only  drained 
but  is  kept  so  by  steam  power.  Prof.  Pendleton  states  that  much  of  the  hilly  land 
in  some  of  the  best  farming  portions  of  the  Southern  States  has  become  impov- 
erished by  unskillful  culture  and  by  continual  washings  of  soil  and  fertilizing 
materials,  which  have  been  swept  into  the  valleys  that  are  now  so  saturated  with 
water  as  to  be  unfit  for  tillage,  and  in  this  way  many  valuable  lands  have  been 
lost  to  cultivation  and  rendered  unhealthy  by  engendering  malarial  fevers,  etc. 

By  a  judicious  system  of  drainage  these  lands  may  become  among  the  most 
productive,  as  well  as  profitable,  of  any  in  that  section  of  the  country.  Professor 
Cleveland,  of  Chicago,  says:  The  necessity  of  drainage  is  not  to  be  determined 
upon  the  quantity  of  water  that  falls  or  flows  upon  the  surface,  nor  upon  the 
power  of  the  sun  to  carry  it  off  by  evaporation,  but  upon  the  character  of  the  sub- 
soil. If  that  is  of  sand  or  gravel,  the  water  will  pass  off  below  by  natural  drain- 
age; but  if  the  subsoil  is  clay  or  other  impervious  substances,  the  water  is  checked 
in  its  downward  course,  and  remains  stagnant  or  bursts  out  upon  the  surface  in 
the  form  of  springs.     Most  of  the  prairie  lands  are  of  the  latter  character,  and 


DRAINAGE. 


123 


■wherever  such  subsoil  exists  the  land  will  not  only  bo  improved  by  tile  drainage, 
but  it  may  be  said  that  such  drainage  is  absolutely  essential  to  its  proper  devel- 
opment and  culture.  To  question  the  necessity  of  the  process  is  Jitlle  less  absurd 
than  it  would  be  to  ask  whether  it  would  be  improved  by  plowing,  instead  of 
of  making  hills  for  corn  in  the  prairie  grass  with  a  hoe  or  spade.  All  lands 
require  drainage  which  at  any  season  contain  too  much  water;  that  is,  which  hold 
at  any  time  of  the  year  more  moisture  than  is  good  for  the  crops,  and  causes 
them  to  suffer,  either  by  freezing  out  in  winter  or  having  their  roots  in  water 
-during   the  growing  season.      Drainage  has  been  appropriately  denned  as  the 

art  of  rendering  land  not  only  so  free  from  moisture 
that  no  superfluous  water  shall  remain  on  it,  but 
that  no  water  shall  remain  long  enough  to  injure  or 
retard  the  healthy  growth  of  such  plants  as  are 
required  for  the  sustenance  of  man  or  beast.  There 
are  some  plants,  such  as  rice  and  cranberries,  which 
require  a  wet  soil,  but-  most  of  those  which  are 
useful  to  man  are  drowned  by  being  overflowed  for 
a  short  time,  and  are  injured  by  any  stagnant  water 
about  their  roots.  We  would  recommend  that  in  all 
cases  of  drainage  it  be  well  done,  as  the  most  careful 
Round  Tiies,  collar,  joints,  &o.  and  permanent  work  of  this  kind  will  he  the  cheapest 

in  the  end,  and  the  best  paying  in  return  for  the  capital  invested,  while  work  of  this 
kind  carelessly  and  indifferently  performed  will  prove  very  expensive  eventually, 
as  it  will  probably  fail  to  accomplish  the  end  sought,  and  will  have  to  be  done  over 
in  a  short  time  to  be  of  any  practical  benefit.  The  best  method  is  to  establish  a  plan 
for  complete  system  of  drainage  on  the  farm,  and  when  this  is  once  done  the 
work  can  be  accomplished  from  time  to  time  as  opportunity  affords,  with  but  little 
-or  no  interruption  to  the  regular  routine  of  farm  labor.  It  can  often  be  accom- 
plished in  those  seasons  when  there  is  little  else  to  do  upon  the  farm;  hence  at 
less  expense  than  otherwise.  There  is  no  part  of  farm  labor  where  previous  cal- 
culations and  careful  systematic  work  pays  better  than  in  under-draining.  Many 
farmers  have  little  to  occupy  them  during  the  late  autumn  and  winter  months, 
and  could  devote  the  time  to  such  work  with  no  interruption  to  the  other  farm 
vrork,  and  with  less  expense. 

TILE    DRAINING. 

This  is  the  best  method  of  draining  known,  being  the  most  effectual  and  satis- 
factory in  all  respects.  No  person  should  undertake  the  task  of  draining  with 
the  expectation  of  success  without  first  fully  informing  himself  with  respect  to  all 
the  important  details,  as  it  is  awork  which  requires  much  scientific  skill  and  careful 
planning  in  order  to  reach  the  best  results.  And,  as  we  have  previously  recom- 
mended, we  would  advise  that  the  plan  be  a  complete  one  of  the  farm,  which  plan 
can  gradually  be  carried  out  from  time  to  time  as  the  farmer  feels  able  to  accom- 
plish, either  in  expense  of  money  or  labor. 

DETERMINING   THE    OUTLET. 

One  of  the  most  important  steps  in  drainage  is  to  decide  upon  a  place,  or  the 
places  of  outlet.     This  must,  of  course,  be  enough  lower  than  any  portion  of  the 


124  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


lands  that  are  to  be  drained  by  it,  to  admit  of  sufficient  fall  for  the  passage  of 
water  from  the  heads  of  the  most  distant  tributaries;  yet  it  must  at  the  same 
time  be  high  enough  above  the  level  of  whatever  it  empties  into  to  prevent  the 
danger  of  its  being  overflowed,  and  the  drainage  water  dammed  back  in  the  pipes. 
In  all  cases  where  the  .inequalities  of  the  surface  are  not  sufficient  to  render  it 
obvious  that  every  field  on  the  farm  that  it  is  desirable  to  drain,  can  be  drained 
into  the  mains  without  difficulty,  the  most  important  point  to  be  determined  is 
the  lowest  level  at  which  the  outlet  can  be  located  so  as  to  secure  a  free  and  con- 
stant overflow.  For  instance,  the  level  of  every  other  point  must  be  high  enough 
above  the  outlet  to  secure  a  grade  in  the  tiles  of  at  least  two  and  one-half  to  three- 
inches  per  one  hundred  feet,  though  from  six  to  twelve  inches  is  better,  if  practi- 
cable. Some  writers  claim  that  they  have  known  drainage  to  prove  a  complete- 
success  where  the  grade  is  from  one  to  one  and  one-half  inches  per  one  hundred 
feet,  but  we  should  fear  to  risk  the  cost  and  labor  of  constructing  drains  on  that 
principle.  The  grades  should  be  sufficient  to  carry  off  any  silt,  sand,  or  other 
obstructions  that  may  get  into  the  pipes.  On  very  level  farms  (the  prairies,  for 
instance),  it  may  often  be  difficult  to  secure  the  necessary  grade,  without  bringing 
the  upper  portions  of  the  drains  too  near  the  surface.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to 
have  the  levels  all  taken  before  the  work  is  begun  (which  can  be  clone  at  slight 
expense  and  labor)  than  to  incur  the  cost  of  correcting,  afterwards,  the  mistakes 
that  may  be  made  at  the  commencement.  We,  therefore,  advise  that  the  services 
of  a  competent  civil  engineer  be  secured,  and  that  these  levels  be  taken  on  cross- 
lines  about  fifty  feet  apart,  and  marked  on  a  map  of  the  farm,  or  land  to  be  drained ; 
and  when  this  is  done,  there  is  a  map  for  guidance  marked  in  fifty  feet  squares,  where 
the  relative  height  of  each  square  is  marked  at  the  intersection  of  these  lines, 
so  that,  having  the  lines. for  drains  previously  marked,  when  the  farmer  digs  his 
drains  for  laying  the  tiles,  he  knows  precisely  the  depth  he  must  go  at  each  point 
to  give  a  uniform  fall,  and  thus  the  saving  of  labor  and  the  avoiding  of  mistakes 
will  well  repay  the  slight  expense  required  to  secure  this  knowledge.  By  this 
means  the  farmer  can  have  a  map  to  refer  to,  showing  the  exact  location  and  depth 
of  every  main  and  side-drain  on  the  premises;  and  he  can  go  on  from  year  to 
year  doing  as  much  or  as  little  amount  of  labor  as  lie  chooses,  but  always  working: 
with  the  assurance  that  he  is  on  the  correct  principle  and  knows  what  he  is  about, 
and  that  he  is  working  out  one  definite  plan.  This  plan  will  afterwards  enable 
him  to  find,  without  any  difficulty,  anv  point  he  may  wish  to  obtain  access  to  for 
repairs,  etc. 

In  England  there  is  an  accredited  profession  of  farm  engineering,  regulated 
and  encouraged  by  the  English  agricultural  laws.  It  would  be  a  great  aid  to  the 
agricultural  interests  of  this  country  if  the  farmers  of  every  State  could'have  the 
benefit  of  just  such  competent  assistance,  based  upon  accurate  mathematical 
knowledge  and  experience.  The  members  of  this  profession  in  England  are 
required  to  pass  a  severe  and  critical  examination,  proving  themselves  to  be- 
thoroughly  competent,  both  theoretically  and  practically,  for  the  position  before 
admission. 

LOCATING    THE   MAIN   DRAINS    AND    TRIBUTARIES. 

Having  determined  where  the  outlet  will  be,  which,  as  has  been  previously 
stated,  is  a  very  important  question  to  decide,  the  next  step  will  be  to  locate  the^ 


(125) 


126  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


main  drains,  and  this  can  be  properly  accomplished  only  by  taking  into  consid- 
eration the  surface  of  the  land.  If  the  surface  is  uneven  or  undulating  the  main, 
receiving  drains  should  be  carried  along  the  lowest  part  of  the  land,  in  the  hol- 
lows, while  the  branches  or  parallel  drains  running  in  the  line  of  the  greatest 
ascent  of  the  ground  flow  into  them  often  at  nearly  right  angles.  Where  the  land 
is  nearly  level,  and  a  falL  is  obtained  only  by  increasing  the  depth  of  the  drains 
at  the  lower  ends,  the  tiles  may  run  in  any  direction  convenient.  The  conforma- 
tion of  the  land  may  often  be  such  that  a  single  field  may  require  several  distinct 
sets  of  drains,  lying  at  different  angles,  suited  to  the  various  slopes  of  the  surface; 
but  in  all  cases  where  slopes  occur  the  pipes  should  be  laid  directly  up  and  down 
the  slope,  so  that  the  water  once  entering  at  the  joints  of  the  tiles  will  not  run  out 
again  at  the  other  joints,  but  will  follow  the  course  of  the  pipes  to  the  end.  In  an 
irregular  field,  where  the  slopes  are  in  different  directions,  of  course  it  will  be 
impossible  to  have  the  drains  run  directly  up  and  down  the  slope,  and  at  the  same 
time  parallel  to  each  other,  which  would  be  the  most  economical. 

In  varying  from  parallel  directions,  there  is  danger  of  getting  the  pipes  too 
far  apart  and  making  the  drainage  incomplete,  or  of  crowding  them  so  near 
together  as  to  be  quite  expensive;  hence  there  must  be  the  exercise  of  careful 
judgment  in  laying  out  the  system  of  drains  in  order  to  arrange  the  slope  correctly, 
and  yet  accomplish  the  desired  end  in  drainage  without  incurring  unnecessary 
expense. 

"When  part  of  the  field  is  flat  and  other  portions  have  a  considerable  slope, 
the  best  authorities  advise  placing  a  receiving  drain  near  the  bottom  of  the  slopes 
and  giving  the  level  ground  an  independent  set  of  drains.  The  surface  of 
of  the  ground,  convenience  of  outlet  and  character  of  the  soil,  all  have  to  be  taken 
into  account,  consequently  the  plan  of  no  two  fields  will  scarcely  ever  be  the 
same.  The  roots  of  trees  and  shrubs  sometimes  obstruct  drains,  therefore  it  is 
well  in  laying  out  their  course  to  avoid  them  as  far  as  practicable.  When  a  drain 
must  of  necessity  pass  near  trees,  the  use  of  coal-tar  is  sometimes  found  to  be 
beneficial  in  excluding  the  roots.  Mixing  coal-tar  and  sawdust  to  the  consistency 
of  mortar  and  placing  a  layer  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench  at  such  places,  and 
then  laying  the  drain-pipe  upon  it,  all  trouble  from  roots  will  be  obviated.  Some 
writers  recommend  that  soft  and  porous  tiles  (though  not  as  durable)  be  used  at 
such  places  as  are  liable  to  trouble  from  roots,  with  the  joints  laid  in  cement,  the 
hard  tiles  being  ordinarily  used  for  drains,  as  they  are  more  durable.  All  tiles 
having  small  holes,  called  "pin-holes,"  should  be  carefully  avoided  and  all  aquatic 
trees  near  the  line  of  the  drain  should  be  killed  before  the  drain  is  laid.  Mr.  W. 
I.  Chamberlin,  of  Summit  county,  Ohio,  gives  the  following  statement  relative 
to  the  wandering  nature  of  roots  and  their  tendency  to  stop  drains: 

The  roots  of  aquatic  or  water-loving  trees,  like  the  willow  and  some  kinds 
of  elm,  seem  to  have  almost  no  limit  to  their  growth,  either  horizontally  or  ver- 
tically; and  they  seem  to  go  in  search  of  moisture  or  richness  as  if  by  instinct, 
and  to  know  just  where  to  find  it.  I  have  traced  the  roots  of  a  smallish  elm  some 
twenty-five  feet  horizontally  and  six  feet  vertically,  to  their  feeding  place,  in  a 
grave  in  an  old  cemetery;  and  I  have,  in  plowing,  traced  the  roots  of  a  large  elm 
one  hundred  feet  horizontally,  by  measurement.  These  roots  will  enter  even  a 
pin-hole  in  tiles,  if  they  can  find  running  water.  Mr.  H.  B.  Camp,  of  Cuyahoga 
Falls,  Ohio,  told  me  a  few  days  since,  that  he  once  helped  to  take  up  an  obstructed 


(127) 


128  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


drain,  whose  joints  were  laid  in  cement,  I  think  he  said.  At  all  events,  a  willow 
root  had  entered  at  a  pin-hole  not  larger  than  a  small  darning-needle,  and  spread 
into  a  fibrous  mass  and  packed  the  tile  full  of  roots  for  several  feet — the  only  con- 
nection with  the  upper  world  and  their  lungs  (the  tree-leaves)  being  this  small 
thread-like  root  that  entered  at  the  pin-hole.  It  is  better  to  cut  such  trees  down 
when  they  are  near  a  damp  drain,  and  see  that  they  are  dead.  Prof.  Townshend, 
of  the  Columbus  (Ohio)  Agricultural  College,  exhibited  in  one  of  his  lectures 
recently  a  dark,  stiff,  fibrous,  sponge-like,  solid  cylinder,  some  three  feet  long  and 
three  inches  in  diameter.  When  the  class  had  done  guessing,  he  gave  its  history. 
It  was  the  willow  root  core  of  his  cellar  drain.  Knowing  the  nature  of  these  roots, 
he  cut  the  willow  down  before  he  laid  the  drain,  and  burned  the  stump  all  he 
could;  but,  in  spite  of  that,  its  roots  stopped  his  cellar  drain  at  a  depth  of  five  to 
six  feet. 

When  a  main  drain  has  parallel  drains  flowing  into  it  on  both  sides,  these 
openings  into  the  main  drain  should  not  be  exactly  opposite  each  other.  The  evil 
effects  of  such  a  plan  are  at  once  perceptible.  Some  prefer  to  have  two  main 
drains  parallel  to  each  other,  each  to  receive  the  subordinate  drains  from  its  side 
only.  If  these  main  drains  are  located  as  far  apart  as  the  other  tiles  in  the  field, 
but  little  additional  expense  will  be  incurred  by  having  two  instead  of  one,  as 
these  receiving  drains,  besides  taking  the  waters  from  the  others,  also  perform 
the  same  office  as  the  other  drains  for  the  lands  through  which  they  pass.  One 
of  the  best  English  authorities  on  this  subject  says:  Much  of  the  success  of  drain- 
ing depends  on  the  skillful  planning  of  these  main  drains,  and  in  making  them 
large  enough  to  discharge  the  greatest  flow  of  water  to  which  they  are  exposed. 
Very  long  main  drains  are  to  be  avoided. 

In  the  whole  process  of  draining,  says  an  experienced  engineer,  there  is 
nothing  more  important  than  permanent  and  substantial  work  at  the  outlet.  It 
is  a  place  where  obstructions  are  most  liable  to  occur,  being  most  exposed  to  the 
effects  of  frost,  where  reptiles,  cattle,  and  mischievous  boys  often  do  great  damage, 
unless  it  is  sufficiently  protected.  The  earth  everywhere  else  is  a  protection  to 
the  tiles.  It  is,  therefore,  well  to  have  as  few  outlets  as  possible,  and  these  should 
be  secured  by  a  heavy  framework  of  timber  or  stone,  and  an  iron  grating  or  heavy 
wire  netting,  fine  enough  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  reptiles  or  other  animals. 
One  outlet  to  an  area  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  acres  is  usually  considered  a  good 
arrangement. 

A  uniform  grade  is  very  desirable;  for,  if  any  portion  of  the  main  be  lower 
than  the  outlet,  there  will  of  course  be  a  permanent  stoppage,  as  the  water  will 
stand  there  until  there  is  a  deposit  of  mud,  and  will  not  be  forced  out  by  the 
action  of  the  water.  All  curves  and  angles  should  be  avoided,  if  possible,  as  they 
are  the  places  where  obstructions  will  be  liable  to  occur. 

DEPTH    OF   DRAINS. 

The  best  English  authorities  advise  that  the  drains  should  not  be  less  than 
four  feet  deep,  and  that  even  a  greater  depth  may  be  desirable — it  depends  mainly 
upon  the  subsoil ;  but  they  are  often  made  very  serviceable  at  a  less  depth.  Some- 
times a  seam  of  gravel  or  other  porous  material  charged  with  water,  may  be 
found  underlying  a  considerable  portion  of  the  ground  at  a  greater  depth  than 


DRAINAGE. 


129 


four  feet,  and  this  may  render  it  necessary  to  dig  the  drain  sufficiently  deep  to 
reach  that  seam.  When  such  or  similar  cases  occur,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the 
drains  quite  deep,  as  they  will  perform  more  efficient  service  in  draining  the 
whole  area  under  which  this  strata  extends,  than  shallow  ones  placed  nearer 
together.  It  has  been  proved  by  experiment  that  drains  three  feet  deep,  at  forty 
feet  apart,  are  not  so  effective  as  those  five  feet  and  fifty  feet  apart.  The  depth 
necessary  to  lay  the  tiles  will  depend  much  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  and 
subsoil.  As  a  general  rule  it  will  cost  as  much  to  dig  the  fourth  foot  as  tbe  other 
three,  and  if  the  conditions  are  such  that  the  benefits  arising  from  the  greater 
depth  will  more  than  counter-balance  the  increased  expense,  it  will  be  advisable 
to  increase  to  the  fourth  and  even  the  fifth  foot  in  depth.  The  farmer  must  take 
into  consideration  the  various  conditions  of  soil,  and  be  his  own  judge  in  this 
respect.  Many  writers  advocate  three  feet,  and  some  even  two  and  a  half  feet,  as 
sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes  in  most  soils;  but  we  prefer,  as  a  general  rule, 
that  the  depth  be  four  feet.  Professor  Shattuck  expresses  the  following  opinion 
in  the  "Drainage  Journal":  They  must  be  deep  enough  to  be  out  of  the  way  of 
frost;  they  must  give  sufficient  room  for  the  roots- of  plants  above  the  water-table, 
because  of  the  evil  effects  of  .-»■«-*-'" 

stagnant  water  and  the  in-  ""-SET 

trusion  of  roots;  deep  enough 
to  prevent  evaporation  of 
the  water  arising  in  the  soil 
from  the  force  of  attraction, 
or  at  least  to  reduce  it  to  a 
small  amount.  Experiments 
show  that  capillary  attraction 
operates  with  considerable 
power  at  eighteen  inches. 
They  have  also  shown  that 
water  coming  from  a  thirty- 
inch  drain  is  two  or  three 
degrees   colder   than    that 

taken   from    a    depth  Of  four  "Better  quit  and  move  to  town." 

feet,  and  that  this  is  a  little  cooler  than  that  from  a  greater  depth.  We  must 
draw  the  conclusion  that  evaporation  has  considerable  effect  at  thirty  inches. 
Four  feet,  then,  seems  to  be  the  standard  minimum  depth;  it  cannot  always  be 
had,  but  better  go  deeper  than  not  so  deep,  when  possible. 

The  above  statement  is  mainly  in  reference  to  the  requirements  of  the  crop 
to  be  grown.  I  admit  that  depth  and  distance  between  drains  should  bear  a  rela- 
tion to  each  other;  that  the  character  of  the  soil  and  subsoil  is  an  important  factor 
in  the  question.  I  give  the  above  as  a  general  guide.  There  is  a  feeling  with 
many  that  thirty  inches,  or  three  feet  in  depth,  is  sufficient.  I  know  that  drains 
at  those  depths  will  do  good  service,  but  I  believe  that  one  at  four  feet  will,  as  a 
rule,  do  better.     Theory  indicates  this,  and  practice  confirms  it. 

Of  two  drains  at  different  depths,  the  deeper  one  acts  first,  and  with  far  more 
effect;  but  the  greater  expense  is  objected  to,  though  without  sufficient  reason  in 
many  cases,  it  seems  to  me.  The  tiles  cost  the  same  in  either  case,  and,  from  my 
standpoint,  the  additional  labor  of  the  deeper  one  is  of  little  account  to  the  gen- 

9 


130  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


eral  farmer.  I  venture  to  say  that  the  majority  of  Western  and  Southern  farmers 
are  unemployed  one-half  of  the  time  during  three  or  more  months  of  the  year, 
and  at  that  season  when  the  work  of  drainage  could  go  on  with  the  least  interrup- 
tion to  farm  culture. 

The  labor  of  the  farmer  is  an  important  part  of  his  capital,  and  with  proper 
management  will  not  grow  less  with  use.  The  improvement  of  the  farm  by 
drainage  should  be  a  part  of  the  regular  work  of  each  season;  when  thus  carried 
out  it  is  not  the  burden  that  many  make  it  in  order  that  the  work  of  years  may 
be  put  into  one.  In  case  of  so-called  partial  drainage,  the  depth  of  four  feet  is 
even  more  strongly  recommended,  as  such  is  usually  made  with  large-sized  tiles, 
and  it  should  be,  with  the  view  of  making  in  the  future  the  drains'  main,  or  of 
a  system,  at  least,  of  getting  the  greatest  benefit  from  them. 

SIZE  AND  KIND  OF  TILE  FOR  DRAINAGE,  ETC. 

In  the  selection  of  tile  for  the  mains  as  well  as  the  tributaries,  it  is  important 
that  they  be  of  sufficient  size  to  take  the  water  as  fast  as  the  soil  can  furnish  it  in 
heavy  rains.  The  mains  had  better  be  too  large  than  too  small,  as  economy  here 
will  prove  poor  economy  in  the  end.  It  is  often  surprising  to  see  how  soon,  in  a 
shower,  the  water  will  percolate  through  the  soil,  be  collected  by  the  laterals,  and 
reach  the  mains,  and  how  perfectly  the  system  of  drainage  works  when  every- 
thing is  constructed  properly.  Considerable  expense  may  be  saved  by  having  the 
upper  portions  of  the  mains  smaller,  and  the  size  increased  as  the  surface  from 
which  it  receives  the  water  is  increased.  It  is  estimated  that  a  three-inch  main 
will  answer  a  good  purpose  until  it  has  received  the  water  from  the  laterals  of  two 
acres,  then  add  a  four-inch  to  receive  the  Avater  until  four  acres  are  drained,  a 
five  up  to  six  acres,  and  so  on. 

The  rule  to  find  how  many  acres  a  given  main  will  drain,  by  squaring  its 
diameter,  thus,  a  3-inch  main  will  drain  9  acres;  a  4-inch,  16  acres;  a  5-inch,  25 
acres,  etc.,  may  do  very  well  for  some  purposes,  like  a  limited  range  of  sizes  of 
tiles,  and  variations  in  grade;  but,  to  make  allowance  for  variable  and  heavy  rain 
storms,  this  would  give  too  many  acres  for  the  size  of  main.  Mr.  Chamberlin, 
of  Ohio,  gives,  we  think,  a  better  and  safer  rule  to  follow,  in  Avhat  Ave  subjoin: 
For  sizes  from  3  to  6  inches,  and  grades  less  than  three  feet  to  the  100,  square  the 
diameter  and  divide  by  4.     Thus — 

A  3-inch  main  will  drain  2  acres. 

A  4-inch  main  "will  drain  4  acres. 

A  5-inch  main  Avill  drain  6  acres. 

A  6-inch  main  Avill  drain  9  acres. 
For  heavier  grades  it  may  do  to  divide  by  3.     Thus — 

A  3-inch  main  "will  drain  3  acres. 

A  4-inch  main  will  drain  5  acres. 

A  5-inch  main  Avill  drain  8  acres. 

A  0-inch  main  will  drain  12  acres. 
But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  steeper  the  grade  the  greater  the 
danger  of  surface  wash,  Avhich  often  causes  great  loss  of  manure  and  even  of  soil 
itself. 

As  to  the  proper  size  of  tiles  for  use,  it  is  difficult  to  give  a  rule  that  will 
apply  to  all  cases,  so  many  considerations  having  to  be  taken  into  account;  but, 


DRAINAGE. 


131 


as  we  have  previously  stated,  it  is  safer  to  have  the  mains  and  laterals  larger  than 
necessary,  rather  than  too  small.  For  this  reason  we  should  feel  more  inclined 
to  follow  Mr.  Chamberlin's  rule  than  the  one  previously  given,  and  commonly 
applied,  but  which  will  not  meet  the  requirements  of  all  cases.  A  two-inch  pipe 
tile  is  largely  used  for  laterals.  By  using  such  small  tiles  they  can  be  placed 
nearer  together  than  more  remote  larger  ones,  at  no  greater  expense,  hence  better 
drainage  can  be  secured  at  the  same  expense,  by  their  use.^ 

Among  the  various  kinds  of  tile  manufactured  and  in  use,  the  round  tile 
seems  to  be  most  in  favor.  In  many  sections  tiles  round  inside  and  octagonal 
externally  are  quite  popular,  while  others  still  prefer  the  sole  tile  and  other  varie- 
ties. Cylindrical  pipes  with  collars  are  considered  the  best  by  English  authorities;, 
these  collars  being  simply  short  pieces 
of  pipe  just  wide  enough  in*  diameter  to 
admit  freely  the  smaller  pipes  that  form 
the  drain;  hence,  in  use,  one  of  these 
collars  is  so  placed  as  to  receive  and  hold 
the  end  of  each  tube  where  they  join, 
keeping  them  in  position  to  form  a  con- 
tinuous canal  for  the  free  passage  of 
water,  and  guarding  against  the  entrance 
of  mud,  sand,  vermin  and  other  obstruc- 
tions. These  joints,  which  are  frequent, 
also  admit  the  water  furnished  by  the 
soil.  It  may  seem  almost  impossible 
that  lands  could  be  drained  by  the 
water  entering  only  at  these  joints  in 
the  tiles  thus  laid,  but  it  is  proven  to 
be  a  fact;  water  will  find  its  way  to 
such  places  in  the  drains  and  make 
them  the  permanent  places  for  reach- 
ing eventually  the  mains,  and  it  is 
surprising  to  see  how  soon  after  a  raini 
commences  these  mains  will  begin  to 
discharge  their  contents  received  from 
the  laterals,  and  often  to  their  fullest 
capacity. 

Hard-burnt  tiles  should  be  selected  for  the  purpose;  those  having  any  defect 
whatever  should  be  discarded.  They  should  be  carefully  examined  before  being 
laid,  and  whenever  there  is  found  one  with  a  lump  of  unslacked  lime  in  the  tile, 
or  lime  pebbles,  or  any  small  hole,  it  should  not  be  used.  To  determine  whether 
there  is  unslacked  lime  in  the  tile,  immerse  it  in  water  and  allow  it  to  remain 
until  thoroughly  soaked  through;  if  it  contains  lime  it  will  break.  The  breakage 
of  such  a  tile  when  placed  and  covered  by  the  soil  might  make  an  obstruction 
that  would  cause  days  of  labor  and  expense  to  find  and  repair.  Waring  advises 
that  each  tile  be  examined  by  a  stroke  by  a  hammer,  and  every  one  be  rejected 
that  does  not  give  a  clear  metallic  ring.  Mr.  Chamberlain,  previously  referred  to, 
recommends  the  glazed  tiles  as  most  desirable,  and  describes  them  as  follows: 
They  are  made  of  fire-clay  or  second  quality  potter's  clay,  like  that  used  for  sewer- 


"  No  good  for  a  Farmer.' 


132  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


pipes,  burnt  hard  and  glazed.  They  are  about  as  smooth  and  dark  colored  as  a 
"little  brown-jug,"  and  seem  likely  to  be  as  durable.  They  are  the  only  kind  I 
shall  use  hereafter. 

I  think  tiles  made  of  ordinary  brick-clay  are  liable  to  soften  and  crumble 
and  decay,  certainly  if  exposed  to  frost.  After  the  first  job  of  draining  I  did,  I 
had  a  few  of  these  red  brick  tiles  left;  they  lay  on  the  ground  through  one  of  our 
changeable  winters,  and  the  combined  action  of  moisture  and  frost  crumbled 
most  of  them  to  pieces,  and,  unless  burnt  very  hard,  indeed  I  should  fear  the 
same  result  in  time  even  when  laid  below  the  frost,  for  Ave  have  noticed  that  in  a 
mass  of  brick  even  buried  in  the  ground,  all  the  soft  ones  will  crumble  in  time 
even  without  the  action  of  frost.  But  with,  the  hard  glazed  tiles  I  now  use,  with 
their  clear  metalic  ring  and  their  glazed  surface  inside  and  out,  impervious  to 
water,  crumbling  and  dissolution  seem  impossible.  I  have  tested  them  very 
thoroughly  in  moisture  and  frost  two  winters  in  small  heaps  above  ground,  and  I 
do  not  see  but  that  they  are  likely  to  last  as  long  as  a  broken  bit  of  a  glazed  jug, 
or  some  of  the  broken  tiles  or  bricks  of  ancient  cities,  unearthed  after  centuries 
of  oblivion. 

STONE    DRAINS. 

Stone  drains  come  next  to  tile  in  value  for  drainage  purposes,  but  are  more 
expensive  in  the  end  than  tiles,  even  where  there  is  a  supply  of  stone  upon  the 
farm  to  be  disposed  of.  The  labor  of  making  a  stone  drain  is  much  greater  than 
that  of  laying  tiles,  and  the  process  a  slow  one,  while  they  are  very  apt  to  fill  up 
with  sand  and  mud  or  other  obstructions,  and  do  not  discharge  the  water  as 
readily  as  tile  drains.  With  great  care  they  can  be  made  serviceable  for  years, 
and  it  may  sometimes  prove  a  good  way  to  dispose  of  the  surplus  on  the  farm 
where  tiles  are  not  easily  procurable ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  we  would  advise  that 
the  tiles  be  used  by  all  means,  and  the  work  well  done  with  a  view  to  permanency. 

Mr.  Waring  says,  that  providing  the  stones  were  delivered  free  of  cost  on  the 
hank  of  a  ditch,  the  stone  drain  would  be  more  expensive  than  tile,  and  that 
where  plenty  of  stones  are  on  the  ground  for  making  the  drain,  it  will  be  easier 
and  cheaper  to  cart  them  off  and  put  them  by  the  side  of  the  road,  or  dig  a  wide 
deep  ditch  and  throw  them  into  it  to  dispose  of  them  and  use  tile,  rather  than  to 
utilize  the  stones  for  drainage  purposes,  he  having  tried  both  methods. 

Dr.  Loring,  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  states  that  he  has  both  tile  and 
stone  drains  on  his  farm;  that  the  .tile  drains  were  laid  in  1857  and  the  stone 
drains  in  1861,  and  that  there  is  not  a  stone  drain  open  to-day,  while  there  is  not 
a  tile  drain  that  is  obstructed — all  being  in  good  order.  Farmers  who  have  had 
practical  experience  with  both  stone  and  tiles  almost  invariably  prefer  tiles. 

The  labor  of  getting  together  and  selecting  suitable  stones  for  the  purpose 
involves  much  time  and  expense,  while  with  the  greatest  care  they  cannot  be  made 
as  close  and  free  from  obstructions  or  as  serviceable  as  tiles,  and  the  current  is 
never  strong  enough  in  them  to  remove  obstruction  as  it  does  in  tile  drains.  The 
labor  and  expense  of  digging  the  trench  for  stone  is  also  much  greater  than  the 
former;  hence  tiles  are  not  only  better  for  the  purpose,  but  cheaper.  Where  the 
soil  is  very  wet,  a  complete  system  of  drainage  could  not  well  be  established  by 
the  use  of  stone  drains;  but  where  a  partial  drainage  only  is  required,  and  the 
farmer  may  be  so  circumstanced  that  he  cannot  well  procure  tiles,  stone  may  be 


'  TEA   ON   THE   LAWN. 


(133) 


134  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


utilized  for  the  purpose.  There  are  various  methods  of  making  stone  drains. 
Formerly  drains  were  often  made  by  digging  a  trench  about  three  or  four  feet 
deep  and  then  filling  it  to  "within  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  of  the  surface  with 
stones,  covering  the  whole  Avith  flat  stones  to  keep  out  the  earth  before  filling  in 
the  soil,  thus  furnishing  a  means  for  the  water  to  escape  by  working  its  way 
between  the  stones;  but  this  method  is  rarely  employed  at  present.  Another 
method  is  to  put  small  stones  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench  to  the  depth  of  four  to 
five  inches ;  line  one  side  of  the  trench  with  flat  stones,  and  by  placing  long  flat 
stones  on  the  opposite  side  on  the  pebbles  or  small  stones  forming  the  bottom  of 
the  drain,  and  leaning  the  top  of  them  against  the  top  of  the  stones  forming  the 
lining,  an  oj:>ening  or  throat  will  be  formed,  through  which  the  water  will  find  a 
passage;  the  top  will,  of  course,  be  covered  with  flat  stones,  followed  by  coarse 
gravel  before  covering  with  soil,  in  order  to  prevent  the  earth  falling  or  washing 
in  between  the  stones  and  obstructing  the  passage.  Some  care  will  be  necessary 
in  making  any  stone  drain  to  fill  up  all  the  little  openings  with  smaller  stones,  as 
far  as  possible,  as  the  earth  will  be  very  liable  to  wash  in  and  obstruct  the  water 
if  this  is  not  done.  The  best  form  of  a  stone  drain  is  to  make  the  sides  of  the 
ditch  slanting  and  place  the  stones  at  the  sides  for  a  lining,  so  as  to  form  an  acute 
angle  at  the  bottom  in  the  shape  of  a  letter  V,  and  cover  the  top  with  flat  stones, 
the  opening  thus  formed  to  be  triangular.  Special  attention  should  be  given  in 
filling  up  the  trench  above  in  such  a  manner  that  the  sand  cannot  find  its  way 
into  it.  It  is  also  important  that  the  water  have  as  much  fall  as  practicable, 
which  will  facilitate  the  drainage.  As  we  have  previously  stated,  such  drains  are 
much  more  expensive,  owing  to  the  labor  and  expense  of  constructing,  and  also 
less  effective  than  tile,  but  are  the  best  substitute  for  tile  drains  that  are  known. 
In  all  kinds  of  drains  a  free  outlet  should  be  furnished  for  the  water  to  escape. 
Open  ditches,  closed  at  the  end  with  standing  water  in  them,  are  not  a  very 
effectual  means  of  draining  lands — the  water  should  always  have  some  means  of 
escape  by  a  proper  outlet. 

PLANK    OR   BOARD    DRAINS,    &C. 

Planks  or  heavy  boards  are  sometimes  used  for  making  drains,  and  if  properly 
laid  will  last  many  years,  esj)ecially  where  they  are  kept  constantly  wet;  but  we 
would  not  recommend  them  for  this  purpose ;  since  the  labor  and  cost  of  draining 
is  so  great,  more  durable  material  should  be  used. 

The  same  could  be  said  about  turf  drains  with  respect  to  their  durability. 
They  are  constructed  by  making  the  sides  of  the  trench  very  slanting  and  fitting 
in  a  piece  of  turf  for  a  covering  of  sufficient  size  to  go  within  a  few  inches  of  the 
bottom  of  the  drain,  without  settling  into  it.  This  forms  a  drain  that  is  not  at 
all  durable,  being  very  liable  to  fill  up  by  the  falling  in  of  the  turf  covering  or 
caving  in  at  the  sides.  Brush  and  rails  used  in  the  construction  of  drains  have 
so  long  been  disused  that  they  become  among  the  obsolete  things  and  scarcely 
require  comment  here.  They  were  first  made  use  of  in  the  progressive  steps 
towards  the  improvement  in  drainage,  from  the  open  ditches,  which  are  such  a 
nuisance  on  the  farm  and  have  long  since  given  place,  among  our  best  farmers,  to 
the  more  complete  and  perfect  system  of  tile  drainage. 

Open  ditches  for  draining  are  very  objectionable,  since  they  are  so  liable  to 
cave  in  at  the  sides  and  fill  up  with  the  mud  that  is  washed  into  them,  and  by  the 


DRAINAGE.  135 


treading  of  cattle  over  them,  that  they  prove  only  a  temporary  means  of  drain- 
age. They  also  require  considerable  land,  as  teams  cannot  l>o  driven  near  their 
sides,  in  plowing  and  harrowing,  while  with  the  use  of  tiles  no  land  whatever  is 
rendered  useless. 

In  crossing  them  with  teams,  bridges  are  required,  causing  considerable  trouble 
and  expense  in  constructing,  or  subjecting  the  farmer  to  great  inconvenience  with- 
out them.  Besides  these  objections,  open  ditches  with  standing  water  are  unhealthy, 
and  are  often  the  cause  of  disease  in  those  sections  where  used.  The  digging  of 
such  trenches  is  also  attended  with  considerable  labor  and  expense.  The  soil 
removed  from  them,  however,  is  often  valuable  for  mixing  with  manure,  and  when 
dried,  for  bedding  for  stables  and  hog  pens,  since  it  contains  more  or  less  of  the 
fertilizing  properties,  and  forms  a  good  compost  with  both  the  liquid  and  solid 
substances  from  these  sources. 

Furrow  draining,  which  consists  in  cultivating  the  land  in  ridges  or  furrows, 
by  plowing  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  open  furrows  for  drainage  purposes 
between  the  ridges  of  earth,  and  planting  on  the  top  of  each  ridge,  was  formerly 
practiced  in  England  and  other  portions  of  Europe  to  a  considerable  extent,  but 
has  generally  been  superseded  for  the  most  part  by  under-draining. 

THE  TERRACE  SYSTEM. 

R.  J.  Redding,  director  of  the  Georgia  Experiment  Station,  says  the  terrace 
system  is  an  improvement  on  the  old  system  of  hillside  ditching.  The  essence  of 
the  system  is  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  the  surface  rain  water  running  off,  and 
•causing  it  to  sink  with  the  soil.  This  is  done  by  marking  out  lines  of  perfect  level 
by  means  of  a  suitable  terracing  level,  which  is  nothing  more  than  an  inexpensive 
form  of  the  engineer's  level,  costing  from  $5  to  $10.  The  first  line  of  level  is 
traced  on  the  highest  point  of  the  field.  The  next  is  located  three  feet  (as  a  gen- 
eral rule)  lower,  perpendicularly;  it  may  be  twenty,  forty  or  sixty  feet  distant, 
horizontally,  from  the  first — according  to  the  degree  of  inclination  of  the  surface 
of  the  land.  Successive  lines  of  level  are  then  run  until  the  lowest  part  of  the 
field  is  reached.  It  is  indispensable  that  these  lines  be  absolutely  level,  regardless 
of  the  direction  that  may  be  indicated  by  the  instrument.  It  will  be  understood 
at  once  that  the  lines  will  vary  in  horizontal  distance  from  each  other,  and  will 
Tarely  be  parallel.  Having  marked  the  lines  of  level,  a  bed  of  earth  is  thrown  up 
along  the  line  with  a  good  plow,  two  furrows  from  above  and  two  from  below  the 
line.  Hand-hoes  are  used  to  build  up  low  places  so  as  to  make  all  parts  of  the 
bed  equally  strong  and  on  a  level.  Some  farmers  sow  grass  (orchard  grass)  along 
the  terrace;  others  plant  a  row  of  sorghum — the  object  being  to  bind  the  soil 
together  by  means  of  the  roots.  After  the  terraces  have  been  prepared,  the  arable 
land  between  must  always  be  plowed  on  a  level. 

If  to  be  broken  broadcast,  a  reversible  or  hillside  plow  should  be  used,  running 
back  and  forth  on  the  furrow,  last  run  alwa}rs  turning  the  soil  down  hill. 
This  tends  to  widen  the  inclination  of  the  surface.  If  a  crop  is  to  be  planted  in 
rows — corn  or  cotton  for  instance — commence  "laying  off"  on  one  side  of  the  space 
enclosed  between  two  terraces  and  continue  until  the  middle  is  reached  at  the 
narrowest  point;  then  commence  laying  off  from  the  other  side,  until  the  rows 
meet  at  the  narrowest  point;  then  run  one  furrow  above  and  one  below,  alternat- 


136 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


ing  until  all  the  spaces  are  laid  off.     This  plan  will  cause  every  individual  row  to 
be  practically  level. 

If  a  heavy  rain  occurs  the  surface  water,  which  would  otherwise  seek  the  line 
of  greatest  descent,  is  forced  to  spread  out  and  fioAv  gently  and  slowly — in  a  broad 
sheet — carrying  very  little  soil  and  causing  no  washes.  The  terraces  will  generally 
catch  the  floating  trash  and  surface  soil,  and  will  gradually  become  higher  and 
stronger.  For  one  or  two  years  some  attention,  and  occasionally  slight  changes 
in  the  terraces,  Avill  be  required  as  may  be  indicated  by  the  action  of  water  during 
heavy  rains.  Every  break  in  a  terrace  should  be  promptly  and  effectively  mended. 
If  the  work  be  well  done  at  first  and  proper  attention  be  given  afterwards,  the 
terraces  will  become  so  strong  and  well  established  that  the  heaviest  rainfall  will 
make  but  little  impression. 


CHATTER  VTTT. 


What  Crops  to  fJaise. 


BY    J.    W.    FIT/. 


LINT'S  "American  Farmer"  says:  Farming  is  constantly 
becoming  more  of  a  mercantile  business  than  formerly.  lit 
the  earlier  clays  it  was  the  custom  for  farmers  to  raise  every- 
thing for  home  use,  even  the  clothing  worn  by  the  family, 
and  scarcely  a  farmer  was  known  who  did  not  produce  his  yearly 
crop  of  flax  and  wool  for  this  purpose.  The  old  maxim  was, 
that  farmers  should  sell  and  not  buy.  At  present  this  idea 
is  in  a  great  measure  ignored,  and  although  it  is  customary 
for  farmers  to  raise  what  is  used  on  the  farm,  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable, there  is  a  tendency  towards  the  opinion  that  division 
of  labor,  or  specialties,  are  as  applicable  to  farming  as  to 
other  kinds  of  business. 

That  the  shoemaker  should  endeavor  to  make  clothes,  hats,  and  bonnets  for  his 
family  would  be  thought  absurd;  and  that  the  tailor  should  attempt  to  make  the  shoes, 
furniture,  etc.,  for  his  household  would  be  considered,  to  say  the  least,  very  poor 
economy  when,  by  working  at  his  trade,  he  could  earn  many  times  as  much  as 
those  articles  would  cost,  and  the  purchased  goods  would  be  in  every  way  superior 
to  any  that  he  could  manufacture.  That  the  farmer  should  endeavor  to  cultivate 
everything  consumed,  or  in  demand  upon  his  farm,  without  regard  to  the  expense 
attending  it,  the  nature  of  his  soil,  the  relative  market  value  compared  with  other 
crops,  the  demands  of  the  market,  and  other  considerations  would  also  be  very 
poor  policy,  since  the  real  profits,  or  the  attainment  of  the  largest  possible  excess 
of  receipts  over  expenditures,  is  the  aim  of  the  farmer  as  well  as  those  engaged 
in  other  departments  of  business. 

A   JUDICIOUS   CHOICE    OF   CROPS   ESSENTIAL. 

There  are  few  things  that  have  so  important  a  bearing  upon  the  success  or  fail- 
ure of  the  farmer's  business  as  the  choice  of  crops  to  be  produced.  Of  course  his  suc- 
cess also  depends  upon  many  other  considerations  in  connection  with  this  one 
great  essential,  such  as  the  manner  of  cultivation,  judicious  management,  and 
other  things  too  numerous  to  mention,  which,  if  ignored,  would  fail  of  giving 
success,  even  with  the  most  desirable  choice  of  crops  that  might  be  made;  but 
where  all  other  conditions  are  favorable,  a  judicious  choice  is  one  of  the  first 
essentials  to  success,  and  a  failure  or  error  here  will  inevitably  lead  to  disastrous 
results — such  results  as  no  amount  of  labor  and  care,  or  skill  in  culture,  can  to 
any  great  extent  ameliorate. 

(137) 


138  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


CHOICE    OF   CEOPS    MODIFIED    BY    DEMAND. 


It  will  be  generally  conceded  that  the  choice  of  crops  is  to  the  farmer  what ' 
the  selection  of  goods  is  to  the  merchant.  The  selection  of  goods  is  to  the  mer- 
chant a  consideration  of  the  first  importance  in  his  success,  and  his  study  must 
be  to  learn  the  wants  of  his  customers  and  meet  their  demands,  both  in  kind  and 
quality  of  goods  with  which  to  replenish  his  stock  continually.  If  he  fails  to  do 
this,  he  soon  looses  custom,  for  no  one  would  think  of  buying  things  he  may  hap- 
pen to  have  on  hand,  simply  to  accommodate  him,  when  they  were  not  what  was 
wanted;  and  if  he  did  not  have  the  goods  they  desired,  his  customers  would  go 
elsewhere  for  them,  and  other  merchants  would  gain  the  trade  he  had  lost.  One 
of  the  great  principles  of  mercantile  business  everywhere  recognized  is  to  meet  the 
demands  of  the  trade,  and  if  this  be  ignored,  failure  of  success  must  inevitably 
follow.  This  same  principle  is  equally  applicable  to  the  agricultural  pursuits, 
since  the  farmer  as  well  as  the  merchant  depends  upon  the  sales  he  makes  for  the 
profits  of  his  business,  the  only  difference  being  that  the  merchant  purchases  his 
goods  for  sale  and  the  farmer  produces  his  from  the  soil  by  skill  and  labor  in  cul- 
tivation. 

If  the  merchant  requires  skill  and  judgment  in  determining  the  wants  of  his 
customers  and  in  selecting  his  goods  with  a  view  to  meet  those  wants,  so  does  the 
farmer  require  an  equal  amount  of  skill  and  judgment  to  meet  the  demands  for 
the  class  of  products  he  is  to  supply.  And  if  in  the  mercantile  business,  there  is 
constantly  a  demand  for  something  new,  the  old  going  out  of  fashion  to  give  place 
for  the  new,  so  in  farming,  is  there  no  permanency  in  the  demand  for  certain  pro- 
ducts. What  is  most  in  demand  now,  may  not  be  required  by  the  markets  a  few 
years  hence. 

New  varieties  of  fruits  and  other  products  are  being  constantly  introduced, 
some  of  which  find  a  more  ready  market  than  those  formerly  cultivated,  and  it  is 
the  farmer's  business  to  learn  what  kinds  of  products  and  the  varieties  of  these 
that  are  most  in  demand,  and  will  consequently  bring  the  highest  price,  and 
cultivate  these.  In  many  instances  the  varieties  most  popular  with  the  purchasers 
may  not  seem  any  better  to  the  farmer  than  the  old;  but  since  it  is  but  right  that 
the  consumer  who  pays  his  money  for  the  products  shall  be  the  one  to  decide  which 
he  will  buy,  the  farmer  Avill  find  it  to  his  interest  to  cultivate  the  kind  desired. 
In  other  words,  the  farmer,  as  well  as  the  merchant,  must  keep  up  with  the  times 
and  the  demands  of  the  age  in  which  he  lives  in  order  to  be  successful.  The 
farmer,  then,  as  a  general  rule,  must  keep  himself  informed  with  respect  to  the  state  of 
the  markets  at  which  he  is  to  dispose  of  his  crops,  and  raise  such  as  are  in  demand 
there. 

PEINCIPLE    SHOULD    BE    REGARDED. 

There  are,  however,  exceptions  to  the  above  rule  governing  the  choice  of  crops. 
We  cannot  recommend  it  only  as  far  as  it  does  not  involve  a  violation  of  moral 
principle.  Popular  demand  should  always  be  subservient  to  that,  and  no  truly 
honest  man  would  sacrifice  principle  for  the  profits  that  may  be  the  result. 
We  have  a  profound  respects  and  admiration  for  an  old  New  England  farmer, 
who,  in  time  of  general  scarcity  of  apples,  being  offered  a  high  price  for  those  of 
his  well-bearing  orchards,  for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing  cider-brandy,  replied 


WHAT  CROPS  To  RAISE.  139 


"  No,  though  I  want  the  money,  I'll  let  'em  rut  upon  the  ground  hefore  I'll  sell  'erri 
for  such  a  purpose." 

If  all  farmers  were  equally  true  to  principle  with  respect  to  the  disposal  of 
their  products,  there  would  be  less  perversion  of  the  good  and  useful,  and  what 
the  Creator  designed  for  man's  sustenance,  into  evil,  and  that  element  that  destroys 
annually  morally,  mentally  and  physically,  so  many  of  the  human  race.  He  who 
administers  to  an  evil  habit  or  depraved  taste  aids  in  debasing  his  fellow-man,  and 
is  himself  debased  by  the  act.  To  all  farmers  we  would  say,  in  the  cultivation 
and  disposal  of  your  crops,  be  true  to  the  principle  of  right  and  honor;  let  that 
be  the  standard  of  choice  always,  and  the  popular  demand  secondary  to  this. 

CHOICE  OF  CROPS  MODIFIED  BY  THE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  SOIL. 

Another  very  important  consideration  in  determining  the  kind  of  crops  to  be 
cultivated  is  the  character  of  the  soil.  No  farmer  can  be  very  successful  in  his 
business  who  does  not  understand  the  nature  of  his  soil  and  the  crops  to  which  it 
is  best  adapted.  The  soil  of  some  farmers  is  better  suited  to  grass  and  the  rearing 
of  stock;  others  for  grain,  roots  and  other  cultivated  crops;  others  still  for  fruit 
culture  principally.  Some  farms  are  better  adapted  to  certain  particular  kinds  of 
stock — those  for  special  purposes;  others  still  for  specialties  in  farming,  while  many 
are  suited  to  mixed  husbandry,  or  cultivation  of  many  of  the  farm  products. 

In  making  a  choice  of  crops,  therefore,  the  farmer  will  find  it  to  his  advan- 
tage to  understand  the  character  of  the  soil  he  is  to  cultivate,  as  well  as  the 
demands  of  the  market,  and  produce  those  to  which  his  land  is  best  adapted. 
Again,  some  soils  may  possess  more  of  certain  kinds  of  elements  of  plant  growth 
than  of  others;  for  instance,  one  soil  may  be  more  deficient  in  phosphoric  acid 
than  other  elements  of  plant  food;  another  may  have  an  abundance  of  phospho- 
ric acid,  but  be  lacking  in  potash,  etc.,  the  same  principle  applying  to  a  deficiency 
of  any  of  the  elements  of  plant  food,  the  stores  of  which  may  be  capable  of  a 
partial  or  complete  exhaustion  in  the  soil.  Fortunately  for  the  farmer,  science  has 
come  to  his  aid  and  pointed  out  to  him  the  way  to  restore  the  elements  that  may 
be  deficient  in  his  lands,  through  over-cropping  without  sufficient  fertility  restored 
to  the  soil,  or  for  other  reasons,  and  when  once  he  has  determined  the  great  want 
of  his  lands  he  may,  by  applying  it  in  a  form  of  commercial  fertilizers,  or  farm 
manure,  so  change  its  nature  and.  condition  as  to  adapt  it  to  the  successful  culti- 
vation of  crops  that  it  would  not  otherwise  produce. 

He  may  use  special  fertilizers  for  certain  crops,  or  he  may  use  barn-yard 
manure,  if  it  can  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantities,  since  it  is  a  complete  fertil- 
izer for  all  crops,  and  the  commercial  fertilizers  are  not.  Special  fertilizers  that 
are  complete  can,  however,  be  made  for  certain  crops  by  a  proper  combination  in 
kind  and  quality  of  commercial  manures,  which  have  given  remarkable  results 
even  in  soils  not  especially  adapted  for  their  production.  Barn-yard  manure  is 
more  slow  in  its  results  than  commercial  fertilizers,  since  it  requires  a  long  time 
for  it  to  become  assimilated  to  plant  growth,  being  coarse  in  texture,  Avhile  com- 
mercial fertilizers  being  reduced  to  a  condition  to  be  readily  taken  up  by  the 
plants,  act  more  quickly  in  stimulating  the  growth  of  crops.  For  this  reason, 
where  barn-yard  manure  is  applied  alone,  the  yield  is  always  modified  more 
largely  by  the  adaption  of  the  land  for  the  particular  crop  under  cultivation,  than 


"  Consider  Well." 


(HO) 


WHAT  CROPS  TO  RAISE.  141 


where  commercial  fertilizers  are  used,  and  much  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  left 
over  to  the  following  year,  while  the  fertilizing  properties  of  commercial  manures 
are  usually  mostly  extracted  during  the  iirst  season.  With  skillful  management 
with  special  fertilizers  (those  adapted  to  certain  products),  many  crops  may  he 
grown  successfully  on  lands  that  otherwise  were  not  well  adapted  to  their  produc- 
tion; still,  as  a  general  rule,  the  best  permanent  results  are  attained  on  lands 
naturally  suited  to  the  crop  to  be  cultivated.  It  is  well,  however,  for  the  farmer 
to  bear  in  mind  that  one  of  the  most  important  things  to  be  considered  is  the 
necessity  of  thoroughly  understanding,  as  far  as  can  be,  the  nature  of  the  soil  he 
is  to  cultivate. 

The  value  of  this  knowledge  cannot  well  be  over-estimated.  The  soil  is  the 
element  with  which  the  farmer  has  to  deal,  and  unless  he  possesses  a  good  knowl- 
edge of  it,  he  cannot  expect  to  succeed.  If  he  meets  with  any  degree  of  success 
while  working  in  ignorance,  it  is  by  mere  chance  that  he  reaches  the  result — a 
kind  of  "guess-work"  without  knowledge  of  the  facts  that  lead  to  it.  What 
could  be  expected  of  a  mechanic  who  attempted,  in  the  pursuit  of  his  business, 
to  use  tools  constructed  in  a  complicated  manner,  when  entirely  ignorant  of  their 
use  and  construction?  Equally  presumptuous  would  it  be  for  the  farmer  to 
expect  to  cultivate  intelligently  and  with  successful  results  the  most  complicated 
of  elements  combined — the  agricultural  soil — when  entirely  ignorant  of  its  com- 
position, or  of  what  it  is  best  adapted  to  produce. 

RELATIVE    COST    IX    PRODUCTION,  ETC. 

Another  important  point  to  be  considered  in  the  choice  of  crops  is  the  rela- 
tive cost  in  production  and  the  value  of  different  crops  when  harvested.  There 
may  sometimes  be  crops  in  popular  demand  in  the  market,  for  the  production  of 
which  the  soil  of  the  farmer  may  be  admirably  adapted,  but  the  expense  of  which 
production  may  so  far  exceed  that  of  other  crops  less  in  demand,  that  the  latter 
may  be  found  to  be  more  profitable.  When  it  costs  a  farmer  50  per  cent,  more  to 
produce  a  bushel  of  potatoes  than  it  does  corn,  for  instance,  or  any  other  crop 
and  the  former  brings  but  twenty  per  cent,  more  profit  than  the  latter,  he  will  find 
it  to  his  advantage  to  cultivate  the  latter,  since  by  so  doing  he  realizes  a  larger 
per  cent. of  profit;  that  is,  his  receipts  are  larger  in  excess  of  his  expenditures 
than  on  the  more  expensive  crops.  It  is  not  profitable  to  raise  large  and  expen- 
sive crops  that  do  not  bring  a  large  proportionate  profit  in  return.  The  fact 
should  be  kept  in  mind  that  that  farming  is  most  profitable  that  brings  the  largest 
returns  for  Avhat  is  expended.  Farmers  should  keep  an  accurate  account  with 
respect  to  the  expense  of  each  crop  (including  cost  of  fertilizers,  expense  of  cul- 
tivation, harvesting,  marketing,  etc.,)  and  determining  relatively  what  the  cost  of 
production  and  receipts  of  their  sale  are,  they  will  thus  learn  which  pays  the  best 
and  which  are  the  most  unprofitable.  By  so  doing,  a  decision  as  to  which  are  the 
most  desirable  to  raise  can  easily  be  reached. 

Where  it  Avill  be  found  that  the  crops  for  home  consumption  on  the  farm  can 
be  grown  cheaper  than  they  can  be  purchased,  it  will,  of  course,  be  best  to  culti- 
vate enough  of  such  at  least  as  are  necessary  for  that  purpose;  but  where  certain 
products  for  home  production  can  be  bought  for  less  money  than  the  farmer  can 
grow  them  himself,  it  will  not  pay  to  cultivate  such,  when  money  and  labor  could 


142  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


more  profitably  be  expended  on  other  products.  By  giving  due  thought  and  atten- 
tion to  the  subject  of  choice  in  crops,  and  taking  measures  to  so  inform  himself 
as  to  obtain  all  the  light  possible  on  the  subject,  the-farmer  will  be  liable  to  make 
a  more  judicious  choice  than  otherwise;  and  having  once  taken  such  steps  in  the 
right  direction — although  he  may  make  some  mistakes,  and  often  obtain  benefit 
from  such  experience — yet  he  will,  in  the  main,  with  other  favoring  conditions, 
meet  with  success.  The  farmer  who  profits  by  the  experience  of  the  past  and 
wisely  appropriates  to  his  use  the  advantages  within  his  reach  that  the  present 
affords,  must  win  success,  however  close  the  competition  with  which  he  meets,  or 
difficult  the  obstacles  he  has  to  overcome. 

ROTATION   OF   CROPS. 

It  has  become  an  established  fact  in  agriculture  that  the  continued  growth 
for  successive  years  of  the  same  kind  or  family  of  plants  on  the  same  soil  is  one 
of  the  surest  and  most  speedy  means  of  impairing,  and,  in  many  instances,  ren- 
dering that  particular  soil  unfit  for  bearing  further  crops  of  that  kind.  More 
especially  is  this  true  if  the  crop  matures  and  ripens  its  seed,  like  the  various  kinds 
of  grain,  etc.  It  has  also  been  ascertained  by  long  practice  that  if  a  proper  sys- 
tem of  rotation  be  adopted  exhaustion  of  soil  will  be  greatly  deferred,  and  that  by 
use  of  fertilizers,  which  will  return  an  equivalent  for  the  elements  extracted  from 
the  soil  by  the  production  of  crops,  the  exhaustion  can  be  largely  prevented. 
Yet,  even  in  such  cases,  it  is  found  that  for  all  soils  a  change  by  way  of  rotation 
is  the  most  satisfactory  in  the  result  upon  both  the  soil  and  the  crops  produced, 
most  writers  on  the  subject  claiming  that  the  application  or  the  witholding  of 
manures  only  serves  to  retard  or  accelerate  this  process  of  exhaustion. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  poorer  the  soil  the  greater  the  necessity  of  diversifying 
the  crops;  consequently  the  greater  the  necessity  of  a  rotation,  and  those  crops 
that  are  wholly  removed  from  the  soil  in  root,  branch,  and  seed  will  exhaust  lands 
sooner  than  those  that  permit  of  a  portion  remaining  on  the  lands  to  fertilize  it, 
such  as  stubble,  etc.  Even  on  the  rich  lands  of  the  West  it  is  found  that  special 
crops,  such  as  wheat,  cannot  be  cultivated  on  the  same  soil  year  after  year  without 
deterioration.  When  lands  became  unproductive  among  the  early  cultivators  of 
the  soil,  it  was  concluded  that  such  lands  needed  rest;  hence  the  fallow  system 
was  introduced,  which  was  a  common  practice  among  the  Romans.  Their  usual 
course  was  to  permit  the  land  to  rest  after  each  crop;  a  crop  and  a  year's  fallow 
generally  succeeding  each  other,  although  where  manure  was  applied  two  and 
sometimes  several  crops  were  taken  between  the  fallowing  periods.  Among  the 
ancient  Eg}rptians  the  fallow  system  was  almost  unknown,  since  their  agriculture 
was  confined  to  banks  and  lands  adjacent  to  rivers  having  an  annual  overflow, 
which  inundation  caused  a  rich  deposit  of  mud  to  be  left  upon  the  surface  yearly, 
thus  furnishing  a  rich  top-dressing  sufficient  to  keep  the  soil  in  constant  fertility. 
The  practice  of  changing  the  crops  with  more  or  less  regularity,  although  found 
to  be  attended  with  beneficial  results,  has  never  been  quite  satisfactorily  explained. 

THEORIES    RELATIVE    TO    THE    NECESSITY    OF    ROTATION    OP    CROPS. 

Various  theories  have  from  time  to  time  been  advanced  relative  to  the  cause 
of  the  failure  or  depreciation  of  the  same  kind  of  crops  produced  from  the  same 


WHAT  CROPS  TO  RAISE.  143 


soil  continuously.  One  of  these  theories  formerly  was,  that  plants,  in  growing, 
exuded  or  threw  off  from  their  roots  waste  substances,  which  rendered  tho  soil 
unfit,  to  a  certain  degree,  for  the  production  of  the  same  variety  of  plants,  until 
time  had  neutralized  the  deleterious  properties  thus  imparted,  hut  that  these 
properties  given  off  were  not  injurious  to  other  kinds  of  plants.  This  theory  is 
now  generally  discarded.  Another  theory,  the  one  now  generally  adopted,  is  that 
different  kinds  of  plants  exhaust  certain  elements  from  the  soil  in  different 
degrees,  and  that  this  explains  why  a  change  in  the  production  of  crops  is  bene- 
ficial. This  may  be  a  true  reason  to  a  certain  extent,  but  it  does  not  fully  answer 
the  question,  since  it  is  found  that  different  crops,  requiring  about  the  same 
elements  of  plant  food  in  similar  quantities,  do  not  affect  the  soil  in  the  same 
manner,  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  slight  difference  in  the  proportionate  elements 
of  plant  food  of  different  crops,  does  not  account  for  the  great  difference  between 
the  alternation  of  these  crops,  and  the  successive  following  of  the  same,  as  is  the  case 
with  wheat  and  corn,  as  instanced  by  the  following  from  Prof.  Blount,  of  the  State 
Agricultural  College,  Colorado:  In  the  vegetable  as  well  as  the  animal  kingdom, 
it  is  the  infallible  law  of  nature  that  constant  cropping  and  continual  feeding  of 
one  thing  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others,  tend  to  reduce  the  strength,  vigor,  growth 
and  product.  Now  corn  takes  from  the  soil  only  about  six  and  one-half  per  cent, 
of  its  whole  substance  when  dried,  and  wheat  seven  per  cent.  All  the  rest  of  the 
matter  comes  from  the  air  in  the  shape  of  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  etc. 
If  a  succession  of  croppings  be  made,  it  necessarily  takes  from  the  soil  these 
elements  to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  Both  wheat  and  corn,  chemists  tell  us,  take 
lip  the  same  essential  elements,  but  they  fail  to  make  the  process  or  operation 
clear  enough  to  show  why  one  crop  following  itself  lessens,  and  following  another 
does  not  lessen  the  yield.  Corn  has  its  own  natural  habit  of  extracting  food  from 
the  soil;  so  has  wheat.  The  operation  of  both  cannot  be  alike,  or  the  exhaustion, 
lessening  of  the  yield,  and  the  same  condition  of  the  soil  would  follow  rotation. 
It  is  evident  that  wheat  leaves  the  soil  in  a  better  condition  for  corn  than  it  does 
for  wheat  again,  and  corn  leaves  it  better  for  wheat.  Clover,  peas,  and  sweet 
potatoes  are  among  the  best  crops  for  preparing  or  leaving  the  ground  for  any 
crop.  Wheat  does  much  better  after  Irish  potatoes  and  tobacco  in  some  States, 
than  after  any  other  grain  or  vegetable. 

Several  instances  have  come  under  my  observation  where  sweet  potatoes  were 
raised  for  10  to  20  years  in  succession,  without  any  apparent  exhaustion,  but  with 
great  fertility  to  the  soil.  In  looking  into  the  chemistry  on  this  subject,  we  find 
in  the  analyses  that  wheat  contains  about  55  per  cent,  of  starch  and  corn  70  per 
cent.  The  gluten  in  the  former  runs  from  10  to  19  per  cent.,  while  in  the  latter 
it  is  about  12  per  cent.  Now  if  the  soil  contains  a  certain  average  supply  of 
these  and  other  inorganic  substances  upon  which  the  plant  feeds,  and  the  same 
wheat  or  corn  crop  is  grown  in  the  same  soil  year  after  year,  the  crops  will  carry 
off  some  of  these  substances  in  greater  proportion  than  others,  so  that  they  will 
become  relatively  less  every  season.  The  result  is,  the  soil  will  become  so  impov- 
erished of  these  substances  that  no  crop  of  the  same  kind  can  be  raised,  although 
it  may  contain  a  large  store  of  other  inorganic  substances.  When  these  crops  are 
grown  one  after  another,  one  draws  especially  upon  one  class  of  elements,  and  the 
other  upon  another,  thus  keeping  up  the  equilibrium  of  fertility  necessary  to  sup- 
port either  plant. 


(141) 


■  Enemy  ok  the  Farm  Yard.'1 


() 


WHAT  CROPS  TO  RAISE.  145 


There  evidently  are  other  seasons  for  the  difference   in   connection  with  the 

many  theories  advanced,  which  are  not  yet  understood  ami  which  are  not  neces- 
sary for  the  farmer  to  understand,  since  he  has  to  ileal,  with  the  fact  itself,  and  its 
relations  to  agriculture.  He  can  afford  to  leave  the  explanation  of  this  phenom- 
enon to  the  agricultural  chemists,  and  give  his  attention  to  the  benefits  that  can 
be  derived  from  a  knowledge  of  the  tacts.      We  find  that 

NATURE  GENERALLY  FOLLOWS  A  COURSE  OP  ROTATION 

in  her  various  departments  of  vegetable  production.  Although  mowing  lands 
part  with  their  annual  crop  of  hay,  and  by  a  partial  rest,  or  a  pasturage  of  their 
aftermath,  or  "  rowen,"  will  remain  fresh  and  seem  to  retain  the  original  plants 
that  produced  the  crop,  yet  on  close  examination  it  will  be  ascertained  that  the 
varieties  of  the  grasses  and  other  plants  will  change  gradually  from  year  to- 
year,  some  kinds  predominating  at  one  time  and  others  at  another,  in  a  con- 
tinuous round  of  rotation. 

But  this  fact  of  change  is  more  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  succession  of 
forest  trees,  which  cannot  fail  to  attract  the  attention  of  even  the  most  casual 
bserver.  AVe  distinctly  recall,  among  our  childhood  memories,  a  grand  old 
forest  of  oak,  walnut,  and  chestnut  Many  of  these  monarchs  of  the  forest  suc- 
cumbed to  the  fate  of  the  woodman's  axe.  Soon  appeared  in  their  places  a  thick 
growth  of  white  pine,  which  increased  with  remarkable  rapidity.  These  pines 
were  subsequently  cut  down,  and  maple,  chestnut,  and  oak  came  up  with  scarcely 
a  pine  tree  among  them.  And  thus  it  is  always  found  that  when  a  forest  is  cut 
down  and  the  roots  destroyed,  another  growth  of  trees  succeeds  of  an  entirely 
different  nature,  and  these  are  followed  by  still  another  variety,  completing  in 
time  a  rotation  all  probably  produced  from  seeds  that  may  have  lain  dormant  in 
the  soil  for  centuries,  waiting  for  favoring  conditions  to  germinate. 

It  is  often  found  that  when  a  soil  becomes  exhausted  to  a  certain  extent  by 
one  particular  crop,  and  ceases  to  give  a  sufficient  return  of  it,  it  will  still  yield  a 
large  crop  of  some  other  kind  that  is  adapted  to  it,  and  which  calls  for  just  the 
elements  of  plant  growth  that  this  soil  may  contain;  this  is  not  only  a  fact  con- 
cerning field  crops,  but  the  same  is  true  in  gardening  and  culture  of  trees,  etc. 
There  would  be  found  few  gardeners  of  experience,  if  any,  who  would  think  of 
cultivating  cabbages,  turnips,  or  peas,  on  the  same  piece  of  land  without  an  inter- 
val of  at  least  two  or  three  years;  and  although  in  some  special  cases,  they  may 
be  grown  successfully  on  the  same  soil  for  several  consecutive  seasons,  this  would 
be  an  exception  to  the  general  rule.  The  general  and  most  successful  method 
being  to  have  an  interval  of  two  or  three  years  between  the  crops,  and  this  interval 
to  be  occupied  by  plants  entirely  different  from  them. 

A  Massachusetts  nurseryman,  eminently  successful  in  his  business,  says:  I 
have  witnessed  the  most  extraordinary  effects  follow  the  carrying  out  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  rotation  of  crops.  To  illustrate  the  point,  I  will  say  that  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  ground  for  apple-trees,  for  instance,  we  are  obliged  to  prepare  it  very 
nicely  in  order  to  be  successful — as  nicely  as  for  a  vineyard  or  garden  vegetables. 
We  plow  deeply,  manure  thoroughly,  and  then,  in  setting  out  the  small  plants, 
the  seedling  apples,  we  calculate  that  the  ground  is  in  a  fit  condition  to  carry 
those  trees  almost  to  their  maturity.     Now  you  will  see  that  the  growing  of  a  crop 


146  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


of  apple-trees  successfully,  which  requires  three  or  four,  and  sometimes  five  years, 
exhausts  the  soil  of  all  the  ingredients  which  the  apple-tree,  or  perhaps  any  decid- 
uous tree,  calls  for.  A  nurseryman  who  knows  his  business  understands  that  it 
would  be  folly  for  him,  after  he  has  taken  off  that  first  crop,  to  attempt  to  put  a 
second  crop  upon  that  land,  even  if  he  manured  equally  as  well  as  he  did  the  first 
time,  because  his  crop  has  exhausted  the  soil  of  certain  things  that  are  peculiarly 
necessary,  and  which  only  can  be  found  in  newer  soil.  My  practice  has  been  this: 
After  my  apple-trees  have  been  removed,  I  find  the  land  admirably  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  evergreen  trees,  such  as  spruce,  arbor  vita?,  hemlock,  etc.  Without 
remanuring  the  land,  without  any  repreparation  almost,  except  it  be  plowing,  I 
can  set  out  evergreens  and  get  an  admirable  crop,  because  the  elements  that  the 
evergreens  calls  for  being  different  from  those  which  the  apple-tree  calls  for  still 
exist  in  the  soil.  I  grow  them  three  years,  and  then  they  pass  away.  "What  is 
,  the  condition  of  the  soil  then?  It  is  exhausted  for  the  evergreen,  it  is  exhausted 
for  the  deciduous  tree,  and  you  might  say  that  the  soil  is  entirely  exhausted.  But 
such  is  not  always  the  case.  I  may  plow  that  ground  thoroughly,  without  even 
putting  manure  on  it,  and  raise  a  splendid  crop  of  grass. 

We  believe  it  is  because  the  grass  calls  for  different  elements  in  the  soil  than 
either  of  the  varieties  of  the  trees  specified,  and  the  farmer  will  find  the  same 
principle  true  respecting  his  crops;  for  this  reason  orchards  planted  on  old 
orchard  sites  seldom  do  well.  The  superintendent  of  the  gardens  and  grounds 
for  the  department  at  Washington  states  that  the  same  results  have  been  found 
in  the  culture  of  the  grape.  For  a  number  of  years  past,  it  has  been  customary 
for  the  department  to  propagate  several  thousands  of  plants,  embracing  many 
varieties  of  native  grapes.  These  are  mostly  grown  from  single  eye  cuttings  in 
sand-beds  under  glass,  and  placed  singly  in  pots  when  rooted.  About  the  end  of 
May  they  are  turned  out  of  pots,  and  planted  out  in  the  open  field  rather  closely 
in  rows  which  are  about  three  feet  apart.  When  they  have  finished  growth  for 
the  season,  they  are  lifted  and  removed  from  the  field;  the  ground  receives  a  coat- 
ing of  rotted  manure,  which  is  either  plowed  in  or  worked  with  a  spade,  leaving 
the  surface  rough  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  frost  In  the  following  spring  the  soil 
is  again  worked  over  and  left  in  good  order  for  planting.  At  the  proper  period 
young  grapes  are  again  planted  as  before.  These  are  removed  at  the  end  of  the 
season,  and  the  ground  receives  similar  treatment  to  that  of  the  previous  year. 
Notwithstanding  this  treatment,  the  third  crop  is  very  indifferent,  and  if  a  fourth 
successive  crop  is  planted,  it  will  prove  to  be  an  entire  failure. 

It  is  a  fact  well-known  to  florists,  that  even  the  smaller  plants  require  a 
change,  and  such  small  growths  as  petunias  and  verbenas,  if  continued  for  a  few 
years  on  the  same  ground,  will  not  give  satisfaction,  however  richly  fertilized 
with  different  manurial  applications,  and  that  when  it  is  desirable  to  grow  these 
plants  year  after  year  in  the  same  spot,  it  is  necessary  to  remove  six  or  eight 
inches  of  the  soil,  and  replace  it  with  fresh  earth  from  other  sources. 

Clover,  which  is  the  great  renovator  of  the  soil,  may  be  cultivated  on  the 
same  land  until  it  becomes  "clover  sick,"  and  ceases  to  produce  it. 

In  his  experiments  at  Rothamsted,  Mr.  Lawes  found  that  with  occasional 
variations  due  to  the  character  of  the  seasons,  the  average  annual  produce  of  a 
certain  field  for  twenty  successive  years  without  manure  was  sixteen  bushels  of 
wheat  per  acre  and  sixteen  hundred  weight  of  straw.     This  soil  was  a  strong  clay 


WHAT  CHOPS  TO  RAISE.  147 


loam  resting  at  a  depth  of  five  or  six  feet  upon  chalk,  and  probably  produced  a 
larger  yield  under  the  circumstances  than  most  soils.  In  the  case  of  turnips, 
when  treated  in  the  same  manner,  lie  found  that  after  a  few  years  they  ceased  to 
grow  larger  than  radishes,  and  he  could  not  afterward  by  the  application  of  any 
kind  or  quantity  of  manure  obtain  a  crop  equal  to  the  first.  The  result  was  very 
different  with  the  wheat  experiment  ahove  referred  to,  for  by  the  application  of  four 
hundred  weight  of  Peruvian  guano,  the  crop  was  at  once  doubled. 

Strawberry  plants  require  a  constant  change  of  ground,  in  order  to  do  well, 
and  are  constantly  seeking  to  occupy  new  territory  by  throwing  out  their  long 
"runners;"  and  it  is  said,  by  those  familiar  with  the  cultivation  of  mushrooms, 
that  they  never  rise  in  two  successive  ceasons  from  the  same  spot. 

Nature  has  in  such,  and  various  other  ways,  sufficiently  indicated  the  law  of 
rotation  as  the  law  cf  successful  growth,  and  we  doubt  whether  any  agriculturists 
can  improve  upon  it.  Exceptions  to  this  law  are  found,  but  they  are  exceedingly 
rare,  change  being  the  great  demand  for  all  varieties  of  plant  growth. 

SCHEMES    OF    DOTATION 

The  choice  of  crops  for  rotation  will  differ  with  the  different  soils,  climates, 
and  conditions;  consequently, in  deciding  upon  a  scheme  for  any  particular  farm, 
various  considerations  must  be  regarded,  such  as  the  nature  and  capacity  of  the 
soils  for  production,  the  demands  of  the  markets  which  may  be  accessible  for  the 
disposal  of  the  crop,  and  the  quantity  and  the  kind  of  manure  to  be  applied.  Each 
farmer  will  have  to  decide  these  for  himself.  It  is  well  to  have  a  scheme  made 
out  of  from  four  to  six  of  the  best  crops,  and  the  ands  given  to  the  culture  of  these 
in  successive  order.  In  all  cases  the  best  results  will  be  attained  when  the  soil  is 
abundantly  fed  with  fertilizers  of  some  kind  for  each  crop. 

The  general  rule  for  a  farmer  to  base  his  scheme  of  rotation  upon,  is  to  culti- 
vate as  large  a  variety  of  crops  as  his  soil,  circumstances,  and  the  demand  of  the 
market  will  render  profitable,  and  to  have  the  scheme  so  arranged  that  the  same, 
or  a  similar  species  of  plants,  shall  occupy  the  same  ground  at  intervals  as  remote 
as  practicable.  In  the  English  practice,  called  tho  "  four-field  or  Norfolk  system," 
which  is  considered,  for  that  country,  one  of  the  best  for  friable  soils  of  fair  quality, 
in  which  half  the  lands  are  in  grain  and  half  in  cattle  crops  annually,  a  great 
variety  of  changes  may  be  introduced,  which  will  bring  the  interval  between  the 
same  kind  of  plants  on  the  same  soil,  one  of  eight  years,  instead  of  four,  for  one 
or  two  of  the  more  important  crops. 

In  this  country,  it  is  generally  deemed  desirable  to  have  grass  for  one  of  the 
principal  crops  in  the  rotation  system.  It  is  thought  by  many  farmers  that  wheat 
succeeds  better  after  peas  and  crrnthan  after  any  other  crops.  The  following 
rotation  practiced  by  Mr.  Waring,  l:s  considered  by  those  who  have  followed  it  as 
desirable  for  some  sections.  Grass  is  followed  by  corn;  the  next  year  the  land  is 
occupied  by  either  potatoes,  carrots,  or  sugar-beets;  then  follows  green  forage  crops 
(generally  oats  or  corn),  and  Avhen  the  land  is  cleared  of  these,  winter  rye  is  sown 
in  the  fall.  The  next  year  the  rye  is  sometimes  cut  while  green  for  fodder,  and 
other  forage  crops  are  grown  upon  the  land  which  are  ready  to  be  cut  earliest,,  In 
the  fall  of  the  same  year  wheat  is  sown,  and  the  land  seeded  with  timothy  and 
clover.  When  the  grain  is  harvested  the  following  season,  the  grass  remains  and 
soon  shows  a  vigorous  growth. 


■''!''     '''<  .  <)!•}    ■      ■     i    '■'  ('■(SVl.'Sli 


•'Have  some  Dinner,  Sir?" 


(1-WJ 


WHAT  CROPS  TO  RAISE.  149 


Peas  or  clover  plowed  under  is  thought  to  ho  one  of  the  host  preparations  for 
wheat;  and  old  pastures,  plowed  under  in  the  fall,  are  generally  considered  pre- 
cursors of  fine  crops  of  corn,  while  corn-fields  are,  in  turn,  followed  by  good 
pastures. 

Grass  may  also  he  followed  by  peas  and  corn,  then  wheat;  some  root  crop 
followed  hy  barley,  with  grass  and  clover  seed,  which  will  produce  a  good  crop  ol' 
grass  the  following  year.  In  this  way  changes  can  be  made  in  rotation  almost 
ad  infinitum,  and,  as  we  have  previously  stated,  a  scheme  for  such  can  best  be 
made  when  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  crops  desired  are  known,  since  soils 
differ  so  greatly  that  a  rotation  for  one  section,  or  farm  even,  may  not  be  suited 
to  another,  and  only  the  general  rules  of  rotation  can  be  given  as  applicable  to  all. 
We  have  aimed  to  lay  general  rules  simply,  the  details  of  which  each  farmer  can 
best  arrange  to  suit  his  individual  requirements  and  circumstances. 

It  has  been  found  by  long  practice  that  better  results  are  reached  when  two 
crops  of  grain  are  not  cultivated  in  succession  on  the  same  field,  though  corn  may 
be  an  exception  to  this  rule;  also,  that  certain  products  are  mutual  fertilizers, 
being  so  mysteriously  related  that  the  growth  of  one  is  the  best  preparation  of 
the  soil  for  the  other. 

The  following  rotation  for  wheat,  corn,  oats,  peas,  and  clover  is  recommended 
by  the  editor  of  the  "Country  Gentleman":  Two  modes  of  rotation  are  adapted 
for  these  crops,  the  most  common  being  to  invert  sod,  and  plant  corn  on  it,  with 
good  manuring  the  previous  autumn  or  winter  on  the  surface;  follow  with  oats, 
barley,  or  peas,  and  the  same  autumn  sow  winter  wheat  with  a  moderate  seeding 
of  timothy,  and  the  next  spring  clover  seed.  The  field  may  remain  in  grass  any 
number  of  years,  according  to  the  number  of  your  fields.  This  rotation  is  modi- 
fied where  the  brown  cut-worm  is  prevalent  by  first  sowing  wheat  on  the  well- 
inverted  and  pulverized  sod,  and  follow  this  with  corn  and  the  other  crops  already 
mentioned  The  decaying  sod  and  the  manure  which  is  applied  give  a  good  crop 
of  corn. 

Of  course  a  rotation  suited  to  one  portion  of  the  country  would  not  be 
adapted  to  another  portion  where  the  products  were  very  dissimilar,  such  as  the 
Northern  and  Southern  States. 

With  respect  to  rotation  of  crops  in  the  Southern  States,  Mr.  C.  W.  Howard, 
of  Georgia,  says  a  great  defect  of  Southern  planters  is,  that  they  do  not  keep  in 
the  way  of  fertility  what  they  get — that  is  to  say,  when  they  make  a  piece  of 
ground  rich,  they  afterward  continue  to  work  it  in  exhausting  crops  until  all  the 
richness  is  gone.  The  true  policy  is  not  merely  to  keep  the  ground  rich,  but  to 
make  it  richer.  To  illustrate:  If  a  piece  of  rich  land  is  put  in  cotton,  it  may  be 
followed  with  corn,  small  grain,  with  clover  being  sowed  among  the  corn  in 
August.  If  the  clover  is  allowed  to  occupy  the  ground  for  two  years  and  to  go  to 
seed,  even  under  a  longer  rotation  than  the  above,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  sow 
it  again.  As  soon  as  the  ground  is  at  rest,  it  Avill  be  covered  with  young  clover. 
Three  years  ago  a  piece  of  ground  was  put  in  turnips,  manured  in  the  ground 
with  farm-yard  manure.  The  turnips  were  eaten  on  the  ground  by  the  sheep. 
The  next  year  it  was  put  in  corn ;  the  next  in  cotton  worked  very  clean,  and  the 
following  year  in  oats. 

After  the  oats  were  cut  a  fine  stand  of  red  clover  appeared.  This  seed  was 
never  sown,  but  must  have  been  in  the  manure  applied  three  }rears  since  to  the 


150  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


turnip.-.  This  is  not  a  solitary  case;  many  similar  instances  have  occurred  within 
the  observation  of  the  writer.  It  is  such  plants  as  clover  and  peas  that  not  only 
hold,  but  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  writer's  views  of  diversified  husbandry,  the  follow- 
ing rotation  of  crops  is  submitted  as  one  suited  to  the  agricultural  condition  of 
the  South. 

We  will  suppose  a  farm  of  five  hundred  acres  of  open  land  under  fence.  Let 
two  hundred  and  fifty  acres  be  devoted  to  arable  purposes,  and  the  rest  to  grazing. 
The  rotation  might  be  as  follows:  1.  Cotton  and  corn  in  the  same  field  in  suitable 
proportions.  2.  Oats  sown  in  August  on  the  cotton  and  corn  land.  3.  Rye?  or 
rye  and  wheat,  sown  in  September,  the  land  having  been  twice  plowed  in  ordei'  to 
kill  the  germinant  oats.  4  and  5.  Clover,  if  the  land  is  in  sufficient  heart  to  pro- 
duce it;  if  not,  the  fourth  year  rest  ungrazed,  and  the  fifth  year  sheep  and 
cattle  penned  upon  it  every  night  during  the  year,  using  a  portable  fence.  An 
ordinary  farm  of  five  hundred  acres  will  support  five  hundred  sheep,  beside^ 
the  crops  in  the  above  rotation.  The  oats  and  rye  will  feed  them  during  the 
winter  nearly  or  entirely,  without  injury  to  the  grain.  Five  hands  would  be  suffi- 
cient to  work  such  a  farm  and  take  care  of  the  live  stock. 

Prof.  Pendleton,  one  of  the  leading  agricultural  authorities  of  the  Southern 
section,  recommends  for  the  warm  lands  of  the  South,  a  rotation  of  cotton  for  two 
years,  followed  by  corn  on  the  most  productive  portions  and  wheat  or  oats  in  the 
rolling  lands,  with  a  fourth  year  at  rest,  the  land  to  lie  fallow.  According  to  his 
opinion,  cotton  will  give  better  results  for  two  successive  years,  provided  the  soil 
is  not  very  deficient  in  vegetable  material,  than  if  an  intervening  crop  is  made  to 
occupy  it.  For  lands  badly  exhausted  by  constant  cropping  without  sufficient 
manure  to  return  an  equivalent  for  the  elements  exhausted,  this  fallow  system  may 
prove  quite  beneficial;  but  as  a  general  rule  it  is  thought  by  most  writers  on  this 
subject,  that  the  plowing  under  of  green  crops,  such  as  clover,  peas,  etc.,  combined 
with  the  application  of  an  abundant  supply  of  manure  will  prove  more  beneficial 
to  most  soils  than  fallowing. 

'  Wherever  practicable,  pasturage  may  form  a  part  of  the  rotation  with  profit. 
Especially  so  on  farms  where  the  live  stock  interest  is  one  of  the  principal  features 
in  the  management.  By  using  a  portion  of  the  farm  for  keeping  cattle  and  sheep 
a  few  years,  and  afterwards  tilling  it  for  crops,  while  a  field  lately  tilled  is  in  turn 
taken  for  a  pasturage,  the  various  tilled  fields  may  often  be  utilized  with  profit  in 
completing  the  rotation. 

Sheep,  especially,  are  very  beneficial  in  improving  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  as 
is  seen  in  English  husbandry.  They  can  be  more  successfully  reared  at  the  South 
than  in  other  sections  of  the  country,  since  it  has  been  found  that  they  are  as 
healthy  in  the  cotton-growing  States  as  those  of  the  North,  while  the  time  of 
grazing  is  much  longer  at  the  South  than  it  is  at  the  North,  thus  giving  a  better 
opportunity  to  utilize  pasturage  in  rearing  them. 

Besides,  cotton  seed  will  furnish  a  cheap  and  nutritious  feed  in  winter,  and 
aside  from  the  wool  product,  sheep  on  cotton  plantations  are  worth  keeping  simply 
for  the  weeds  and  briars  they  will  destroy,  and  the  fertilizer  they  furnish  to  the 
soil.  We  believe  that  the  proper  management  of  sheep  on  cotton  plantations  will 
prove  one  of  the  most  potent  aids  in  restoring  fertility  to  partially  exhausted 
lands,  as  well  as  maintaining  the  fertility  of  such  as  have  been  properly  tilled. 


WHAT  CROPS  TO  RAISE. 


151 


Whatever  the  system  of  rotation  may  be,  or  whatever  the  nature  "I  the  soil, 
it  is  well  for  tho  fanner  to  bear  in  mind  Unit  good  crops  cannot  be  produced  with  - 
out  proper  management,  and  that  that  management  has  for  one  of  its  main  fea- 
tures, a  sufficient  supply  of  manure  to  furnish  the  elements  of  plant  food  to  the 
soil  that  is  expected  to  produce  so  abundantly.  If  we  are  to  have  satisfactory 
results  in  the  rearing  of  live  stock,  we  expect  to  feed  these  animals  with  a  suMi- 
cient  supply  of  proper  food;  but  many  fanners  seem  to  think  that  lands  can  con- 
stantly produce  Large  crops  with  only  a  meagre  supply  of  plan'  fund  furnished  for 
this  purpose.  This  is  a  great  mistake,  as  any  farmer  whose  practice  involves  this 
principle  will  learn  sooner  or  later,  for,  as  a  general  rule,  lands  will  produce-  and 
remain  in  a  state  of  fertility  exempt  from  exhaustion,  only  in  proportion  to  the 
proper  amount  of  fertilizing  material  applied  to  furnish  the  elements  of  growth 
to  the  crops  they  produce ;  and'if  1  hey  are  constantly  forced  by  successive  crop- 
ping without  this  aid,  exhaustion  must  follow  as  a  natural  result. 


"Sweetheart  and  Wife." 


CHAPTER  IX. 


brasses  *m&  borage  plants 


BY    CHARLES    L.    FLINT. 


LINT'S  "American  Farmer"  says:     Grasses,  or  plants  consti- 
tuting the   order  Graminese,  are   distributed  over  the  entire 
earth  and  constitute  one  of  the  largest  orders  of  the  vegetable 
dom.     This  order  includes  all  the  cereals  of  the  temper- 


cm*: 


ate  climate,  together  with  the  grains  of  the  warmer  zones 
and  the  bamboos  of  India  and  America — many  of  which 
have  columnar  stems  reaching  to  the  height  of  forest  trees — 
yet  all  are  formed  on  a  common  type,  and  therefore  belong 
to  the  same  botanical  order  as  the  tiniest  spear  of  grass  beneath 
our  feet. 

The  seeds  of  many  of  the  varieties  and  the  nutrition  of 
the  herbage,  form  the  chief  portion  of  the  sustenance  of  mankind,  and  the  more 
valuable  of  the  domestic  animals.  Among  these  are  wheat,  rye,  maize  or  Indian 
corn,  barley,  oats,  rice,  sugar-cane,  sorghum,  broom-corn,  millet,  etc.,  while  the 
bamboo  is  indispensable  to  the  natives  of  India  in  the  construction  of  their  dwell- 
ings, the  making  of  mats,  cordage,  boats,  sails,  masts,  rafts,  and  even  musical 
instruments  and  weapons.  A  large  number  of  grasses,  however,  seem  to  have  little 
or  no  agricultural  value,  and,  to  all  appearance,  are  but  little  better  than  weeds 
on  a  farm,  causing  the  farmer  considerable  annoyance  and  labor  in  keeping  his 
lands  clear  of  them.  There  are  also  probably  many  valuable  species  of  native 
grasses  growing  wild  in  different  portions  of  our  country,  now  regarded  as  little 
better  than  worthless  weeds,  which  when  fully  tested  may  be  found  to  be  of  great 
agricultural  value.  The  Department  of  Agriculture  has  within  a  few  years  past 
made  special  efforts  in  ascertaining  the  value  of  some  of  these  Avild  grasses,  the 
results  of  which  investigations  have  been  in  a  measure  successful;  but  thus  far  these 
experiments  have  been  carried  on  in  this  country  to  only  a  limited  extent.  The 
English  are  far  in  advance  of  us  in  this  respect,  the  most  careful  experiments 
there  being  made  with  reference  to  the  value  of  the  various  grasses  for  different 
soils,  situations,  and  climate,  as  Avell  as  in  relation  to  their  value  as  to  the  season,  etc. 
There  are  over  two  hundred  varieties  of  grasses  cultivated  in  England  for  the 
use  of  domestic  animals,  while  in  our  own  country  the  number  of  cultivated 
grasses  is  very  much  loss,  although  there  is  probably  no  country  on  the  entire 
globe  that  possesses  so  many  varieties  of  native  grasses.  A  few  3^ears  in  advance 
of  the  present  will  doubtless  show  great  improvement  in  this  department  of  our 
agriculture,  and  the  proper  tests  afforded  by  science  and  experience  will  acquaint 
us  with  the  true  value  of  many  varieties,  now  almost  unknown. 

(152} 


GRASSES  AM)  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


153 


What  render  grasses  so  peculiarly  nutritious,  and  hence  valuable  to  agricul- 
ture, are  the  large  proportions  of  sugar,  starch,  fatty  matter,  albumen  and  fibrine 
contained,  not  only  in  the  seeds,  but  also  in  the  stems,  leaves,  and  joints  of  grass 
before  the  seeds  arc  fully  matured. 

The  importance  of  grasses  in  all  systems  of  agriculture  can  scarcely  bo  over- 
estimated. In  fact,  the  proportion  of  meadow  and  pasture  lands  in  any  region  is 
regarded  as  a  good  criterion  of  the  agricultural  wealth 
of  that  region. 

Wherever  the  importance  of  the  grass  crop  has    g| 
been  overlooked    in    the   desire  to   realize  immediate 
results  from  special  crops,  the  consequence  has  gener-""" 
ally  been  an  impoverished  soil  and  an  impoverished  ~ 
people;  Avhile  the  farmer  with  an  abundance  of  pastur- 
age and  meadow  lands  has  in  his  own  hands  and  under  _j^fIi£-~-^^=fe_ .s=^~^»z 

his  own  control  the  very  elements  of  wealth  which,  if  """^  '-^~ni~ju=»*...-      ■■- =** 

judiciously  employed,  cannot  fail  of  good  in  the  result.  riopover. 

It  is  not  to  anyone  species  of  grass,  or  a  few  species  only,  that  we  should 
depend  upon  for  the  sustenance  of  our  stock,  but  the  many  species  intermingled, 
each  doing  its  part  in  the  great  economy  of  nature — some  starting  and  maturing 
early,  others  late;  come  preferring  low,  wet  localities,  others  only  dry  soils;  some 
seeking  the  shaded  situations  for  growth,  others  the  most  exposed  localities,  such 
as  the  broad  open  prairies  of  the  West,  or  the  savannas  of  the  South.  Some  will 
grow  only  in  the  water,  others  only  along  the  margin  of  lakes  and  rivers;  some 
only  in  fresh  water,  others  only  in  salt  water.  Thus  we  have  grasses  suited  to 
every  section  and  condition,  every  soil  and  climate,  from  one  portion  of  the  con- 
tinent to  the  other,  and  no  creation  in  the  vegetable  woidd  or  any  other  depart- 
ment of  nature's  vast  laboratory  will  lie  found  in  vain  or  useless,  however  man 
may  regard  it. 

The  great  error  in  New  England  farming  has  formerly  been  the  practice  of 
stinting  or  robbing  the  grass  lands  to  feed  the  hoed  crops  and  arable  lands. 
Although  there  is  at  present  a  great  improvement  in  this  respect  over  the  old-time 

method,  still  the  practice  is  not  wholly  discarded, 
^  t.  and  more  attention  should  be  given  to  the  cultivation 
"■  '  of  the  grass  crops  than  is  common  in  many  sections. 
As  the  general  appearance  of  plants  is .  often 
greatly  modified  by  climate,  soil,  and  modes  of  cultiva- 
\  tion,  it  is  important  to  fix  upon  certain  characteristics 
which  are  permanent  and  unaltered  by  circumstances, 
by  means  of  which  the  particular  genus  and  species 
may  be  identified  with  ease  and  certainty.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  these  characteristics  could  not  be  simply  in 
-  the  leaves,  or  the  stems,  or  the  size  of  the  plant,  be- 
cause there  will  be  a  great  difference  between  plants 
growing  in  a  poor,  thin,  sandy  soil,  and  others  of  the 
same  species  on  a  deep,  rich  loam.  Botanists  have,  therefore,  been  compelled  to 
resort  to  other  peculiarities  to  distinguish  between  different  species;  and  the 
terms  used  to  express  these,  like  the  terms  iised  in  other  departments  of 
natural    history,  are  technical;  and  hence  in  detailing   the    natural  history  of 


Spring-Tooth  Rake. 


154 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


the  grasses  the  use  of  technical  language,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  cannot  be 
avoided. 

The  flowers  of  the  grasses  are  arranged  on  the  sterns  in  spikes  as  where  they 
are  set  on  a  common  stalk  without  small  stalks  or  branches  for  each  separate 
flower,  as  in  herds  grass  (Pheleum  pratense),  or  in  panicles,  or  loose  sub-divided 
clusters,  as  in  orchard  grass  (Dactylis  glomerata).  A  panicle  is  said  to  be  loose 
or  spreading,  as  in  red-top  (Agrostis  vulgaris),  when  the  small  branches  on  which 
the  flowers  are  set  are  open,  or  extended  out  freely  in  different  directions;  it  is 
said  to  be  dense,  or  crowded  or  compressed,  when  the  branches  are  so  short  as  to 
give  it  more  or  less  of  the  spike  form. 

In  different  parts  of  the  country,  a  great  variety  of  grasses  are  known  by 
different  common  names,  the  same  name  being  frequently  applied  to  grasses 
entirely  different  from  each  other;  or,  a  single  plant  may  be  known  by  several 
different  names,  which  occasions  no  little  confusion  Avhere  the  common  or  local 
name  is  wholly  depended  upon  to  distinguish  one  variety  from  the  other;  for 
instance,  the  grass  that  is  commonly  called  "  cat's  tail"  in  England,  is  known  as 

timothy  in  some  sections  of  this  country,  and  herds 
grass  in  others;  and  that  which  is  called  red-top  in 
one  locality  is  known  as  herds  grass  in  another,  and 
a,:  by  the  various  terms  of  Burdin's  grass,  red-bent  grass, 
fj>  summer-dew  grass,  small  red-top,  fine  red-top,  and 
^pjd-  fowl-meadow  grass  in  others.  What  is  commonly 
55 1  called  blue  grass  in  one  locality  is  known  as  green 
grass  in  another,  etc.;  so  that  it  is  evident  were  he 
common  name  to  be  depended  upon  alone,  in  dis- 
tinguishing one  variety  from  another,  considerable 
difficulty  would  be  involved  in  arriving  at  a  correct 
understanding  as  to  which  species  it  meant.  And 
when  we  take  into  further  consideration  the  fact  of  the 
close  resemblance  of  many  of  the  different  species  of  grasses,  especially  to  a  per- 
son inexperienced  in  distinguishing  one  from  another,  the  subject  becomes  a  more 
puzzling  one  still,  and  it  could  hardly  be  expected  that  a  correct  understanding- 
could  be  arrived  at  when  depending  entirely  upon  the  common  or  local  name.  We. 
therefore,  see  the  necessity  of  the  use  of  the  Latin  name  of  the  species,  and  when 
this  is  once  known  there  is  no  further  difficulty  in  this  respect,  since  the  same  Latin 
or  scientific  name  is  never  applied  to  but  one  of  a  species. 

TIMOTHY,  OR  HERDS  GRASS  (PHELEUM  PRATENSe). 

Generic  characters:  Panicle  spikes,  spikelets  compressed,  pales  shorter  than 
the  awned  glumes,  the  lower  one  truncate,  usually  awnless;  styles  distinct,  fila- 
ments hairy,  spike  dense,  rough,  or  harsh.  So  called  from  an  ancient  Greek  term 
signifying  cat's  tail,  the  name  by  which  it  is  still  most  frequently  known  in  Great 
Britain. 

The  name  of  timothy,  by  which  it  is  more  generally  known  over  this  country 
and  abroad,  was  obtained  from  Timothy  Hanson,  who  cultivated  it  extensively, 
and,  according  to  some  accounts,  introduced  it  into  England,  from  whence  it  is 
supposed  to  have  been  originally  brought  to  this  country.  It  forms  a  large  pro- 
portion of  what  is  called  English  hay. 


Dumping  Sulky  Rake. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE   PLANTS. 


155 


For  land  that  is  adapted  to  it,  there  is,  all  things  considered,  no  better  grass 
than  timothy  and  it  is  probably  unsurpassed  for  hay  by  any  kind  now  cultivated. 
If  allowed  to  stand  too  long,  however,  it  will,  as  almost  every  farmer  knows, 
heroine  hard  and  woody  and  its  nutritive  value  greatly  lessened,  yet  if  cut  when 
in  bloom,  it  is  relished  by  all  kinds  of  stork — especially  so  by  horses — while  it 
possesses  a  large  percentage  of  nutritive  matter  in  o  »mparis<  m  with  other  agricul- 
tural grasses.  It  was  formerly  often  sown  with  clover,  but  the  best  practical  fanners 
have  discontinued  this  custom  on  account  of  the  different  times  of  blossoming  of 
the  two  crops;  since  timothy  being  invariably  later  than  clover,  the  former  must 
be  cut  too  green,  before  blossoming,  when  the  loss  is  great  by  shrinkage  and  when 
the  nutritive  matter  is  considerably  less  than  at  a  little  later  period,  or  the  clover 
must  stand  too  long,  when  there  is  an  equally  serious  loss  of  nutritive  matter  in 
that.  It  grows  very  readily  and  yields  very  large  crops  on  favorite  soils.  We 
have  known  instances  where  its  yield  was  four  tons  to  the  acre  of  the  best  quality 
of  hay,  the  timothy  constituting  the  bulk  of  the  grass.  It  is  cultivated  with  ease, 
and  yields   a  large  quantity  of  seed  to  the  acre,  ^-— - — ' 

varying  from  ten  to  thirty  bushels  on  rich  soils.      -:r"  ^=_,-- 

This  grass  has  long  roots  which  extend  deep  into 
the  soil,  and  when  once  well  established  it  will 
withstand  drouth  better  than  many  other  varie- 
ties.    When  a  good  growth  is  once  well  started 
on  a  mellow  surface-soil  overlaying  a  moist  sub- 
soil,  this  crop  is  quite  safe  against  any  ordinary  sP" 
drouth.     It  only  requires   a   good    start   in   theal 
spring,   so  as  to  occupy  and  protect  the  ground. JOT 
May  is  the  best  month  for  the  grass  crop,  and  if5il§j§8 
it  be  unusually  dry,  or  cold  winds  prevail  then.^fyygjg; 
the  product  will  be  liable  to  be  effected  accord-   'v,^^lvmm^M:mW^'^^-'- 
ingly;  but  such  grasses  as  have  a  good  soil  and  Draft  Damping  Hake,  a.  d.  ibso. 

deeply  penetrating  roots  will  endure  without  permanent  injury  the  effects  of 
unfavorable  weather  better  than  those  varieties  lying  near  the  surface,  as  they 
can  draw  moisture  from  the  subsoil  and  also  possess  the  basis  for  a  good  crop  the 


following; 


year. 


When  pastured,  it  yields  abundantly  during  the  season,  starting  very  early  in 
the  spring,  and  is  greatly  relished  by  stock  of  all  kinds.  It  may  be  sown  on  wheat 
or  rye  in  August,  or  later,  or  in  the  spring.  The  quantity  of  seed  required  per 
acre  depends  largely  upon  the  soil  and  its  condition.  From  ten  to  fourteen 
quarts  is  sufficient  where  the  soil  is  fine  and  mellow,  while  from  eighteen  to 
twenty  might  be  required  in  a  heavy  clay  when  sown  alone.  It  is  stated  by  good 
authority,  that  a  crop  of  pure  timothy  produced  three  tons  to  the  acre  on  the 
farm  of  Mr.  George  Geddes,  near  Syracuse,  NeAv  York,  and  also  that  Mr.  John 
Fisher,  of  Carroll  county,  Maryland,  cut  from  one  acre  five  tons  and  one  thousand 
six  hundred  and  twenty-two  pounds  of  dry  hay.  The  proper  time  for  mowing 
timothy  is  when  the  first  dry  appearance  is  seen  above  the  first  joint;  if  mowed 
earlier  than  this,  the  plant  is  injured;  if  left  to  a  later  period,  the  starch  and 
sugar  are  converted  into  an  indigestible  Avoody  fibre,  and  the  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds on  which  its  value  chiefly  depends  are  transferred  from  the  leaves  and 
culm  to  the  seed,  which  mostly  drop  out  before  they  reach  the  manger.     Timothy 


156 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


is  not  well  adapted  to  hot  sands,  gravels,  chalks,  nor  hard  sterile  clays;  but 
thrives  on  peaty,  damp  soils,  and  especially  on  most  calcareous  loams,  where  it 
exhibits  its  fullest  perfection. 


■3^ 


GREEN  MEADOW  GRASS,  JUNE  GRASS,  COMMON  SPEAR  GRASS.  KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS, 

ETC.  (POA  PRATENSIS). 

r  The  characteristics  of  the  genus  poa  are  ovate  spikelets,  compressed,  flowers 
two  to  ten  in  an  open  panicle,  glumes  shorter  than  the  flowers,  lower  palea  com- 
pressed, keeled,  pointless,  five-nerved,  stamens  two  or  three,  seed  oblong,  free, 
stems  tufted,  leaves  smooth,  flat  and  soft. 

Specific  characters:  Lower  florets  connected  at  the  base  by  a  web  of  long, 
silky  filaments,  holding  the  calyx;  outer  palea,  five-ribbed,  marginal  ribs  hairy, 

upper  sheath  longer  than  its  leaf;  height  from  ten  to 
fifteen  inches,  root  perennial,  creeping,  stem  erect, 
smooth,  and  round;  leaves  linear,  flat,  acute,  rough- 
ish  on  the  edges  and  inner  surface;  panicle  diffuse, 
spreading,  erect.  The  plant  is  of  a  light  green  color, 
the  i  spikelets  frequently  variegated  with  brownish 
purple.     Introduced.     Flowers  in  June. 

This  is  an  early  grass, 
very  common  on  the  soils 
of  New  England  in  pas- 
tures and  fields,  constitu- 
ting a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  turf.  It  varies 
much  in  size  and  appear- 
ance accoiding  to  the  soil  on  which  it  grows.  In  Ken- 
tucky it  is  universally  known  as  blue  grass,  and  else- 
where frequently  called  Kentucky  blue  grass,  and  still 
more  frequently  June  grass.  It  must  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  best  pasture  grasses  known.  It  is  common 
all  over  the  northern  part  of  the  country,  growing  indigenously  in  all  limestone 
countries  lying  between  the  thirty-fourth  and  forty-fifth  parallels,  and  coming  to 
its  highest  perfection  upon  the  rich,  marly,  blue  limestone  soils  of  some  of  the 
central  counties  of  Kentucky.  It  is  said  to  have  been  found  growing  there  when 
the  region  was  first  discovered,  constituting  a  natural  pasturage  that  attracted 
vast  numbers  of  grazing  animals,  countless  herds  of  buffalo,  elk,  deer,  ante- 
lopes, etc. 

This  grass  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  a  short  rotation,  and  is,  therefore,  less 
suited  to  our  mowing  lots,  from  the  fact  that  it  requires  three  or  four  years  to 
become  well  set  so  as  to  form  a  close  sward.  This  habit  of  growth  is  less  objec- 
tionable as  a  permanent  pasture.  When  the  soil  is  once  well  sodded  with  this 
grass,  it  will  endure  the  vicissitudes  of  the  seasons — heat  and  cold,  sunshine  and 
shade,  droughts  and  floods — with  wonderful  persistency.  It  is  the  source  of  wealth 
in  sections  adapted  to  it,  and  there  are  pastures  of  it  fifty  years  of  age  still  luxu- 
riant and  profitable.  It  throws  up  flower-stalks  but  once  in  the  season,  but  it 
starts  quickly  after  grazing  or  cutting,  and  forms  a  thick,  green  growth. 


Self-Dumping  Rake,  A.  D.  1852. 


Dralt  Dumping  Rake,  A.  D.  18CG 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


157 


Spring  Tooth  Dumping  Rake,  A.  D.  1856. 


On  this  account,  it  is  highly  recommended  for  lawns.  It  thrives  equally  well 
on.  high  or  low  lands,  hut  is  not  adapted  to  a  thin,  poor  soil.  In  some  sections  not 
adapted  to  its  growth  it  is  regarded  as  a  troublesome  weed.  Its  flower-stalk  is  short: 
and  matures  early.  It  is  not  to  bo  judged  in  value  by  this,  but  by  its  long  leaves, 
abundantly  produced  throughout  the  season,  which  forms  a  rich,  sweet  herbage — 
in  fact,  one  of  the  best  for  milch  cows,  the  dairy  product  from  such  milk  being  of 
the  best  quality.  On  rich  soil,  the  leaves  will  frequently  attain  the  length  of 
two  feet  when  allowed  to  grow. 

It  grows  well  in  rather  a  dry  soil,  but  will  grow  on  a  variety  of  soils,  from 
the  dryest  knolls  to  a  wet  meadow.  It  does  not  withstand  severe  droughts  as  well 
as  some  other  grasses.  It  endures  the  frosts  of  win- 
ter better,  perhaps,  than  most  other  grasses;  and  in 
Kentucky,  where  it  attains  the  highest  perfection  as 
a  pasture  grass,  it  sometimes  continues  luxuriant 
through  their  mild  winters.  As  it  requires  at  least 
two  or  three  years  to  become  well  set,  and  does  not 
arrive  at  its  perfection  as  a  pasture  grass  till  the  ,1 
sward  is  older  than  that,  it  is  not  suited  to  alternate 
husbandry,  or  where  the  land  is  to  remain  in  grass 
only  two  or  three  years  and  then  be  plowed  up.  In 
Kentucky,  the  best  blue  grass  is  found  in  partially 
shaded  pastures. 

BLUE    GKASS,  OR    IVIKE    GRASS  (POA    COMPRESSa). 

Stems  ascending,  flattened,  the  uppermost  joint  near  the  middle,  leaves  short, 
bluish  green,  panicle  dense  and  contracted;  flowered  flat  spikelets;  flowers  rather 
obtuse,  linear,  hairy  below  on  the  keel;  ligule  short  and  blunt;  height  about  a 

foot.     It  is  very  common  on  dry,  sandy,  thin  soils  and 
banks,  so  hardy  as  to  grow  on  thin  hard  soils  covering 
the  surface  of  rocks,  along  trodden  walks,  or  gravelly 
knolls.     It  shoots  its  leaves  early,  but  the  amount  of 
its  foliage  is  not  large,  otherwise  it  would  bo  one  of  our 
most  valuable  grasses,  since  it  possesses  a  large  per 
cent,  of  nutritive  matter.    Flowers  in  July.    Most  graz- 
ing animals  eat  it  greedily,  and  it  is  especially  relished 
by  sheep.     Its  bluish  green  stems  retain  their  color 
after  the  seed  is  ripe.     It  shrinks  less  in  drying  than 
'"  most  other  grasses,  and  consequently  makes  a  hay 
spiiBg  Tooth  DumPin?Rake,  a.  d.  1856.    very  heavv  in  proportion  to  its  bulk.     It  is  an  exceed- 
ingly valuable  pasture  grass  on  dry?  rock}'  "knolls  and  should  form  a  portion  of  a  mix- 
ture for  such  soils.     This  should  not  be  confounded  with  Kentucky  blue  grass 
alluded  to  above. 

BERMUDA  GRASS,  WIRE  GRASS  (cYNODON  DACTYLON). 

A  low,  creeping  perennial  grass,  with  abundant  short  leaves  at  the  base, 
sparingly  sending  up  slender,  nearly  leafless  flower-stalks,  with  three  to  five 
slender  diverging  spikes  at  the  summit.  The  flowers  are  arranged  in  a  close  row 
along  one  side  of  these  spikes.     The  spikelets  are  one-flowered,  with  a  short  pedi- 


158  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


celled  rudiment  of  a  second  flower.     The  glumes  are  pointed,  but  without  awns; 
the  lower  palet  boat-shaped. 

This  grass  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  is  abundantly  naturalized  in  many  other 
countries.  It  is  said  to  be  a  common  pasture  grass  in  the  West  Indies.  In  the 
Southern  States  it  has  long  been  the  chief  reliance  for  pasture,  and  has  been 
extravagantly  praised  bj^some,  and  cursed  by  others,  who  find  it  difficult  to  eradi- 
cate it  when  once  established.  Mr.  C.  Mohr  speaks  of  it  thus:  It  thrives  in  the 
arid,  barren  drift-sands  of  the  sea-shore,  covering  them  with  its  long  creep- 
ing stems,  whose  deeply  penetrating  roots  impart  firmness  to  a  soil,  which  else 
would  remain  devoid  of  vegetation.  It  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  of 
our  grasses,  either  in  the  pasture  or  cured  as  hay. 

Colonel  T.  C.  Howard,  of  Georgia,  says  the  desideratum  of  the  South  is  a 
grass  that  is  perennial,  nutritious,  and  adapted  to  the  climate.  While  we  have 
grasses  and  forage  plants  that  do  well  when  nursed,  we  have  few  that  live  and 
thrive  here  as  in  their  native  habitat.  The  Bermuda  and  crab  grasses  are  at  home 
in  the  South.  They  not  only  live,  but  live  in  spite  of  neglect,  and  when  petted 
and  encouraged  they  make  such  grateful  returns  as  astonish  the  benefactor. 

It  seems  that  it  rarely  ripens  any  seed  and  the 
usual  method  of  reproducing  it  is  to  chop  up  the 
roots  with  a  cutting  knife,  sow  them  broadcast  and 
plow  under  shallow.  Colonel  Lane  states:  Upon  our 
ordinary  uplands,  I  have  found  no  difficulty  in 
destroying  it  by  close  cultivation  in  cotton  for  two 
years.  It  requires  a  few  extra  plowings  to  get  the 
sod  thoroughly  broken  to  pieces. 

Professor  Killebrew,  of  Tennessee,  states  that  in 
Louisiana,  Texas  and  the  South  generally,  it  is,  and 
Draft  Dumping  Rake,  a.  d.  1859.  nas  been,  the  chief  reliance  for  pasture  for  a  long  time 
and  the  immense  herds  of  cattle  on  the  Southern  prairies  subsist  principally  on 
this  food.  It  revels  on  sandy  soils  and  has  been  grown  extensively  on  the  sandy 
hills  of  Virginia  and  North  and  South  Carolina.  It  is  used  extensively  on  the 
southern  rivers  to  hold  the  levees  and  embankments  of  the  roads.  It  will  throw 
its  runners  over  a  rock  six  feet  across  and  soon  hide  it  from  view,  or  it  will  run 
down  the  sides  of  the  deepest  gully  and  stop  its  washing.  Hogs  thrive  upon  its 
succulent  roots  and  horses  and  cattle  upon  its  foliage.  It  has  the  capacity  to  with- 
stand any  amount  of  heat  and  drouth  and  months  that  are  so  dry  as  to  check  the 
growth  of  blue  grass  will  only  make  the  Bermuda  greener  and  more  thrifty. 

Mr.  Wall,  of  Mississippi,  says  it  is  a  most  valuable  grass,  and  is  destined  to 
be  the  salvation  of  the  hill  land  in  Mississippi.  With  us  it  has  no  seed,  but  can 
be  easily  propagated  by  dropping  the  cuttings  in  a  furrow,  two  or  three  feet  apart. 
It  does  not  endure  shade,  and  can  be  destroyed  by  sowing  the  land  with  oats,  fol- 
lowed by  peas. 

CRAB   GRASS    (PANICUM    SANOUINALe). 

This  is  a  native  of  Europe,  but  has  become  naturalized  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.  It  springs  up  quickly  in  both  cultivated  and  waste  grounds,  and  sends 
out  roots  from  the  lower  joints,  which  take  firm  hold  of  the  soil  and  spread 
rapidly  in  all  directions.     In  the  Novtborn  States  it  is  very  troublesome  in  corn 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  159 


fields,  it  being  difficult  to  keep  them  clear  of  it.  In  the  Southern  States  it  is 
used  for  hay  crops,  giving  a  large  yield  of  hay  of  excellent  quality  if  cut  at  the 
proper  time,  which  is  before  the  ripening  of  the  seeds.  It  also  furnishes  very 
desirable  pasturage  during  August  and  September,  when  the  spring  grasses  are 
old  and  dry. 

Professor  Killobrew,  of  Tennessee,  says  of  it:  It  is  a  fine  pasture  grass, 
although  it  has  but  few  base  leaves  and  forms  no  sward,  yet  it  sends  out  numerous 
stems,  branching  freely  at  the  base.  It  serves  a  most  useful  purpose  in  stock 
husbandry,  and  the  Northern  farmers  would  congratulate  themselves  very  much 
if  they  had  it  to  turn  their  cattle  on  while  the  clover  fields  and  meadows  are 
parched  up  with  summer  heat.  It  fills  all  our  corn  fields,  and  many  persons  pull 
it  out,  which  is  a  tedious  process.  It  makes  a  sweet  hay,  and  horses  are  exceed- 
ingly fond  of  it,  leaving  the  best  hay  to  eat  it. 

HUNGARIAN    GRASS    OR   HUNGARIAN    MILLET   (PANICUM    GERMANICUm) 

is  an  annual  grass  cultivated  as  a  forage  plant,  and  is  a  variety  of  Setoria  Ger- 
manica,  the  common  millet.  It  was  introduced  into  France  in  1815,  where  it  has 
been  considerably  cultivated.  It  germinates  readily,  has  a  quick  luxuriant  growth, 
and  is  remarkable  in  withstanding  drought,  remain- 
ing green,  even  when  other  vegetation  is  parched  and 
dry,  while  if  its  growth  is  arrested,  in  a  measure,  by 
dry  weather,  the  least  rain  will  restore  its  vigor.  It  j 
is  much  relished  by  horses  and  cattle,  as  well  as  all' 
other  kinds  of  stock;  when  fed  in  too  large  quantities 
will  act  as  a  diuretic,  and  hence,  in  such  cases,  injuri- 
ous; but  if  fed  in  a  moderate  quantity  it  is  nutritive 
and  harmless.  It  makes  most  excellent  hay,  of  good 
weight,  flourishing  on  light  and  dry  soils,  though  it 

attains  its  greatest  luxuriance  in  soils  of  medium  con-  ,,  

sistency,  well  manured,  and  may  be  sown  broadcast  and 

cultivated  precisely  like  other  varieties  of  millet.  When  blown  clown  by  storms 
and  violent  winds,  it  readily  recovers  its  upright  growth.  A  farmer  recently 
mentioned  the  fact  of  his  field  being  blown  down  three  times  in  succession  by 
storms,  and  each  time  it  recovered  its  upright  position  very  readily.  It  has  been 
known  to  attain  the  height  of  three  and  one-half  feet  on  rich  soil.  This  grass 
does  well  on  the  rich  lands  of  the  West,  though  it  will  exhaust  soil  quicker  than 
some  other  products.  It  is  sown  about  the  time  of  planting  corn,  at  from  two  to 
three  pecks  per  acre,  and  should  be  cured  the  same  as  timothy  grass.  The  editor 
of  the  "  Country  Gentleman  "  expresses  the  following'opinion  relative  to  this  grass: 
"Hungarian  grass  will  grow  on  any  soil  of  sufficient  richness  and  condition 
to  raise  good  corn  and  potatoes,  the  richer  the  better,  provided  the  manure  has 
been  applied  to  previous  crops.  Sow  when  the  ground  is  warm  and  dry,  or  imme- 
diately after  corn  planting.  If  portions  of  the  field  are  sown  with  a  few  days' 
interval  between,  it  will  not  be  ready  to  cut  all  at  once,  which  may  prove  a  con- 
venience in  a  large  field.  The  ground  before  sowing  should  be  thoroughly  pulver- 
ized by  harrowing,  and  made  smooth  and  level,  so  that  the  small  seed  may  not 
be  buried  too  deep.     Three  pecks  broadcast  are  enough  for  an  acre.     Cahoon's 


160 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


I^^^j^^^^^ssssim 


sower  is  well  adapted  to  do  the  work  evenly.  Cover  the  seed  with  a  fine  or 
smoothing  harrow,  and  then  roll  the  surface.  In  two  months  the  heads  will 
appear,  at  which  time,  if  intended  for  hay,  it  should  be  cut  with  a  mowing 
machine.  Two  or  three  days  may  be  required  for  thorough  curing,  including 
turning  or  shaking  up  before  raking,  and  opening  the  cocks.  Good  land,  well 
managed,  will  give  two  or  three  tons  of  hay  per  acre.  It  is  best  as  a  fodder  for 
cows.     The  crop  is  too  dense  in  growth  to  sow  clover  or  grass  seed  with  it." 

COMMON  MILLET  (PANICUM  MILLIACEUM). 

Iii  growth  and  manner  of  bearing  seeds  the  common  millet  resembles  broom- 
corn.     Its  foliage  is  broad  and  abundant,  heads  open,  branching  panicles.     It 

grows  to  the  height  of  from  two  and  a  half 
to  three  and  a  half  feet,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  and  makes  excellent 
forage  for  cattle,  though  not  equal  to  the 
German,  golden,  or  pearl  millet.  Allen 
states  that  from  eighty  to  a  hundred  bushels 
of  seed  per  acre  have  been  raised,  with  straw 
equivalent  to  one  and  a  half  or  two  tons  of 
hay,  but  an  average  crop  may  be  estimated 
at  about  one-third  this  quantity.  Birds  are 
usually  troublesome  in  destroying  the  seed 
when  ripened,  as  they  are  very  fond  of  it; 
consequently  is  is  more  profitable  to  cut  it 
for  the  seed  before  all  the  heads  have 
matured.  It  is  cured  the  same  as  hay,  and 
yields  from  two  and  a  half  to  four  tons  per 
acre.  All  kinds  of  grazing  stock  are  fond 
of  it.  The  seeds  are  glossy,  oval,  and  some- 
seed   it  is  a  very  rich    food,   consequently 


Primitive  Hand  Folk, 


what  flattened.     When 
should  be  mixed  with 


cut   in    the 
other  hay  in 


feeding. 


CULTIVATION. 


A  rich,  dry  soil,  well  pulverized,  is  most  desirable  for  the  best  results,  although 
it  will  grow  on  thin  soil.  It  can  be  sown  broadcast  or  in  drills.  From  the  first 
of  May  to  the  first  of  July  is  the  usual  time  for  sowing  at  the  North,  the  best  time 
being  generally  conceded  to  be  in  June,  when  the  soil  is  warm.  At  the  South,  it 
can,  of  course,  be  sown  much  earlier.  From  a  bushel  to  a  bushel  and  a  half  seed 
per  acre  is  considered  a  fair  quantity,  if  sown  broadcast;  if  sown  in  drills,  from 
eight  to  ten  quarts  per  acre  will  suffice.  It  will  ripen  in  from  sixty  to  seventy-five 
days  after  sowing.  It  should  be  cut,  if  for  fodder,  while  the  seed  is  in  a  milky 
state,  which  will  bo  in  about  six  weeks  after  sowing.  It  can  be  cut  with  a  mow- 
ing-machine and  cured  the  same  as  hay. 

For  green  food,  it  can  be  cut  during  its  various  stages  of  growth,  and  will 
produce  a  quick  after-growth  when  cut  at  an  early  stage,  and  is  not  so  liable  to  be 
effected  by  dry  weather. 


GRASSES  AM)  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


161 


It  is  especially  valuable  to  supplement  the  hay  crop,  as  a  farmer  can  wait 
until  lie  can  determine  the  yield  of  hay  or  ensilage  crop  before  sowing,  conse- 
quently can  calculate  the  amount  of  millet  required  to  be  cultivated  to  insure  his 
usual  amount  of  iced  for  his  stock  for  the  year,  while  nearly  all  other  crops  require 
an  earlier  planting  or  sowing. 

TIME  OF  CUTTING  AMI    METHOD  oh'  CURING  CLOVER. 

Of  course,  the  time  of  cutting  clovers,  as  well  as  grass,  differs  with  different 
latitudes,  and  can  only  be  determined  by  the  condition  of  the  crop.  The  opinion 
formerly  prevailed  that  this  crop  should  be  cut  after  having  fully  blossomed  and 
assumed  a  brownish  hue,  or  as  soon  as  the  earliest  heads  showed  signs  of  ripen- 
ing; but  it  has  been  ascertained,  by  .many  and 
repeated  experiments,  that  the  proper  time  for 
cutting  it  is  just  as  it. is  coming  into  full  bloom,  as 
it  then  has  the  maximum  amount  of  nutritive 
matter  in  a  condition  best  fitted  for  assimilation. 

CULTIVATING    CLOVER    SEED. 

Some    farmers    pasture    the    clover-fields  till 

June,  and  then  leave  it  to  mature  a  full  crop  of 

seed;  others  mow  it   early  and   leave   the  second 

crop  to  mature  the  seed;- but  when   this   is  done 

the  first  cutting  should  be  before  blossoming  and 

seed-forming,  as  the  plant  will  become  too  much 

exhausted  to  produce  a  second  crop  of  seed,  the 

seed-forming  substance  having  been  used  up,  in 

a  measure,  in  the  first  crop.     It  is  of  more  impor- 
tance to   place   more  value  upon  the  seed  to  be 

raised  than  the  hay  first  secured,  as  this  will 
prove  more  profitable  in  the  end.  The  early 
mowing  has  the  benefit  of  removing  the  weeds, 
while  the  second  growth  of  clover  will  be  so  rapid 
that  the  weeds  will  be  smothered,  and  the  clover 
is  then  saved  comparatively  free  from  other  seeds. 
An  application  of  plaster  to  the  clover-field 
in  the  spring  will  secure  a  better  crop  of  seed 
when  matured,  while  its  application  to  the  field 
gjs  freshly  mowed,  after  its  first  crop,  will  make  the 
second  growth  very  luxuriant  and  rank  in  hay,  to 
the  detriment  of  the  seed  crop. 

CLOVER    AS    A    FERTILIZER. 


Ilurpoon  Horse  Fork,  A.  D.  1SGV 


Tilting  Horse  Fork,  A.  D.  1870. 


Clover  is  not  only  extremely  valuable  as  a 
forage  plant,  but  also  as  a  fertilizer  of  any  soil  on 
which  it  grows.  It  is  often  stated  that  the  introduction  of  clover  into  England 
produced  an  entire  revolution  in  her  agriculture.  We  know  its  importance  to 
the  agricultural  interests  of  our  country  are  beyond  estimation,  and  we  wonder 

how  our  ancestors  could  have  gotten  on  without  it. 

li 


162 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Clover  acts  as  a  fertilizer  in  various  ways.  Its  long  roots  not  only  penetrate 
the  soil,  loosening  it  and  admitting  the  air,  thus  improving  its  mechanical  condi- 
tion, but  also  serve  to  fix  in  the  soil  those  elements  important  to  enrich  it.  When 
these  roots  decay,  they  contribute  their  substance  to  further  increase  the  fertiliz- 
ing properties  of  the  land.  The  heavy  foliage  of  clover  also  serves  to  choke  out 
the  weeds  that  would  be  liable  to  spring  up  on  newly  seeded  land.  It  also  heavily 
shades  the  surface,  which  tends  to  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil  by  this 
means.  It  has  been  found  that  while  clover  takes  out  of  a  soil  as  much  of  some 
of  the  elements  of  fertility  as  many  of  the  farm  crops,  even  more  than  wheat  or 
other  cereals,  it  leaves  in  it  a  much  larger  portion  of  nitrogen  or  nitrogenous  ele- 
ments than  any  other  crop.  And  it  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note,  that  a  crop  of  grain 
will  grow  better  after  a  crop  of  clover  than  it  will  after  any  other  crop.  The 
amount  of  nitrogen  left  in  the  soil  by  a  crop  of  clover  was  found,  by  the  careful 
investigations  of  Prof.  Voelcker,  who  is  one  of  the  best  authorities  on  agricultu- 
ral chemistry  the  world  has  ever  known,  to  be  equal  to  two  and  a  half  to  three 
tons  per  acre.  He  also  found  that  on  soils  where  clover  had  been  grown,  not  only 
is  all  that  nitrogen  collected  and  stored  up  in  the  soil  by  the  clover,  but  it  is  left 
when  spring  returns  in  a  much  better  condition  to  produce  a  grain  crop  than  any 

other  fertilizer  that  could  be  applied.  These  investigations 
were  made  at  different  depths  of  the  soil,  taking  six  inches 
at  a  time  until  a  depth  of  eighteen  inches  was  reached. 
From  the  thorough  investigations  thus  made,  Prof.  Voelc- 
ker arrived  at  the  following  conclusions  : 

1.  That  a  good  crop  of  clover  removes  from  the  soil 
more  potash,  more  phosphoric  acid,  more  lime,  and  other 
mineral  matters  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the 
ashes  of  our  cultivated  crops,  than  any  other  crop  usually 
grown  in  the  country. 

2.  There  is  fully  three  times  as  much  nitrogen  in  a 
crop  of  clover  as  in  the  average  produce  of  the  grain  and 
straw  of  wheat  per  acre. 

3.  Notwithstanding  the  large  amount  of  nitrogenous 
matter,  and  of  the  ash  constituents  of  plants  in  the  produce 
of  an  acre,  clover  is  an  excellent  preparatory  crop  for  wheat. 


Grapple  Horse  Fork,  A.  D  1880. 


4.  During  the 


growth  of    clover   a  large   amount    of 


nitrogenous  matter  accumulates  in  the  soil. 

5.  This  accumulation,  which  is  greatest  in  the  sui'f ace-soil,  is  due  to  decaying 
leaves  dropped  during  the  groAvth  of  clover,  and  to  an  abundance  of  roots,  con- 
taining when  dry  from  one  and  three-quarters  to  two  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

6.  The  clover  roots  are  stronger  and  more  numerous,  and  more  leaves  fall 
on  the  ground  when  clover  is  grown  for  seed,  than  when  it  is  mown  for  hay, 
which  accounts  for  wheat  yielding  a  better  crop  after  clover-seed  than  after  hay. 

7.  The  development  of  roots  being  checked  when  the  produce  in  a  green  con- 
dition is  fed  off  by  sheep,  in  all  probability  leaves  less  nitrogenous  matter  in  the 
soil  than  when  clover  is  allowed  to  get  riper,  and  is  mown  for  hay.  Notwith- 
standing the  return  of  the  produce  in  the  sheep  excrements,  wheat  is  generally 
stronger,  and  yields  better,  after  clover  mown  for  hay,  than  when  the  clover  is 
fed  off  green  by  sheep. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


163 


8.  The  nitrogenous  matters  in  the  clover-remains,  on  their  gradual  decay, 
are  finally  transformed  into  nitrates,  thus  affording  a  continuous  source  of  food, 
on  which  cereal  crops  specially  delight  to  grow. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  clover  is  one  of  the  best  fertilizers  known  for  preceding 
any  crop.  Clover  is  also  a  most  valuable  agent  in  restoring  the  fertility  of 
exhausted  lands  by  being  plowed  under  while  green.  The  leaves  gather  food  from 
the  atmosphere,  and  this  food  it  stores  up  in  its  roots  and  stems,  which  by  their 
decomposition  afford  a,  peculiar  nitrogenous  element  to  crops.  The  texture  of 
many  soils  is  also  greatly  improved  by  the  use  of  clover  as  a  green  manure.  This 
subject  of  manuring  with  green  crops  will  be  found  more  fully  treated  in  connec- 
tion with  fertilizers,  and  hence  does  not  require  a  further  consideration  here. 

THE    COW    OK    FIELD    PEA. 


This  is  much  cultivated  in  the  Southern  States,  and  is  more  like  a  bean  in 
appearance  than  a  pea,  and  belongs  to  the  leguminous  or  pulse  family.  The  ease 
with  which  it  can  be  cultivated,  and  its  value  as  a  forage  plant  as  well  as  fertilizer 
of  the  soil,  have  given  it  a  prominence  in  South- 
ern agriculture.  Two  crops  from  two  successive 
plantings  can  be  produced  in  one  season,  as  it 
groAvs  very  rapidly. 

Hon.  H.  M.  Polk,  of  Tennessee,  in  making  a 
comparison  between  the  field-pea  and  red  clover, 
says  the  pea  will  thrive  upon  land  too  poor  to 
groAV  clover.  It  will  produce  a  heavy  and  rich  crop 
to  be  returned  to  the  soil  in  a  shorter  period  than 
any  other  vegetable  fertilizer  known.  Two  crops 
can  be  produced  on  the  same  ground  in  one  year; 
whereas  it  requires  two  years  for  clover  to  give 
'  a  hay  crop  and  good  aftermath  for  turning  under; 
in  this  time  four  crops  of  peas  can  be  made. 

The  pea  feeds  but  lightly  upon,  and  hence 
leaves  largely  in  the  soil  those  particular  elements 
necessary  to  a  succeeding  grain  crop,  and  the  pea 
lay  in  its  decay  puts  back  largely  into  the  soil  those  very  elements  required  for  a 
vigorous  growth  of  the  cereals. 

There  is  no  crop  Avhich  is  its  equal  for  leaving  the  soil  in  the  very  best  con- 
dition for  a  succeeding  wheat  crop. 

It  is  the  only  crop  raised  in  the  South  so  rapid  in  its  growth  and  perfection 
as  to  be  made  an  intervening  manurial  crop  between  grain  cut  in  the  spring  and 
grain  sowed  in  the  fall  upon  the  same  ground.  And  this  alone  makes  the  pea 
invaluable  to  Southern  agriculture. 

In  our  particular  latitude  it  flourishes  equally  with  clover,  and  with  two  such 
renovators  of  the  soil  (aside  from  their  value  as  food  crops)  no  portion  of  the  earth 
is  equally  blessed.     North  of  us  the  pea  does  not  succeed. 

It  is  admirably  adapted  to  other  crops,  producing  in  the  space  between  our 
corn  rows  both  a  provision  and  a  fertilizing  crop,  with  positive  benefit  to  the 
growing  corn. 


Harpoon  Horse  Fork,  A.  D.  lSSl. 


164 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


It  aids  in  producing  cheap  beef,  pork,  milk,  and  butter.  Without  the  pea 
pork  could  not  be  produced  cheaply  where  it  costs  so  much  to  make  corn. 

It  furnishes  a  double  capacity  for  wintering  stock,  and  with  this  a  doubly 
enlarged  manure  heap. 

The  large  plantations  of  the  South  can  only  be  restored  by  green  crops  turned 
under,  united  to  a  judicious  system  of  rotation,  looking  to  feeding  the  soil.  This 
must  be  aided  by  all  the  manure  manufactured  on  the  plantation. 

By  its  use  large  addition  is  made  to  humus,  upon  which  the  tilth,  as  well  as 
capacity  of  the  soil  for  retaining  moisture,  so  greatly  depends. 

As  for  the  cultivation  of  the  pea,  one  can  scarcely  go  amiss.  When  two  crops 
are  intended  for  renovating,  break  the  land,  sow  broadcast  and  harrow  in;  or 
drill  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  and  plow  out  when  a  few  inches  high.  When  pods 
begin  to  ripen,  if  the  crop  is  intended  for  manurial  purposes,  plow  under 
with  a  large  two-horse  plow,  with  a  well-sharpened  rolling  coulter 
attached,  or  with  chain  passing  from  double-tree  to  beam  of  the  plow  to 
hold  the  vines  down  for  facilitating  covering.  A  roller  passed  over 
the  vines, before  plowing  under  will  assist  the  operation.  Caustic 
lime  should  be  sown  upon  the  vines  before  plowing  under  to  pro- 
mote decay,  and  neutralize  the  large  amount  of  vegetable  acid  cov- 
ered into  the  soil.  Select  the  pea  which  runs  least. 
The  vines  are  easiest  covered  into  the  soil.  They  are 
the  black  bunch-pea,  and  the  speckled  or  whip- 
poor-will  pea. 

When  planted  in  corn  as  a  food  crop,  the  bunch- 
pea  ripens  soonest ;   but  the  Carolina  cow-pea,  the 
clay-pea,  or  the  black  stock  pea  are  preferable,  as 
they   do  not  readily   rot  in  wet  weather  and   will 
remain  sound  most  of  the  winter.  For  early  feeding 
of  stock,  plant  whip-poor-will  pea  by  itself  in  separ- 
ate enclosure  from  corn,  where  stock  can  be  turned 
Peas  are  often  sown  upon  stubble  after  small  grain   is 
harvested.      Flush  up  the   ground,  and   sow  either  broadcast  or  drill  in  furrow 
opened  with  shovel-plow,  covering  Avith  scooter  furrow  on  each  side.     Block  off  or 


Hand  Fork,  A  D.  1SS2. 


upon  when 


ever  desire* 


d. 


run   over  lightly  with  harrow  and  board  attached.     As 


;ain, 


they  are  drilled  in 


every  fourth  furrow,  when  turning  over  the  stubble,  the  succeeding  furrow  cover- 
ing the  peas.  When  either  of  these  last  modes  of  planting  is  adopted,  the  peas 
should  receive  one  good  plowing  out  when  they  are  from  four  to  six  inches  high. 

When  planted  in  corn  (the  corn  should  have  been  drilled  in  rows  rive  feet 
apart),  they  should  be  step-dropped  in  a  furrow  equally  distant  from  each  corn- 
row  and  covered  with  scooter,  with  harrow  or  with  block.  This  should  be  last  of 
May  or  in  the  first  ten  days  of  June.  The  only  work  they  receive  when  planted 
in  corn,  is  a  shovel  or  sweep  furn  >\v  run  an  >und  them  when  the  corn  is  being  "laid  by," 
unless  there  is  much  grass,  when 'it  becomes  necessary  to  give  them  light  hoeing. 
The  crop  might  be  said  to  be  made  almost  without  work  when  planted  with  corn; 
in  fact,  it  is  often  so  made  by  those  planters  who  sow  peas  broadcast  in  their  corn 
and  cover  them  with  the  last  plowing  given  the  corn. 

There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  treatment  of  the  vines  in 
curing  thorn  for  hay.      And  as  much  as  has  been  written  on  tin1  subject,  the  writer 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


165 


feels  some  diffidence  in  giving  his  own  views.  Suffice  it  to  say,  the  great  end  to 
be  attained  is  to  cure  the  vines  to  the  extent  only  of  getting  rid  of  some  of  the 
succulent  moisture  in  the  vine,  without  burning  up  the  leaves.  When  exposed  to 
too  much  heat,  the  leaves  fall  very  readily  from  the  stems  and  are  lost. 

When  put  up  too  green  and  too  compactly  they  heat,  and  when  fermentation 
of  the  juices  of  the  vino  and  the  unripe  pods  occurs,  the  hay  is  seriously  damaged, 
if  not  completely  spoiled.  Mildewed  hay  of  any  kind  isbut  poor  feed  for  stock, 
and  when  eaten  is  only  taken  from  necessity  to  ward  off  starvation.  Some  planters 
hoiise  their  pea  hay  in  open  sheds,  or  loosely  in  barns,  with  rails  so  fixed  as  to 
pre  vent  compacting.  Others  stack  in  the  open  air  around  poles  having  limbs  from 
two  to  three  feet  long  to  keep  the  mass  of  vines  open  to  the  air  and  cover  the  top 
with  grusjs. 

There  la  a  diversity  of  opinions  as  to  the  proper  manner  of  curing  and  pre- 
serving this  hay,  but  tbere  is  none  as  to  the  value  of  this  rich  food  for  all  stock, 
and  especially  for  the  milch-cow  in  mcreasing  the  quality  and  quantity  of  her 
milk. 


SOWING    GRASS    SEED. 


It  has  been  the  general  practice  with  farmers  of  this  country  to  sow  grass 
seed  with  some  kind  of  grain,  preparing  the  land  especially  for  the  grain  crop, 
and  with  the  exception  of  covering  it  in  the  process  of  covering  the  grain,  to  make 
no  provisions  for  the  crops  of  grass  the  land  is  expected 
to  produce.  Although  by  this  means  the  land  may  be 
utilized  to  produce  two  crops  at  the  same  time,  and 
labor  saved,  yet  we  think  it  is  far  better  and  more 
economical  in  the  end,  to  sow  the  grass  seed  separ- 
ately, thus  giving  it  a  fair  start  and  insuring  a  good 
crop;  because  the  practice  of  sowing  together  results 
in  injury  to  both  crops.  By  the  usual  method  of  sow- 
ing with  grain,  the  grass  crops  suffers  a  great  injury, 
by  the  grain  taking  possession  of  the  fertilizing  ele-< 
ments  of  the  soil,  and  choking  the  growth  of  the 
grass,  and  also  by  shading  it  too  much,  and  when  the 
grain  is  cut,  the  grass  is  not  only  trampled  and  injured 
by  cutting,  but  is  often  dried  up  by  the  hot  sun,  being 
too  tender  to  bear  its  scoi'ching  rays. 

We  do  not,  therefore,  believe  it  a  good  policy,  as 
a  general  rule,  to  sow  grass  seed  with  any  grain  crops. 
By  so  doing  we  rob  the  grass  crop  for  the  sake  of  the  grain,  and  the  grass  must  in 
turn  deprive  the  grain  of  some  of  the  nutritive  elements  of  the  soil,  to  a  limited 
extent;  however,  the  grass  crop  is  the  one  to  suffer  most  by  the  practice. 

Whenever  grass  is  to  be  sown  with  any  kind  of  grain,  barley  is  the  one  to  be 
preferred;  but  even  this  is  very  objectionable.  Grass  is  an  important  product, 
and  should  be  regarded  as  such  in  its  cultivation.  If  we  take  a  grain  crop  from 
our  grass  lands,  the  grass  must  of  necessity  be  injured  by  it,  although  it  may  not 
be  entirely  killed  by  such  treatment.  In  preparing  the  lands,  it  should  be  plowed 
and  given  a  good  supply  of  manure  or  fertilizer  of  some  kind,  the  quality  suited 
to  the  character  of  the  soil;  sometimes  guano  or  grass  fertilizer  is  sown  upon  the 


Harpoon  Horse  Fork,  A.  D.  1884. 


166  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


surface  broadcast.  The  soil  should  then  be  pulverized  with  a  harrow  until  it  is 
melloAV  and  fine,  and  the  seed  sown  either  by  hand  (as  is  still  the  old-time  prac- 
tice on  small  farms  in  many  sections),  or  by  a  machine,  which  is  much  better, 
since  it  will  distribute  the  seed  much  more  evenly  over  the  surface  than  hand- 
sowing,  besides  greatly  facilitating  the  labor.  So  many  seeds  fail  to  germinate 
or  are  destroyed  by  birds  and  insects,  that  we  favor  a  liberal  quantity  of  seed 
sown,  as  well  as  large  variety,  in  order  to  secure  not  only  a  heavy  growth  but  hay 
of  superior  quality,  for  every  farmer  knows  that  hay  is  superior  and  finer  in  qual- 
ity where  the  grass  grows  thick  and  compact  in  the  sod.  It  is  a  common  fault  to 
cover  grass  seed  too  deeply.  Most  of  our  grass  seeds  germinate  most  surely  when 
only  covered  one-fourth  of  an  inch,  and  by  actual  experiment  it  has  been  ascer- 
tained that  when  covered  an  inch  half  of  the  seeds  fail. 

Grass  seed,  being  so  very  small,  should  be  slightly  covered ;  hence,  if  a  common 

tooth  harrow  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  covering,  as  has  frequently  been  the 

custom,  the  seed  is  buried  too  deeply  in  the  soil.     A  common  brush  harrow  is 

better  for  this  purpose,  to  be  followed  by  a  good  roller  to  press  the  soil   down, 

■gs.         ■        which  hastens  the  germination  of  the  seed.     Many 

|7-'fiSfc     :  farmers  who  are  not  in  possession  of  a  good  roller 

jS-w-s  use  a  simple  wooden  drag  for  this  purpose,  which  is 

.--■  JlH^jfei       made  similar  to  what  is  commonly  called  a  "stone 

(pEr.; -.__ . ■■-^^d^^jSEsSp'    .boat,"  the  front  being  beveled  up  so  as  to  avoid  the 

^^-l^^^^&JRptiS^ --       uneven  surface.      From    eighl    to    ten    feel    long,  and 

.3^r?8iiS3p4>B»i  nffe^-v- -      three  and  one-half  feet    wide,  are  very  good  dimen- 

^^^^^^^M  -mSm ;-t'W^ir~  si°lls  f°r  such  a  constructed  harrow.     The  inclined 

iBi  ^^^^S ""^^^^^C^^P"  Porti°n  ('an   be  about  a  foot  wide;   this   answers    the 

BSSji        ^^^^^^^&^^^P  purpose  of  a  brush  harroAV  and  roller  combined.     It 

^^^^^^^Si%^.  is     a    good    practice    in    reclaiming    old    worn-out 

~^^^^^^^^^^^M^^^^^  meadows  to  give  them  a  good  coating  of  unfermented 

manure,  and  then  turn  the  sod  over.     On  this  sur- 
Hand  Tedder.  fac0  -(-j^g  piowe(j)  a  dressing  of  well-rotted  manure  or 

compost  with  ashes  is  spread,  and  thoroughly  harrowed  lengthwise  the  furrows. 
The  seed  is  then  sown  and  lightly  harrowed  in,  followed  with  rolling;  the  decom- 
posing manure,  with  the  added  fertilizing  properties  of  the  stubble  and  roots  of 
the  sod,  will  give  a  quick  and  luxuriant  growth.  Many  farmers  greatly  improve 
their  lands  for  mowing,  when  they  do  not  wish  to  plow  up  and  seed  down,  by 
furnishing  a  good  top-dressing  of  manure  in  the  fall  or  early  spring  (fall  is  better), 
and  then  scattering  grass  or  clover  seed  over  the  field.  The  seed  thus  sown  will 
catch  quickly  and  greatly  improves  the  crop,  if  sown  when  the  sod  is  moist  or 
just  before  a  heavy  rain. 

Pasture  lands  are  often  improved  by  running  a  harrow  over  them  in  a 
manner  to  cut  the  turf  slightly  into  small  squares,  an  inch  square  being  the  most 
desirable  size  marked  by  the  harrow  lines.  This  should  be  done  when  the  soil  is 
rather  moist.  Upon  the  ground  thus  prepared,  sow  a  mixture  of  grass  and  clover 
seed  of  various  kinds  suited  to  both  early  and  late  growth,  in  order  to  insure  a 
fresh,  permanent  pasturage  through  the  season.  Upon  this  put  a  little  top  dress- 
ing, and  the  seed  thus  so  vn  will  quickly  germinate  and  greatly  improve  the 
grazing,  though  it  should  not  he  fed  upwn  until  it  has  had  an  opportunity  to 
become  deeply  rooted  and  well  established  in  the  turf.     It  is  very  important  (and 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  167 


we  would  repeat  it  here  to  impress  it  more  forcibly  upon  the  minds  of  farmers,) 
that  both  mowing  lands  and  pastures  should  occasionally  have  a  dressing  ol 
manure  or  some  other  fertilizer.  It  will  be  economy  in  the  end  for  farmers  to 
put  more  manure  on  their  grass  lands,  instead  of  putting  all  on  their  other  crops 
to  the  neglect  of  the  grass.  If  it  is  not  profitable  to  cultivate  corn  or  wheat 
without  manure,  neither  is  it  profitable,  nor  should  be  expected,  to  cultivato  grass 
well  without  some  assistance  from  fertilizers.  The  best  time  for  applying  the 
manure  is  in  the  fall,  as  it  serves  to  protect  the  roots  and  gives  the  grass  an  early 
start  in  the  spring. 

TIME    OP    CUTTING    AND    METHOD    OF    CURING    HAY. 

As  to  the  time  of  cutting  grass  for  hay,  there  is  still  a  diversity  of  opinions 
among  the  farmers  of  our  country,  although  in  the  main  there  has  been  quite  a 
change  in  favor  of  early  cutting  within  the  last  twenty-five  years.  Some  recom- 
mend cutting  just  before  it  comes  into  bloom,  some  when  in  perfect  bloom,  others 
when  the  blossoms  have  just  fallen,  others  when  the 
seed  is  in  a  milky  state,  and  others  still  when  the( 
seeds  are  nearly  ripe. 

Two  very  important  considerations  are  involved 
with  respect  to  this  subject.  The  first  is,  to  cut  it 
at  the  time  that  it  contains  the  greatest  amount  of 
nutriment;  the  second,  to  do  it  when  it  will  involve 
the  least  injury  to  the  after-Growth.  The  question  to  <^t*°*^'^®  - 
be    considered   then   is,   when    is  the  time !     Yv  ltn  T" 

regard    to    the    first,    the    opinion  and  practice    of  Patent  Tedder,  i«si. 

farmers  have  greatly  changed  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century.  It  was 
formerly  the  general  opinion  that  the  best  time  for  cutting  most  kinds  of 
grasses,  timothy,  and  orchard  grass,  for  instance,  was  when  the  seed  was 
nearly  ripe  and  ready  to  shell;  but  experience  and  scientific  analysis  have 
proved  that  the  time  when  grass  contains  the  greatest  amount  of  nutritive 
matter,  such  as  starch,  gum,  and  sugar,  is  not  at  this  period,  but  at  the  period 
before  the  seed  is  formed,  since  most  of  these  nutritive  properties  of  the  plant 
go  to  form  the  seed,  leaving  the  woody  fibre  in  the  stalk,  which  serves  to  give  bulk 
food  but  not  nourishment;  hence,  if  not  cut  early,  a  great  part  of  the  nutriment 
of  the  stems  and  leaves  i;i  wasted.  Experience  and  observation,  together  with  the 
information  afforded  us  by  analysis,  prove  that  the  proper  time  for  cutting  nearly 
all  kinds  of  grasses  is  when  they  are  in  full  bloom,  or  just  as  they  are  coming  into 
bloom;  opinions  vary  somewhat  with  respect  to  these  stages  of  growth,  but  we 
believe  the  majority  are  in  favor  of  the  time  of  full  bloom.  Even  a  casual 
observer  must  have  noticed  that  when  cattle  are  grazing  they  do  not  select  the 
stalks  of  grass  with  ripened  seed  or  withering  blossoms.  No,  they  pass  those  by, 
and  take  the  more  tender  grasses  that  have  not  arrived  at  this  stage,  and  we  think 
they  must  be  better  judges  than  Ave  as  to  Avhich  is  the  most  desirable  for  food. 
Now,  in  making  hay,  our  object  is  to  have  as  little  change  as  possible  in  the  grass 
and  to  preserve,  as  nearly  as  wre  can,  the  solid  constituents,  in  the  same  state  a& 
when  the  grass  was  young  and  green,  and  if  cut  at  the  period  of  blossoming  there 
will  be  little  of  the  woody  fibre  in  its  composition.     If  left  until  the  seed  is  rip- 


168  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


ened,  we  find  the  seeds  the  store-house  of  the  starch,  gum,  and  sugar,  as  before 
stated,  while  the  stalk  becomes  hard,  wiry,  and  about  as  nutritious  as  straw. 
Swale  hay  is  almost  worthless,  if  cut-when  the  seeds  are  ripening.  Clover  should 
also  be  cut  when  in  full  bloom  and  not  when  the  head  has  become  brown.  It  has 
been  found  by  careful  experiment  that  herds  grass,  red-top,  and  clover  cut  at  the 
time  as  we  have  indicated,  will  produce  more  milk  and  butter  than  the  same 
quantity  of  late-cut  hay,  even  when- fed  with  a  certain  quantity  of  grain  daily 
and  that  the  same  relative  value  will  be  found  in  making  beef  or  feeding  any 
farm  stack;  besides,  no  one  can  deny  that  the  early  cut  grass  is  most  like  green 
grass. 

With  respect  to  our  second  consideration,  viz.,  the  time  of  cutting  that  will 
best  conduce  to  the  after-growth,  the  same  rule  applies  equally  well. 

Any  plant  that  is  cropped  at  a  certain  time,  before  arriving  at  a  state  of 
maturity,  will  throw  up  a  second  growth  more  readily  and  be  more  vigorous  than 
if  cropped  after  it  has  matured.  This  is  a  law  of  nature  that  cannot  escape  any 
person,  even  the  most  unobserving.  Now,  if  we  apply  this  rule  to  grass  cutting, 
we  shall  not  only  have  better  hay,  as  we  have  already  seen,  but  the  after-growth 
will  start  more  vigorously  and  grow  more  rapidly,  which  will  not  only  protect  the 
young  and  tender  grass  roots  from  the   hot  sun,  but  "will  furnish  an  aftermath  or 

"rowen" — as  it  is  often  called — which  will  be  quite 
an  addition  to  the  hay  crop  already  gathered,  while 
a  third  crop  will  soon  start  and  grow  sufficiently 
before  the  frost  comes,  to  secure  the  roots  a  protec- 
tion through  the  winter;  this  protection  aiding  in 
an  early  growth  in  the  spring.  It  is  a  fact,  that  all 
experience  corroborates,  that  grass  will  not  only  start 
earlier  in  the  spring,  after  a  protection — whether  of 

top-dressing  or  its  own  aftermath — but  will  produce 

"^^^^^^S^       a  greater  amount  of  hay  the  following  season  than 
paten  Tedder,  a.  d.  1862.  where  no  protection  is  thus  given.     Cutting  grass 

after  it  seeds  leaves  a  dry  stubble  that  is  slow  in  starting  again,  and  will  look 
brown  during  the  remaining  part  of  the  season,  unless  the  soil  is  particularly 
rich  or  damp,  while  it  will  not  produce  as  much  hay  in  quantity  or  as  good  in 
quality  the  following  season,  as  the  fields  that  are  early  cut.  Thus  we  see  that 
the  present  practice  of  early  cutting  is  an  improvement  upon  the  old-time  method, 
in  securing  not  only  a  larger  amount  of  hay,  but  hay  of  a  better  quality,  and  also 
leaves  the  land  in  a  condition  to  furnish  a  larger  crop  of  grass,  the  following 
season. 

Respecting  the  cutting  of  grass,  we  believe  the  universal  opinion  among  our 
loading  farmers  is,  that  it  should  not  be  cut  until  the  dew  is  well  dried  off,  as  it 
will  then  cure  much  more  readily.  We  think  the  practice  of  many  farmers  of 
overdrying  their  hay  is  as  great  an  injury  to  its  quality  as  that  of  insufficient 
curing;  in  fact,  Ave  might  safely  say  that  farmers,  as  a  general  thing,  lose  more 
hay  by  drying  it  too  much  than  by  not  drying  it  enough. 

Even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  with  respect  to  the  time  of  cutting, 
there  must  of  necessity  he  considerable  loss  of  the  nutritive  qualities  of  the  grass 
in  drying;  the  action  of  heat  and  moisture  causing  a  loss  of  sugar  and  starch. 
This  loss  is  dependent  in  a  great  measure  upon   the  length  of  time  it  is  exposed 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


169 


to  the  air  and  light;  hence,  grass  cured  with  the  least  exposure  to  wind  and  sun- 
light, other  conditions  being  equal,  will  be  more  nutritious,  and  contain  less  of 
■\voody  fibre  than  that  which  is  ovnvuied  by  long  exposure  to  wind  and  sun;  and 
such  hay  is  also  more  palatable  to  cattle,  as  is  evidenced  by  their  eating  it  more 
readily  andshowing  a  preference  for  it  when  given  a  choice  of"  the  two  kinds. 
"Never  dry  hay  so  as  to  make  it  brittle  when  twisted  in  the  hand,"  is  a  rule  bv 
which  many  of  our  best  farmers  are  governed. 

Hay  should  be  housed  <>n  the  day  of  cutting,  if  possible.  Our  experience  in 
this  respect  goes  to  show  that  one  good  hay-day  is  sufficient  for  drying  any  kind 
of  grass,  unless  it  be,  perhaps,  wet  meadow  or  swale  hay,  which  requires  more 
curing  to  keep  well  than  most  of  our  varieties;  however,  many  farmers  have  fine 
success  in  keeping  the  latter  in  good  condition  when  put  in  a  barn  the  same  day 
of  mowing.  Of  course,  much  depends  upon  the  kind  of  temperature,  state  of  the 
atmosphere,  etc.,  even  on  a  bright,  sunny  day.  It  is,  therefore,  very  difficult  to 
lay  out  any  definite  rule  with  respect  to  the  time  required  to  cure  hay,  as  any 
farmer  knows  that  on  some  days  twenty-five  minutes  will  dry  it  more  effectually 
than  sixty  minutes  will  at  other  times  with  a  full  sunshine. 

The  extensive  use  of  mowing-machines,  and  the  degree  of  perfection  that  has 
been  attained  in  their  construction,  is  such  that  much  of  the  hard  labor  attending 
haying  in  former  times  is  obviated,  besides  facilitating  the  process  of  curing  and 
getting  it  housed  before  the  dew  begins  to  fall. 

With  all  the  modern  facilities,  the  old  adage,  "Make  hay  while  the  sun 
shines,"  is  as  true  now,  and  as  important  to  be  observed,  as  it  was  in  the  days  of 
our  forefathers. 

I  am  convinced  that  in  most  parts  of  New  England  our  English  hay  should 
he  cut  and  stored,  if  the  weather  allow,  before  the  seed  has  set;  commencing  to 
cut  with  a  mowing-machine  as  soon  certainly  as  the  dew  is  off.  One  man  should 
be  occupied  trimming  around  the  fences,  trees,  etc.  At  11  o'clock,  commence 
turning  with  forks  or  tedder,  and  loose  no  time  till  mid-day,  when  by  this  process 
it  will  become  wilted.  In  this  way,  if  the  grass  has  been  properly  tedded,  to  cart 
into  the  barn  as  soon  as  1  o'clock,  always  taking  care  to  have  help  enough  to 
finish  carting  as  early  as  half  past  4  or  5  o'clock, 
after  which  the  dew  has  fallen  and  renders  the  hay 
unfit  to  be  packed.  By  this  process  we  allow  from 
three  to  four  hours  for  the  out-door  curing  of  our 
crop. 

We  are  always  careful  not  to  put  hay  into  our 
barn  that  has  any  water  in  it,  but  never  fear  the  sap 
if  properly  packed.  When  hay  is  taken  from  the 
cart  or  wagon,  it  should  not  be  rolled  off  and  then  "H 
over  and  over  on  to  the  different  parts  of  the  mow, 
but  it  should  be  pitched  on  to  the  hay-mow,  and 
evenly  distributed  over  the  mow  in  even  forkfuls, 
and  each  forkful  packed,  which  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary for  the  preservation  of  the  hay,  always  remembering  that  the  greener  the 
hay  is  put  in  the  closer  it  must  he  packed.  In  rainy  weather  let  the  hay  be 
trodden  upon  by  the  men.  Remember  to  keep  the  barn  closed  as  much  as  possi- 
ble afterwards. 


Rake  and  Tedder,  A.  D.  1S65. 


170 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


In  order  to  secure  rapid  drying  and  facditate  the  process,  as  well  as  to 
improve  the  quality  of  the  hay — since  the  quicker  it  is  cured,  the  better  the  qual- 
ity— a  good  hay-tedder  is  indispensable,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties. 

It  is  important  that  all  mowing  lands  should  be  clean  and  clear  of  everything 
objectionable  to  a  mixture  with  the  hay,  such  as  dead  stalks,  fragments  of  brush, 
small  sticks,  etc.,  since  rakes  collect  everything  from  the  surface;  and  the  best 
time  to  secure  this  is  in  the  spring  before  the  grass  lias  attained  much  growth. 

A  good  horse  hay-fork  or  loader,  for  loading  hay  on  the  cart,  is  a  very  desir- 
able acquisition  to  the  farm  implements,  and  a  great  saving  of  labor  and  time. 


HAY    CAPS. 

As  to  the  utility  of  hay-caps  there  can  be  no  question,  since  by  them  the 
farmer  is  enabled  to  protect  his  hay  against  the  storms  that  frequently  cause  so 
much  loss  to  this  crop.  Those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  their  use  value  them 
highly.     They  can  be  made  in  the  following  manner:     Procure  common  brown 

sheeting  from  fifty-four  to  sixty  inches  wide.     This 
is  torn  into  squares   and  the   edges   are  ad  turned 
down  and  sewed  over  a  stunt  cord.     Make  a  loop  of 
the  cord  in  each  corner   about   six  inches   long,  in 
which  to  insert  skeAvers  or  hooks  for  fastening  them 
to  the  ground.     The  cocks  of  hay  should  be  made 
from  five  to  six  feet  high,  about  four  feet  wide  at  the 
m  base  and  rather  narrow  at  the 
|  from  250  to   300  pounds  of  hay.     If  tin 
raked  clown  so  as  to  give  the  form  described,  the  caj^s 
will  shed  the  rain  no  matter  how  heavy  or  long  con- 
tinued the  shower.     It  is  a  good  plan  to  give  the 
Eake  and  Tedder,  a.  D.  1867.  (.loth  a  good  coating  ,  ,f  boiled  linseed  oil.  whieh  will 

aid  in  throwing  off  the  water.  The  caps  are  thrown  over  the  tops  of  the  hay- 
cocks and  fastened  to  the  ground  at  each  coiner  by  the  loops  through  which 
wire  or  wooden  pins  are  inserted  and  forced  into  the  ground.  We  know  a  farmer 
who  has  had  caps  of  this  kind  for  his  haying  outfit  for  fourteen  years  and  they 
are  still  in  use  and  in  good  condition. 


top,  and  containing 
sides  are 


STORAGE    OF    HAY 

is  a  very  important  subject,  and  one  of  which  many  of  our  practical  farmers  take 
too  little  interest.  The  question  arises,  Shall  we  put  it  into  large,  tight  mows,  or 
on  loose  scaffolds  where  the  air  is  permitted  to  act  upon  it?  If  curing  and  keep- 
ing hay  is  in  any  respect  analogous  to  the  Chinese  method  of  storing  and  keeping 
the  tea-plant,  then  the  quicker  it  can  bo  cured  and  the  tighter  it  can  be  stored  the 
better  the  quality  of  the  hay.  We  believe  that  the  less  air  that  is  permitted  to 
enter  the  hay-mow,  when  properly  cured,  the  better  for  the  hay;  in  other  words, 
hay  that  is  compactly  stored  in  large  mows,  other  things  being  equal,  is  far  supe- 
rior to  that  having  a  free  exposure  to  the  air.  Though  air  is  essential  to  curing 
hay,  it  is  not  essential  to  its  storage.  Every  one  knows  that  decay  is  a  process  of 
combustion,  and  combustion  cannot  occur  where  there  is  no  air;  hence,  if  the  air 
is  entirely  excluded,  no  combustion  or  fermentation  can  take  place,  as  is  instanced 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


171 


Rake  und  Tedder,  A.  D.  ISTO. 


in.  canned  fruits,  whore  the  cans  arc  hermetically  sealed.  Where  imperfectly 
cured  hay  is  stored",  it  will  generally  be  found  that  in  only  those  portions  of  the 
mow  where  air  can  circulate  that  heating  and  fermentation  take  place,  and  not 
down  in  the  closely  packed  portions  where  the  air  is  excluded. 

In  feeding  hay  it  is  better  to  cut  down  the  mow  in  sections,  rather  than  feed 
from  the  entire  surface,  as  in  this  way  the  exposure  to  air  is  less.  The  practice  of 
many  farmers  of  pitching  the  hay  upon  the  barn- 
floor  at  night  to  remain  therefor  the  next  morning's 
feeding  to  stock  is  not  a  good  one,  as  much  of  the 
aroma  of  the  hay  is  lost  by  exposure  to  the  air  dur- 
ing the  long  interval  of  the  night.  It  is  the  practice 
in  some  localities  where  the  barn  capacity  is  insuffi- 
cient for  hay  storage,  to  stack  the  hay  in  the  field. 
Though  this  may  be  a  necessity  sometimes,  yet  it 
should  be  avoided  if  possible,  as  the  hay  that  is 
housed  is  more  nutritious  and  valuable  than  that 
exposed  to  air  and  storms,  as  it  must  of  necessity 
be  in  stacks.  Rather  than  stack  his  hay,  it  would  be  more  economical  for  the 
farmer  to  procure  a  hay  press,  thus  pressing  it  into  bales,  and  by  this  method 
provide  room  for  his  hay  in  barns.  Great  saving  of  labor  and  time  may  be 
accomplished  by  the  use  of  a  hay  carrier  in  the  unloading,  storage,  and  stacking 
of  hay. 

AFTERMATH    OR   KOWEKT, 

although  not  as  nutritious  as  hay  made  from  mature  grass,  and  as  it  does  not 
furnish  that  fibrine  which  mature  grass  furnishes,  is  consequently  not  desirable 
for  food  for  horses  and  oxen,  upon  whose  muscular  system  the  great  tax  of  labor 
is  laid,  still,  for  calves,  sheep  and  milch-cows,  there  is  no  forage  crop  that  will 
surpass  it.  It  approaches  the  nearest  of  anything  to  the  green  food  produced  by 
our  pastures  in  summer  for  these  animals,  and  for  winter  use  furnishes  a  very 
desirable  substitute. 

By  cutting  the  grass  early,  before  the  plant  has  become  exhausted  as  in  seed 
production,  the  aftermath  will  have  a  longer  time  for  growth  before  being  cut, 
and  thus  a  better  crop  secured,  the  great  difficulty  with  rowen  having  formerly 
been  that  it  came  so  late  in  the  season,  as  to  render  its  harvesting  difficult,  and 
hence  it  was  often  secured  in  an  uncured  condition.  But  with  an  early  hay 
harvest,  the  second  crop  can  be  secured  earlier,  and  can  be  cured  mostly  in  cocks, 
which  requires  but  little  extra  labor,  and  the  former  difficulty  obviated. 


CULTIVATIXO    GRASS    SEED. 


The   first 


of  grass 


from  seeds  of  grasses  collected  from  the  barn-floor 


seed  in  this  country  by  our  forefathers  was  made 

and  from  under  hay-stacks. 
This  was  sown  with  the  chaff,  they  having  no  available  means  of  separating  the 
small  seed  from  the  chaff.  This  method  was  practiced  for  a  long  time.  Their 
next  step  towards  progress  in  this  branch  of  agriculture,  we  are  told,  was  to  sow 
a  small  quantity  of  seeds  of  those  grasses  they  thought  most  desirable  upon  the 
ground  in  which  they  had  cultivated  their  hoed  crops.  We  of  the  present  age 
have  improved  upon  their  method,  but  we  are  far  behind  the  English  in  the  variety 


172  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


of  grasses  cultivated;  Ave  should  not  only  sow  a  greater  variety  than  Ave  now  do, 
but  more  abundantly  also.  To  secure  the  best  results,  the  land  should  be  well 
plowed  and  manured,  the  soil  well  pulverized,  and  pains  taken  to  keep  the  land 
free  from  other  grasses  than  the  variety  desired  for  producing  the  seed.  When 
the  seed  is  ripe,  it  will  be  known  by  the  changed  appearance  of  the  heads  of  grass. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  cut  it  before  it  is  so  ripe  that  it  will  easily  shell  out  from 
the  heads,  as  much  will  thus  be  Avasted.  It  should  be  cut  when  the  dew  is  on,  to 
prevent  the  loss  of  seed.  After  partially  drying,  it  can  be  arranged  in  the  small 
sheaA'es,  Avhich  shall  be  placed  Avhere  they  can  become  perfectly  cured,  as  it  can 
remain  unbound  until  wholly  dry,  but  it  Avill  need  to  be  handled  with  the  greatest 
care  to  preATent  the  seed  shelling  out,  as  it  falls  Arery  easily.  It  can  be  threshed 
Avith  any  implement  that  is  used  for  threshing  grain,  and  cleaned  with  a  seed- 
cleaner  or  common  fanning-mill  with  a  fine  screen.  If  the  stalks  are  too  green 
Avhile  in  the  stack  the  hay  wTill  heat  or  ferment,  and  the  vitality  of  the  seed  will 
be  liable  to  be  thus  destroyed.  This  injury  to  the  seed  is  not  always  apparent  by 
a  change  in  its  color,  consequently  stale  and  Avorthless  seed  are  often  put  into  the 
market  and  sold  for  good.  There  is  no  certainty  in  this  respect,  except  to  test  a 
sample  before  soAving  the  Avhole,  and  if  these  germinate  Avell  there  is  a  probability 
that  the  seed  are  good.  The  stalks  producing  the  seed  are  woody  and  tough,  yet 
by  mixing  with  other  food,  and  cutting,  they  may  be  utilized,  but  haATe  not  suffi- 
cient nutriment  to  be  fed  alone.  Horses  will  eat  them  in  this  manner  better  than 
other  kinds  of  stock. 

After  soAving  the  seed  and  exercising  care  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  other 
varieties  not  desired,  it  is  a  ATery  easy  matter  to  harA^est  a  good  crop  of  grass  seed 
for  several  seasons,  by  simply  adding  a  liberal  supply  of  top  dressing.  Many  farm- 
ers are  indifferent  to  extra  pains  in  raising  this  product,  and  give  it  no  more  atten- 
tion than  the  care  necessary  in  harvesting  it,  but  it  will  repay  any  farmer  to  take 
special  pains  to  produce  the  best  crop  of  grass  possible  for  this  purpose,  as  the  crop 
produced  from  such  seed  will  be  greatly  superior  to  that  Avhere  no  such  pains  are 
taken  to  secure  the  best  results.  The  more  luxuriant  the  crop,  the  better  the  seed 
produced  from  it,  being  the  general  rule. 

FALL  GRAZING  OF  MOWING  LANDS. 

The  practice  of  turning  the  cattle  on  the  moAving  lands  to  graze  after  the 
aftermath  has  been  cut,  and  the  grass  gi\ren  a  little  time  for  subsequent  groAvth, 
is  very  common,  and  although  the  testimony  of  nine  farmers  out  of  ten  Avould 
probably  be  that  this  practice  is  injurious  to  the  grass  crop  the  folloAving  year,  yet 
they  continue  to  do  so,  justifying  the  custom  on  the  plea  of  necessity.  This  is 
especially  true  in  NeAv  England,  and  Ave  believe  it  to  be  one  of  the  main  causes  of 
the  deterioration  of  the  grass  crop  there,  the  grass  being  often  grazed  so  closely 
as  to  leave  the  roots  exposed  to  the  extreme  cold  of  winter,  which,  are  thus  frozen 
and  killed;  besides,  Avhere  the  soil  is  moist,  the  roots  are  often  pulled  up  by  the 
grazing  and  an  equal  injury  done  in  this  way,  Avhile  the  trampling  Hoofs  of  cattle 
upon  the  turf  is  an  evil  nearly  as  great.  The  roots  need  the  protection  of  the 
U'rass  for  warmth  during  the  Avinter  in  order  to  secure  an  early  and  vigorous  start 
in  the  spring.  Mowing  lauds  are  unquestionably  better  where  never  grazed,  but 
Avhen  practiced,  it  should  be  early  in  the  autumn,  to  proA'ide  for  an  after-growth. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


17:5 


for  root  protection  during  the  winter,  and  to  store  up  the  elements  of  a  thrifty 
growth  in  the  following  spring.  Too  close  feeding  is  injurious  at  any  linn'  aid 
should  never  be  permitted,  as  it  will  cause  the  lands  to  deteriorate  and  the  grass 
to  run  out  in  time.  An  experienced  farmer  in  Massachusetts  says:  "It  is  now 
more  than  twenty  years  since  1  have  allowed  any  kind  of  domestic  animal  to  feed 
upon  our  mown  land,  and  my  opinion  previously  lias  been  confirmed  by  my  expe- 
rience. It  is  a  decided  benefit  to  let  the  after-growth  remain  upon  the  land;  it  is 
a  protection  for  summer's  drought  and  winter's  cold.  Some  of  my  neighbors  are 
following  my  example."'  And  another:  "I  sometimes  feed  off  my  after-grass. 
When  I  do  feed  it  off,  1  take  good  care  to  feed  it  early  and  leave  a  good  growth  to 
protect  the  roots  of  the  grass  from  frost  in  winter.  I  think  it  an  injury  to  feed; 
mowing  will  last  longer  not  to  feed  at  all,  and  the  land  when  broken  up  will  pro- 
duce a  better  crop  of  corn  and  potatoes  than  if  fed." 

Mowing  lands  should  never  lie  pastured  in  the  spring,  as  the  soil  is  so  damp 
then  that  the  roots  of  the  grass  are  easily  pulled  up  by  the  cattle,  while  their 
trampling  hoofs  are  also  very  injurious  to  them  at 
that  season.  Sheep  are  less  injurious  in  grazing 
mowing  lands  than  cattle,  but  we  believe  that  farmers 
generally  would  find  it  more  profitable  in  the  end  to 
keep  such  lands  entirely  free  from  all  grazing  stock. 
The  grass  crop  is  one  of  great  importance,  since  it 
lies  at  the  very  foundation  of  all  prosperity  and  suc- 
cess in  agriculture.  Grass  is  said  to  be  "king  among 
crops  of  the  earth."'  and  more  land  devoted  to  its 
cultivation  and  more  money  value  realized  from  it 
than  any  other  product,  not  excepting  even  cotton, 
which  has  been  called  at  the  South,  king.  The 
human  race  existed  for  ages  without  cotton,  but 
never  without  grass.  The  statistics  of  nations  prove  that  grass  is  the  most  essen- 
tial and  remunerative  of  all  crops.  In  view  of  its  great  importance,  anything 
that  will  improve  this  crop  and  prevent  its  deterioration  ought  to  receive  the 
thoughtful  attention  of  all  farmers. 


Patent  Tedder,  A.  D.  1883. 


KOLLING    MOWING    LAXDS    AND    PASTURES. 

It  is  a  very  good  plan  to  go  over  the  mowing  lands  with  a  roller  in  the  spring 
after  the  frost  has  left  the  ground,  as  by  this  means  the  roots  which  have  been  thrown 
out  of  the  soil  by  the  action  of  the  frost,  are  pressed  into  the  soil  again,  where 
they  will  soon  become  firmly  settled,  and  thus  their  drying  up  is  prevented,  as 
they  otherwise  would  be  liable  to  do.  Experienced  farmers  have  found  this  prac- 
tice extremely  valuable  to  their  grass  crop,  and  to  amply  repay  for  the  labor 
attending  it;  some  even  value  the  result  so  highly  that  they  treat  their  pastures 
in  the  same  way,  whenever  the  surface  is  sufficiently  even  and  unobstructed  by 
stones  to  admit  of  the  use  of  the  roller. 


MANURING   MOWING    LANDS. 

It  is  said  that  New  England  farmers  are  in  the  habit  of  robbing  their  grass 
lands  to  feed  their  hoed  crops  and  arable  lands,  which  has  been  in  a  great  measure, 


■PPal 


I&»:  .  •^JI«iBlilliiili'.^ 


(174) 


GRASSES  AiNl)  FORAGE  PLANTS.  175 

we  think,  true,  until  a  few  years  past,  since  which  time  more  attention  has  been 
given  to  fertilizing,  in  various  ways,  lands  designed  for  mowing.  The  improve- 
ment in  this  respect  is,  however,  gradual,  and  even  now  there  are  many  farmers 
who  adhere  to  the  old-time  system  of  farming,  and  consider  the  grass  crop  of 
secondary  importance,  letting  it  take  care  of  itself,  year  alter  year,  with  little  or 
nothing  given  the  land  to  meet  the  constant  drain  made  upon  it  in  producing  its 
annual  crop,  while  the  manure  made  from  it  goes  toward  the  improvement  of  the 
other  crops.  Grass  depends  much  upon  the  air  for  its  material  in  growth,  but 
also  much  upon  the  soil;  and  the  elements  it  extracts  from  the  soil  in  its  growth 
should  be  returned  to  it,  or  exhaustion  of  soil  will  follow,  and  a  consequent  loss 
of  the  grass  crop.  No  good  farmer  would  think  for  a  moment  of  cultivating  his 
corn,  or  other  hoed  crops,  without  a  liberal  supply  of  manure,  yet  grass  crops 
require  the  use  of  fertilizers  just  as  much  as  any  other,  both  for  mowing  lands  and 
pasture,  and  unless  such  fertilizers  are  given  the  soil  producing  them,  as  will 
restore  the  elements  taken,  there  is  no  reason  for  expecting  anything  but  a  failure 
in  grass  crops,  the  same  as  that  of  corn  or  any  other  cultivated  crop  treated  in  the 
same  manner.  The  analysis  of  hay  shows  over  five  per  cent,  of  earthy  matter, 
while  dried  clover  yields  from  seven  to  nine  per  cent.,  yet  Ave  will  readily  see  that 
where  land  produces  at  the  rate  of  three  tons  per  acre,  this  element  is  taken  off 
to  the  amount  of  300  pounds  per  acre  per  annum.  What  soil  could  long  endure 
such  drainage  without  injury?  The  potash,  soda,  and  other  salts  requisite  to  the 
growth  of  the  grass  are  thus  taken  from  the  soil. 

Grass  land  must  be  renewed  with  suitable  fertilizers,  or  exhaustion  must  of 
necessity  follow.  There  can  be  no  other  result,  in  the  natural  course  of  things. 
Commercial  manures,  such  as  ashes,  lime,  crushed  bone,  gypsum,  and  guano,  are 
all  good  for  the  grass  crop,  gypsum  being  especially  valuable  to  clover.  To  these 
should  be  added  animal  or  vegetable  manures.  Some  farmers  apply  these  fertil- 
izers in  the  fall,  some  in  the  early  spring  when  the  grass  just  begins  to  start,  others 
apply  them  just  before  the  first  rains  fall  after  the  grass  has  been  mowed,  that 
the  rain  may  wash  the  soluble  matters  into  the  roots;  in  such  a  case,  the  portions 
that  remain  undissolved  are  soon  covered  by  the  growing  vegetation,  and  are 
absorbed  more  gradually.  The  best  time  for  applying  barn-yard  manure  is  in  the 
fall,  since  the  frost  will  crumble  the  lumps  and  render  them  partially  pulverized 
by  the  spring,  while  the  manure  serves  to  protect  the  roots  through  the  winter, 
and  its  warmth  aids  in  securing  an  early  and  vigorous  start  in  the  spring.  The 
snow,  in  dissolving,  aids  in  carrying  the  fertilizing  elements  down  to  the  roots, 
which  is  a  very  great  advantage,  that  cannot  be  secured  by  applying  it  in  the 
spi-ing,  while  the  soft  soil  will  cause  the  turf  to  be  badly  cut  and  injured  by  the 
wheels  of  manure  spreaders,  or  other  implements  for  carting,  if  applied  in  the 
spring. 

The  following  is  an  opinion  of  Mr.  Alexander  Hyde,  of  Massachusetts,  respect- 
ing the  top-dressing  of  mowing  lands:  "We  have  found  a  compost  made  of  muck 
and  leached  ashes  an  excellent  fertilizer  for  grass.  The  wood  ashes  furnish  the 
inorganic  food  in  great  variety,  while  the  muck  supplies  the  vegetable  matter  and 
renders  the  soil  light  and  porous,  ready  to  absorb  the  gases  of  the  air  and  furnish 
them  to  the  grasses  as  they  may  be  demanded.  In  case  the  meadows  are  natu- 
rally cold  and  wet,  abounding  already  in  clay  or  peat,  we  should  substitute,  for 
the  basis  of  the  compost  heap,  sand  instead  of  muck.     Sand  alone,  scattered  upon 


176  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


a  peaty  meadow,  has  a  wonderful  effect  in  warming  the  land  and  inducing  the 
growth  of  sweet,  nutricious  herbage.  Indeed,  we  have  found  that  meadows  well 
drained  after  they  have  been  mucked  for  a  series  of  years,  are  greatly  benefited 
by  a  top-dressing  of  sand,  or  better  still,  by  a  coating  of  alluvial  soil  which  is  to 
be  found  on  the  river  bank.  This  alluvium  contains  not  only  sand,  but  the  dis- 
integrated granules  of  the  various  rocks  and  soils  that  the  river  has  brought  down 
from  miles  above.  We  have  used  this  alluvium  lately  in  the  compost  designed 
for  top-dressing  ami  have  been  much  pleased  with  the  result.  When  it  cannot  be 
obtained  easily,  the  wash  of  the  highway,  or  leaf-mould  from  the  forest,  answers  a 
good  purpose.  The  latter  is  particularly  rich  in  all  the  elements  of  vegetable 
nutrition  and  our  forests  can  well  spare  some  of  it  for  the  benefit  of  the  meadows. 

On  a  clover  lay  plaster  operates  most  favorably.  Spread  broad-cast  early  in 
the  spring  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  pounds  per  acre,  it  increases  this  legumin- 
ous crop  greatly.  This  great  result  cannot,  from  so  small  a  quantity,  he  attribu- 
ted to  the  increase  of  plant  food  furnished  by  tin*  two  main  elements  of  plaster, 
sulphur  and  lime,  although,  as  clover  contains  both  these  elements,  they  doubt- 
less contribute  directly  to  its  nourishment.  But  plaster  is  also  a  great  absorbent, 
and  its  efficiency  must  in  a  measure  be  attributed  to  its  power  of  retaining  the 
ammonia  of  the  air,  and  furnishing  it  to  the  clover  and  other  plants  as  they  may 
demand.  Plaster  alone  cannot  he  relied  upon  to  keep  our  meadows  in  heart 
for  a  series  of  years.  Those  who  have  seen  its  magical  effect  for  a  year  or  two, 
and  have  supposed  that  they  could  sell  their  hay  and  still  keep  up  their  meadows 
by  spreading  a  little  plaster  upon  them,  have  found  themselves  mistaken,  and 
have  complained  that  their  fields  became  plaster  sick.  The  sickness  was  simply 
starvation  for  the  want  of  a  greater  variety  of  food.  Plaster,  from  its  own  ele- 
ments and  by  absorption  from  the  air,  can  furnish  only  two  of  the  many  inor- 
ganic elements  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  our  grasses.  Clover,  doubt- 
less, is  more  benefited  by  its  action  than  the  other  grasses,  as  the  ash  of  clover 
shows  over  30  per  cent,  of  lime.  Plaster  is  found  to  act  with  great  efficiency  in 
connection  with  wood-ashes,  as  they  supply  the  inorganic  elements  in  which 
plaster  is  deficient. 

Farmers  may  differ  about  the  action  of  plaster,  but  in  the  efficiency  of  barn- 
yard manure  they  are  all  agreed,  and  in  the  production  of  this,  hay  is  the  great 
reliance.  Why  should  not  more  of  this  manure  he  applied  to  the  reproduction 
of  hay,  and  thus  the  law  of  action  and  reaction  he  carried  out?  The  more  hay, 
the  more  manure,  and  the  more  manure,  the  more  hay. 


CPU  ITER  X. 


(Cereals. 


BY   J.    W.    FITZ. 


?^^ 


RAMINACiE  (true  grasses)  include  all  cereal  plants, 
except  buckwheat,  but  they  differ  widely  in  their 
structure,  character  and  method  of  cultivation.  It  is 
gratifying  to  know  that  during  the  years  1870  and 
1880,  there  was  the  unprecedented  advance  in  the  cereal 
production  of  the  United  States  of  about  one  hundred 
per  cent,  for  all  kinds  taken  together,  while  the  increase 
of  the  previous  decade,  or  between  1860  and  1870,  was 
but  twelve  per  cent. 

The  increase  of  the  cereal  product  between  1850 
and  1860,  which  was  a  period. of  noted  agricultural 
growth,  was  forty-three  per  cent.  The  total  number  of 
acres  under  wheat  cultivation  in  1880  was  35,487,065, 
which  yielded  a  crop  of  459,591,093  bushels.  In 
1870  the  wheat  crop  of  the  country  amounted  to 
287,745,626  bushels.  The  increase  of  wheat  gi'owing  in  the  last  decade  is  shown 
by  a  comparison  with  former  enumerations,  to  be  seventy-three  per  cent.;  that 
between.  1860  and  1870,  to  be  sixty-six  per  cent.,  and  between  1850  and  1860, 
sixty  per  cent. 

"We  also  find  that  Illinois  shows  the  largest  area  under  wheat,  aggregating 
3,218,963  acres;  next  Iowa,  with  3,049,347  acres;  Minnesota,  with  3,046,821; 
Indiana,  2,619,307;  Ohio,  2,556,134;  Missouri,  2,074,314;  Wisconsin,  1,948,036; 
Kansas,  1,861,342;  California,  1,837,322;  Michigan,  1,822,752  and  that  the  six 
States  of  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  and  Iowa,  produce  more 
than  half  the  wheat  of  the  whole  nation. 

The  increase  in  the  product  of  corn  between  1870  and  1880  was  133  per  cent., 
the  amount  produced  in  1870  being  760,844,549  bushels,  while  that  of  1880 
reached  1,772,909,846  bushels  In  1880  the  number  of  acres  in  the  United  States 
devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  corn  was  62,326,932,  the  State  of  Illinois  leading  in 
this  product. 

The  increase  in  the  production  of  oats  during  the  last  ten  years  has  been 
about  45  per  cent. ;  that  of  barley,  nearly  50  per  cent. ;  that  of  rye  only  about 
17  per  cent.;  while  the  minor  cereal,  buckwheat,  has  not  increased  in  proportion 
to  the  advance  in  population — the  total  crop  in  1870  being  9,821,721  bushels, 
while  that  at  1880  was  11,851,738  bushels. 

(177) 
12 


178 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


It  is  also  gratifying  to  note  the  increased  interest  in  the  cultivation  of  the 
cereals  in  the  cotton-growing  States  since  1870 — the  increase  in  the  corn  product 
alone  in  that  section  being  about  40  per  cent.  From  present  indications  the 
report  of  the  next  decade,  or  that  of  1890,  may  he  expected  to  show  a  surprising 
advance  on  the  above-mentioned  rates  of  increase,  while  that  which  marks  the 
close  of  the  present  century  will  doubtless  exceed  the  most  sanguine  expectations, 
so  immeasurably  great  are  the  resources  and  facilities  of  the  country  for  the 
extension  and  development  of  this  branch  of  agriculture. 

CORN. 


Corn  Stalk. 


This  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  of  the  cereals,  as  well  as  one  of 
the  most  important  agricultural  products  cultivated  in  the  United 
States.  The  corn-plant  belongs  to  the  natural  order,  graruinse  or 
grasses,  and  is  indigenous  to  America,  where  it  formed  the  principal 
food  of  the  Indians,  and  for  which  reason  it  received  the  name  of 
Indian  corn. 

History  states  that  Columbus  found  it  cultivated  quite  extensively 
by  the  natives  of  Hispaniola,  while  it  was  found  in  possession  of  all 
native  tribes  in  portions  of  the  continent  subsequently  visited  by 
explorers. 

It  will  grow  in  any  portion  of  the  United  States,  and  readily  adapts 
itself  to  different  soils  and  climates,  but  thrives  best  between  the 
thirty-sixth  and  forty-second  degrees  of  latitude,  as  it  attains  its  most 
perfect  development  under  a  hot  summer  sun,  growing  rapidly  and 
ripening  early,  which  renders  it  peculiarly  adapted  for  this  portion 
of  the  northern  latitudes,  where  the  summers  are  short  and   warm, 

however  severe  the  winters  may  be.     In  high  northern  latitudes,  close  attention 

to  its  culture   is  necessary,  on   account   of  the  difficulty   of  ripening  it.     The 

value  of  the  corn  crops  annually  produced   in  this  country  may,  perhaps,  be 

justly  estimated  in  a  financial  point  of  view  as  amounting  to  a  certain  number 

of  millions  of  dollars,  but,  in  another  sense,  its  value  to  this 

country  is  inestimable,  when  we  consider  the  effect  of  its 

cultivation  in  hastening  its  settlement  and  the  continuance 

of  its  prosperity,  entering  as  it   does,  into  the  food  of  all 

classes  of  people,  and  also  greatly  cheapening  and  increasing 

the  products  of  beef,  pork,  and  mutton,  besides  the  many 

other  uses  to   which  it   is  appropriated  and  the   increased 

wealth  of  the  nation  resulting  from  the  annual  exportations 

of  this  product. 

Immense  as  is  the  production  of  this  staple,  the  average 

yield  of  corn  in  this  country  at  the  present  time  is  far  below 


what  it  mic;ht  and  ought  to  be,  and  what  with  a  little  more 


Ear  of  Corn. 


care  in  cultivation  might  be  easily  attained.  The  average  yield 
in  the  United  States  for  the  entire  number  of  acres  cultivated  does  not  at  present 
exceed  thirty  bushels  per  acre,  while  with  good  culture  it  might  be  made  to  reach 
sixty  or  a  hundred  bushels  or  more,  and  thus  the  amount  now  produced  be  more 
than  doubled,  with  its  attendant  benefits  to  the  nation  and  the  farmer  individually.' 


CEREALS. 


179 


The  farmers  of  this  country  are  gradually  learning  moro  of  the  possibilities  of  this 
crop,  and  that  there  is  more  in  its  careful  cultivation  than  was  formerly  supposed. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  exaggerated  statements  have  often  been  made  relative  to 
the  amount  harvested,  and  which  cause  farm- 
ers to  look  upon  reports  of  unusually  large 
yields  with  distrust;  yet  we  know  from 
authentic  sources,  that,  under  favoring  cir- 
cumstances of  soil,  climate,  skillful  cultiva- 
tion, and  a  season  suited  to  its  perfect  develop- 
ment, immense  and  almost  incredible  yields 
have  been  produced,  which  prove  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  crop  when  properly  managed, 
and  which  should  lead  corn-growers  to  con- 
sider the  question  as  to  whether  their  present 
method  of  cultivation  is  the  most  profitable 
one  that  can  be  adopted,  and  whether  more 
care  in  enriching  the  soil  and  tilling  it  would 
not  in  the  end  be  more  economic  and  profita- 
ble. The  kind  and  quality  of  the  seed  will 
largely  effect  the  yield,  while  other  conditions,  Primitive  winDOWine-  *n*  ™o  b.  o. 

such  as  soil,  culture,  etc.,  will  modify  it  still  further.  The  height  to  which 
the  full-grown  plant  attains,  varies  with  different  varieties  and  soils,  some- 
times reaching  the  luxuriant  growth  of  eighteen  feet  on  the  rich  soil  of  some  of 
the  Western  prairies,  and  those  of  a  similar  character.  The  color  of  the  kernel 
depends  upon  that  of  the  hull  and  the  oil  it  contains.     In  the  white  varieties  they 

are  both  transparent;  in  yellow  corn  the  hull 
is  transparent  and  the  oil  yellow;  the  red  or 
blue  kinds  owe  their  color  to  the  hue  of  the 
hull  or  covering.  In  some  varieties  of  corn 
there  is  more  oil  than  in  others,  some  being 
nearly  destitute  of  it.  Oil  is  useful  in  protect- 
ing the  grain,  when  germinating  in  the  soil, 
from  being  too  rapidly  decomposed  in  long  con- 
tinued wet  weather,  and  in  imparting  nourish- 
ment to  the  young  plants.  It  also  has  a  ten- 
dency to  keep  meal  from  souring  as  readily  as 
it  otherwise  would,  that  ground  from  corn  hav- 
ing the  least  oil  becoming  musty  or  sour, 
soonest.  The  Tuscarora  corn  contains  very  lit- 
tle, if  any,  oil,  and  the  meal  made  from  it  will 
keep  sweet  but  a  short  time.  In  the  manufactur- 
ing of  whiskey,  during  the  process  of  fermentation,  the  oil  separates  from  the 
corn  and  rises  to  the  surface,  and  is  taken  off  and  used  for  various  purposes. 
According  to  good  authority,  rice-corn  contains  the  most  oil,  pop-corn  next,  Can- 
ada corn  ranis  third,  and  broom-corn  fourth ;  and  as  the  lowest  variant  types  are 
the  small,  rire-corn  and  pop-corn,  and  the  highest  some  of  the  most  valuable  and 
improved  varieties,  it  would  seem  that  the  effect  of  careful  cultivation  is  to 
increase  the  starchy  properties  of  the  grain  to  the  lessening  of  the  fatty  contents. 


Primitive  Winnowing',  Kome,  B,  C.  100. 


180 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


As  an  article  of  food  for  man,  it  is  a  very  healthful  and  nutritive  diet,  con- 
taining, as  it  does,  the  elements  required  for  the  development  and  support  of  the 
animal  system.     The  analysis  of  corn  as  given  by  Palson  is  as  follows: 


Gluten,  etc., 

Starch, 

Gum  and  sugar, 

Oil, 

Bran,  etc., 

Ash, 

"Water, 


8.8 
54.4 

2.6 

4.6 
15.8 

1.7 
12.1 

100.00 


Although  there  is  a  slight  difference  in  the  proportionate  ingredients  that 
enter  into  the  grains  of  different  varieties,  yet  the  above  analysis  would  represent 


a  fair  average  of  the  different  kinds  cultivated. 


VARIETIES. 


There  is  no  other  of  the  cereals  which  presents  so  many  varieties  as  corn  or 
maise,  although  there  are  comparatively  but  few  which  are  distinct  in  general 
cultivation.  Some  of  the  cobs  are  red,  others  white,  irrespective  of  the  color  of 
the  grain,  while  the  ears  vary  in  length  from 
one  inch  to  fifteen  inches  or  more,  with  pro- 
portionate variance  in  diameter  and  size  of 
grain. 

In  many  of  the  corn-growing  sections, 
the  only  recognized  distinction  is  in  the  color 
of  the  grain;  "white  corn"  or  "yellow  corn," 
according  to  the  color  of  the  kernel,  being  the 
only  distinguishing  terms  in  use  to  designate 
the  kinds  generally  cultivated. 

As  an  instance  of  the  changes  produced 
by  climate,  when  some  of  the  small  varieties 
which  ripen  early  in  the  extreme  Northern 
States  are  cultivated  a  few  years  in  the 
Southern,  where  the  summers  are  so  much 
longer  than  at  the  North,  they  will  gradually 
change,  by  ripening  later,  and  with  a  much  larger  growth  of  ear  and  kernel. 
This  change  goes  on  from  year  to  year,  until  the  plant  has  perfectly  adapted  itself 
to  its  new  location,  where  it  remains  a  fixed  variety,  unless  it  should  be  moved 
again  North,  when  it  will  gradually  assume  its  former  type. 

It  is  almost  needless  to  particularize  the  valuable  and  popular  varieties,  as 
new  ones  are  constantly  being  introduced,  and  the  farmer  will  find  no  dimculty 
in  selecting  such  as,  with  proper  cultivation,  will  give  good  results.  At  a  recent 
meeting  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Agriculture  the  following  description  of 
the  model  or  ideal  of  corn  was  given  by  the  committee: 


English  Fanning  Mill,  A.  D.  1775. 


CEREALS. 


181 


It  has  an  car  medium  in  size  as  regards  the  diameter;  tho  kernels  are  deep; 
the  cob  is  small  at  the  butt,  and  the  ear  holds  its  bigness  towards  tho  point  until 
very  near  tho  tapering  off.  It  should  bo  capped  over,  and  the  kernels  should  hold 
their  bigness  towards  the  point  and  at  the  butt  run  out  straight,  and  not  crinkle. 


SELECTION    OF    SEED. 


U.  S.  Patent  Fanning  Mill,  A.  D.  1829. 


Dr.  Sturtevany  says:  To  the  seed  must  wo  look  first  in  order  to  secure 
improvement,  in  order  to  gain  the  maximum  crop  at  tho  least  expense.  It  is  not 
enough  to  select  the  oar;  this  process  has  dono  something,  but  alone  this  is  not 
sufficient.  We  must  pay  attention  to  the  past  history  of  our  seed;  wo  must  breed 
our  corn;  we  must  secure  prolific  ancestry,  and  use  the  seeds  from  fecund  parents. 

Thoroughbred  types  are  as  essential  in 
the  production  of  plants  of  a  high  order  and 
the  consequent  improvement  of  crops  as  in 
breeding  live  stock,  and  a  carefully  cultiva- 
ted, pure  bred  variety  of  corn  is  as  much 
superior  to  an  indifferently  cultivated  mixed 
kind  in  transmitting  its  good  qualities  to  its 
product  as  a  thoroughbred  animal  is  in  this 
respect  superior  to  a  grade. 

PREPARATION   OP    SEED. 


In  order  to  hasten  the  germination  of 
seed  and  the  growth  of  the  young  plants, 
many  farmers  soak  the  corn  in  warm 
Water  a  day  or  two  before  planting.  A 
solution  of  saltpetre  or  copperas  is  sometimes  recommended,  and  said  to 
accomplish  the  same  results,  as  well  as  to  protect  the  corn  against  the  attacks  of 
birds,  squirrels,  mice  and  worms  for  a  time;  but  there  is  a  liability  of  the  germi- 
nating power  of  the  seed  being  destroyed  or  injured  in  this  way,  by  getting  the 
solution  a  little  too  strong  of  these  properties,  while,  unless  rather  strong,  it  has 
no  effect  in  keeping  the  little  mischievous  depredators  at  bay. 

Coating  the  kernels  with  coal-tar,  or  common  tar,  will  generally  prevent 
birds  from  pulling  up  the  plants,  or  attacks  from  any  other  of  the  common 
enemies  of  this  crop  that  are  such  an  annoyance  to  the  farmer.  When  coal-tar 
is  used,  the  seeds  should  first  be  soaked  a  few  hours  in  warm  water;  after  this  is 
drained  off,  a  very  little  tar  stirred  into  it  will  be  sufficient  to  cover  the  kernels, 
a  pint  of  tar  being  sufficient  for  two  or  three  bushels  of  seed-corn. 

When  common  tar  is  used,  a  pint  of  boiling  tar  will  be  required  for  a  half 
bushel  of  seed,  stirring  the  corn  briskly  as  it  is  turned  in,  until  every  kernel  is 
coated  with  it.  Whether  coal  or  common  tar  is  used,  rolling  the  seed  in  plaster, 
bone-dust,  ashes,  or  fine  soil-dust  will  prevent  either  kind  from  being  very  trouble- 
some in  planting  when  a  drill  or  corn-planter  is  used,  and  it  can  be  done  with 
these  machines  the  same  as  before  it  was  thus  treated,  except  that  they  must  be 
regulated  to  give  the  seed  a  little  more  room  for  outlet,  otherwise  the  grain  will 
not  drop  freely.     Before  the  tar  is  applied  care  should  be  taken  to  soak  the  seed 


182 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


thoroughly,  as  the  coating  will  have  a  tendency  to  keep  moisture  from  the  seed 
and  prevent  germination. 

Various  other  preventives  are  often  recommended,  but  we  know  of  nothing 
as  sure  in  its  results  as  that  above  mentioned. 

Most  birds  are  a  help  to  the  farmer  in  destroying  insects  and  worms  that  are 
injurious  to  his  crops,  and  the  few  that  pull  up  the  corn  plants  will  generally  do 
more  good  than  harm  in  exterminating  these  pests;  hence  it  is  far  better  to  make 
the  seed  distasteful  to  them  by  the  use  of  tar  or  other  means,  rather  than  kill 
them,  as  they  are  really  the  farmer's  friend  in  the  protection  of  his  products. 


SOIL    FOR  CORN   AND    ITS    PREPARATION. 

Corn  thrives  best  in  a  rich,  mellow  soil,  one  that  is  warm  and  rather  dry, 
although  it  will  grow  in  almost  any  kind,  being  a  plant  of  extraordinary  apti- 
tudes. It  should,  however,  be  sufficiently  moist  to  make  rapid  growth ,  but  not  wet. 
A  rich  loam  is  the  best,  and  if  it  be  of  a  dark  color  so  as  to  absorb  the  heat  of  the 

sun,  it  will  be  so  much  warmer  and  better 

adapted  to  the  purpose.     Corn  will  not  do  as 

well  on  wet  lands,  or  those  that  are  very  cold, 

like  some   of  the   strong  clays,  hence  soils 

■that  are  wet  should  be  Avell  drained  for  this 

;crop,  and  cold  soils  should  be  cultivated  in 

'ridges  and  be  planted  with  an  early  ripen- 


ing kind,  in  order  to  mature  well.  Although 
it  thrives  best  on  soils  especially  adapted  to 
it,  yet  land  that  will  produce  almost  any 
cultivated  crop  can  be  so  carefully  fitted  that, 
with  a  selection  of  the  variety  suited  to  it 
and  the  climate,  a  good  crop  of  corn  can  be 
produced.  An  old  sod  plowed  under,  and 
especially  a  clover  lay,  Avhen  properly  pre- 
pared, makes  an  excellent  seed-bed  for  this 
crop,  but  it  always  should  have  a  good  supply  of  manure  in  addition,  either  farm 
manure  or  chemical  fertilizers,  for  soil  can  scarcely  be  made  too  rich  with  the 
proper  kind  of  fertilizers  for  this  crop.  "  Breeding  first  and  then  feeding,"  is  the 
old  maxim  of  the  stockman,  which,  when  applied  to  cultivated  crops,  means  quite 
as  much  as  in  its  application  to  animals,  for  the  selection  of  the  seed  is  the  breed- 
ing, and  the  choice  of  soil,  the  fertilizers  and  the  cultivation,  are  the  feeding. 
With  the  corn  crop  generally  the  largest  yields  have  always  been  where  the  feed- 
ing has  been  of  the  right  kinds  of  plant  food  and  the  most  liberally  supplied. 

A  well-balanced  and  uniform  fertility,  such  as  is  found  in  sod  that  has  all  the 
elements  of  plant  growth  in  the  best  available  proportions,  or  lands  inundated  by 
rivers,  are  what  give  successful  results. 

The  corn  plant  is  vigorous  in  growth,  and,  like  all  animals  that  are  such,  is  a 
strong  feeder,  and  will  appropriate  almost  any  kind  of  available  food.  It  is  said 
to  take  the  place  among  vegetable  products  that  the  hog  does  among  domestic 
animals  respecting  the  food  it  consumes,  requiring  a  large  amount,  yet  not  over 
particular  to  its  kind  or  quality. 


U.  S.  Patent  Funning  Mill,  A.  D.  1879. 


CEREALS. 


183 


Manure  from  the  barn-yard  (well  decomposed),  the  hog-pen,  sheep-yard, 
poultry-yard,  or  privy-vault,  are  all  used  with  good  effect  on  this  crop,  hut  they 
should  be  spread  broadcast  and  well  mixed  with  tin,'  soil.  The  Avide-spreading 
roots  of  the  plant  wilL  he  sure  to  find  it  if  it  is  in  (he  soil  and  not  so  deeply  buried 
as  to  he  beyond  their  reach.  When  manure  is  applied  simply  in  the  hill  or  drill, 
the  plant  makes  an  early  and  rapid  growth,  producing  an  extension  of  the  roots, 
which  soon  go  beyond  the  fertilized  portion  in  search  of  food  and  find  but  little 
support;  hence  its  growth  is  retarded  at  this  important  period,  preparatory  to  the 
formation  and  maturation  of  the  grain.  Sometimes  an  early  growth  of  stalks  and 
leaves  is  made  at  the  expense  of  the  grain  in  this  way. 


Cockle  Machine,  A.  D  1SS-1 


Some  farmers  feed  their  soils  as  they  do  their  animals,  in  a  stinted  manner, 
thinking  they  are  thereby  practicing  economy,  and  receive  corresponding  results; 
others  feed  liberally,  and  in  return  receive  a  liberal  compensation.  Some  of  our 
most  successful  farmers  use  forty  or  more  common  cart  loads  of  manure  or  compost 
per  acre;  others  consider  from  eight  to  twelve  to  be  sufficient;  hence  the  one  obtains 
a  fine  crop,  while  the  other  only  a  moderate  yield.  We  know  of  no  crop  that 
responds  more  freely  to  liberal  feeding  than  corn,  although  it  is  a  patient  plant, 
and  will  often  give  very  fair  results  with  the  most  indifferent  treatment. 

The  manner  in  which  manure  is  applied  affects  in  a  measure  its  efficiency. 
Many  farmers  apply  the  manure  broadcast  and  harrow  it  in  well,  afterward  using 
commercial  fertilizers  in  the  hills  or  drills,  according  to  the  method  of  planting; 
this  secures  an  early  start  to  the  plants  and  increases  the  formation  of  root-fibers. 


184  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Most  of  the  corn-planters  and  drills  have  the  means  of  distributing  commercial 
fertilizers  near  the  seed  at  the  time  of  sowing.  It  is  customar}r  in  some  localities 
to  spread  the  manure  broadcast  upon  the  sod  before  plowing,  and  then  turn  it ' 
under  with  a  plow.  We  do  not  recommend  this  practice,  as  it  buries  the  manure 
too  deeply  in  the  soil,  and  under  the  sod  where  it  will  remain  too  far  away  from 
the  reach  of  the  young  plants  at  the  time  they  require  its  nourishment  to  secure 
a  vigorous  start;  besides,  much  of  it  might  be  lost  altogether  by  leaching  it  into 
the  subsoil.  The  most  successful  results  will  attend  the  application  nearer  the 
surface  by  plowing  first,  and  harrowing  in  the  manure  afterward.  Even  with  a 
shallow  plowing  the  manure  should  lie  above  the  sod  in  the  soil. 

PLANTING. 

The  time  for  planting  differs  according  to  the  latitude  and  character  of  the 
season.  It  is  said  that  the  old  Indian  rule  was,  "When  the  oak-leaves  are  grown 
to  the  size  of  a  squirrel's  foot,  it  is  time  to  plant  corn."     When  the  season  is 

ordinarily  early  and  not  too  rainy,  the  time  of  plant- 
ing this  grain  in  the  extreme  Northern  States,  or  in 
Canada,  is  in  the  early  part  of  June;  in  Massachu- 
setts and  States  of  a  similar  climate,  from  the  10th 
to  the  20th  of  May;  in  the  Middle  States  and  those 
of  the  same  latitude,  from  the  first  to  the  middle  of 
May;  in  the  Southern  States  of  a  latitude  and 
climate  similar  to  that  of  Virginia,  from  the  mid- 
dle to  the  last  of  April;  in  sections  farther  South, 
a  Good  Home-Made  Marker.  it  ig  done  in  March.     In  some  seasons  the  planting 

can  be  done  a  week  or  two  earlier  than  the  usual  time,  while  in  others,  when 
unusually  cold  or  wet,  it  will  of  necessity  be  delayed  as  much  later  or  longer. 
It  also  can  be  done  considerably  earlier  on  high  than  on  low  lands. 

It  is  always  best  to  delay  planting  until  the  weather  is  favorable,  as  corn  will 
not  grow  until  the  ground  is  dry  and  warm,  and  if  planted  when  cold  and  wet, 
the  seed  will  be  liable  to  decay  in  the  ground  before  germinating;  still,  all  farmers 
realize  the  necessity  of  getting  corn  planted  as  early  as  practicable,  and  it  should 
not  be  delayed  later  than  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  the  crop.  Early  planting, 
when  the  season  will  admit,  will  give  better  results  than  that  which  is  late; 
besides,  it  can  be  cultivated  earlier  at  a  period  when  the  farmer  has  more  time  to 
attend  to  it  than  when  planted  later,  and  is  less  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  birds  and 
insects,  or  injured  by  diseases  of  any  kind  when  planted  early. 

Early  planting  is  especially  desirable  in  those  sections  subject  to  early  frosts 
in  autumn,  as  both  the  grain  and  fodder  are  injured  by  it;  hence,  the  earliest 
planting  that  the  season  will  allow  is  always  to  be  preferred. 

HILL   AND   DRILL    PLANTING. 

Corn  planting  may  be  done  by  planting-machines  or  drills,  and  the  seeds 
may  be  deposited  either  in  hills  or  drills,  some  preferring  the  old  method  of  hill- 
planting,  while  others  the  newer  and  more  recently  adopted  one  of  drilling. 
When  hill-planting  is  in  squares,  the  corn  may  be  cultivated  both  ways,  which 
stirs  the  soil  more  than  when  it  can  be  done  only  in  one  direction.      When  the 


CEREALS.  185 


corn  is  planted  in  drills,  tho  plants  can  be  more  uniformly  distributed  over  the 

ground,  giving  tho  sun  and  air  free  access  to  them,  while  there  is  less  crowding. 
The  advocates  of  drill-planting  claim  that  those  benefits  more  than  offset  those 
of  hill-culture.  Tho  advocates  of  hill-culture,  on  the  other  hand,  claim  that  an 
increased  yield  is  obtained  by  their  favorite  method.  Both  methods  have  their 
especial  advantages,  and  by  experimenting  for  himself  the  farmer  can  determine 
which  he  prefers;  wo  are  inclined  to  favor  drilling.  The  best  planting-machines 
can  be  adjusted  so  as  to  drop  tho  seed  either  in  drills  or  hills,  as  desired,  as  well 
as  a  common  drilling-machine.  They  will  open  the  furrow,  drop  the  seed  at 
regular  intervals,  and  in  proper  quantity,  in  straight  rows  or  drills,  which  admits 
of  after  cultivation  by  machinery,  cover  the  seed  at  the  proper  depth  as  well  as 
could  be  done  by  hand,  roll  it  down,  and  measure  and  mark  olf  at  the  same  time 
the  distance  for  the  next  row  or  drill  to  be  planted.  In  this  manner  a  single- 
row  machine,  with  one  man  and  a  horse,  will  plant  from  seven  to  ten  acres  of 
corn  per  day.  With  a  double-rowed  machine,  planting  two  rows  at  a  time,  about 
twice  this  amount  can  be  planted,  or  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  acres  a  day;  these 
machines  doing  the  work  as  rapidly  as  a  horse  can  walk.  Some  of  the  smaller 
ones  can  be  worked  by  hand,  if  desired. 

The  summary  of  rules  for  securing  large  and  profitable  crops  seems  to  be — ■ 

1.  Seed  of  a  prolific  variety. 

2.  Shallow  plowing  and  deep  pulverization. 

3.  Surface  manuring,  and  sufficient,  but  not  overmuch  manure. 

4.  Thick  planting;  early  planting. 

5.  Thorough  and  judicious  cultivation,  carried  out  with  horse-labor. 
To  be  avoided — 

1.  Poor  or  unknown  seed. 

2.  Insufficient  or  overmuch  manure. 

3.  Hand  labor. 

The  seed  should  be  well  covered,  about  two  inches  being  a  depth  suited  to  a 
moderately  moist,  mellow  soil;  a  sandy  soil  requiring  more  depth  than  clay.  It 
is  always  well  to  drop  one  or  two  more  kernels  in  a  hill  than  would  be  necessary 
for  growth  in  order  to  provide  for  the  kernels  that  may  not  germinate  or  produce 
healthy  stalks,  and,  when  the  plants  are  sufficiently  high,  to  make  a  selection 
of  the  feeblest,  to  pull  up  the  latter,  and  leave  the  thrifty  and  healthy  plants  to 
mature. 

CULTIVATION. 

Frequent  and  careful  culture  are  essential  to  the  highest  success  with  the 
corn  crop.  Air  and  water  are  necessary  to  the  growth  of  plants  by  not  only  con- 
tributing to  their  sustenance,  but  also  by  aiding  in  reducing  organic  matter  to  its 
mineral  elements  and  a  soluble  condition,  and  by  effecting  a  disintegrating  and 
solvent  action  on  the  mineral  particles  that  the  soil  contains;  consequently,  the 
more  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  broken  and  stirred,  the  more  moisture  is  absorbed 
by  it,  and  the  more  the  circulation  of  the  air  is  effected  within  it.  Among  some 
of  the  largest  crops  of  corn  that  we  have  had  authentic  proof  of  having  been 
harvested  from  one  acre,  was  one  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  bushels,  when  shelled, 
and  this  was  cultivated  once  a  week  up  to  the  time  when  the  ears  were  forming, 
and  after  the  silk  had  been  fertilized.    We  are  also  credibly  informed  that  at  this 


186 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


advanced  period  a  dressing  of  special  corn  fertilizer  Avas  worked  into  the  soil;  this 
latter  being  done  to  promote  the  growth  of  the  ears  and  grain,  and  as  an  experi- 
ment, on  the  principle  that  these  should  be  encouraged  in  growth,  rather  than  the 
stalks  and  leaves,  after  the  latter  had  attained  a  special  desirable  size.  A  requi- 
site amount  of  leaf-growth  is  essential  to  the  perfect  growth  and  maturity  of  the 
grain,  but,  beyond  this  requirement,  an  excessive  amount  of  leaf-growth  is  not 
of  importance  or  desirable. 

If  we  can,  b}r  frequent  stirring  of  the  soil,  aid  the  plant  in  the  production  of 
more  grain,  by  promoting  the  growth  of  larger  and  more  perfect  ears,  and  pre- 
venting abortive  or  false  ears,  or  vacant  spaces  in  the  ears,  we  shall  achieve  in 
this  department  of  agriculture  Avhat  will  prove  of  immense  value  and  profit  in 
the  production  of  this  crop,  and  the  labor  expended  will  prove  a  paying  invest- 
ment. Frequent  stirring  of  the  soil  also  hastens  maturity.  Mr.  Stewart  says 
that  in  the  cultivation  of  sweet  corn  for  market  he  has  hastened  the  maturity  of 
the  crop  several  days  by  weekly  cultivation.  It  is  not  necessary  to  wait  for  weeds, 
but  do  it  for  the  benefit  resulting  to  the  crop.  It  too  often  happens  that  corn 
receives  but  little  cultivation,  the  most  of  it  being  required  in  the  most  busy 
season  with  the  farmer,  when  other  farm  work  demands  attention,  hence  the  corn 
field  is  liable  to  be  neglected. 

HILLING   AND   LEVEL   CULTURE. 


"Whether  the  culture  should  be  level  or  hilled,  will  depend  much  upon  the 
character  of  the  soil.  Where  the  land  is  dry,  it  is  better  to  keep  the  surface  as 
level  as  possible.  This  admits  of  more  uniform  warmth  and  moisture,  conse- 
quently hastens  maturity  and  leaves  the  surface  in  the  best  condition  after  the 
crop  is  harvested  and  may  be  seeded  down  more 
easily  to  grass  or  clover  if  desired;  besides  hilling 
does  not  save  the  plants  from  being  blown  over  by  a 
severe  storm,  for  the  small  support  thus  given  is  of 
little  effect  when  compared  with  the  force  of  the 
wind  upon  the  broad  leaves.  On  wet  lands,  or  when 
coarse  manure  is  used  in  the  hills,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  make  the  hills  higher,  but  in  all  other  cases, 
level  cultivation  is  to  be  preferred.  Shallow  culti- 
vation is  always  beneficial  to  corn;  deep  cultivation 
is  always  attended  with  some  risk,  on  account  of 
breaking  or  disturbing  the  roots  of  the  plant,  which 
extend  to  a  greater  distance  than  is  commonly  sup- 
posed; therefore,  Ave  would  not  recommend  the 
ploA\r  for  corn  culture;  it  goes  too  deep  and  breaks 
the  roots.  Farmers  frequently  have  a  mistaken  idea 
with  respect  to  the  character  of  the  roots  of  the 
corn-plant.  It  was  a  commonly  received  opinion 
many  years  ago,  that  the  roots  of  trees  extended  from  the  base  of  the  stems,  only 
as  far  as  the  branches  extended  each  Avay  from  the  trunk  or  stems  above.  It 
requires  but  a  little  obsen'ation  to  become  acquainted  with  the  fact  that  all  trees 
throAV    out  roots  on  each  side  as  long  as  the  entire  height  of  the  tree  and  fre- 


rrimitive  Coin  Husker. 


CEREALS. 


187 


fluently  to  a  much  greater  distance;  the  same  is  true  of  many  plants.  Says  a 
recent  authentic  writer  on  this  subject: 

We  have  made  some  recent  examinations  of  the  roots  of  beans,  potatoes,  and 
of  corn.     Roots  of  beans  within  four  weeks  of  the  time  of  planting  the  seeds,  oud 

when  the  plants  were  only  five  inches  high,  were  found,  which  had  extended  a 
foot  and  a  half  from  the  stem;  and  potatoes  planted  the  first  of  May,  in  rows 
three  feet  apart,  were  found  to  have  pushed  their  fibrous  roots  by  the  middle  of 
Juno  so  as  to  occupy  the  entire  space  between  the  rows.  Very  careful  examination 
was,  of  course,  required  to  ascertain  these  facts,  and  careless  observers  would  be 
likely  to  overlook  them  entirely. 

The  roots  of  corn  do  not  extend  so  far  as  those  of  beans  and  potatoes  during 
the  early  weeks  of  their  growth;  but  early  in  summer,  before  the  corn  plants  were 
six  inches  high,  they  were  found  to  have  horizontal  roots  in  some  instances  a  foot 
in  length,  making  a  circle  of  fibres  two  feet  in  diameter,  or  four  times  the  height 
of  the  plants.  When  the  corn 
bad  reached  twelve  or  fifteen 
inches,  the  roots  had  met  between 
the  three-feet  rows,  and  while  yet 
the  plants  had  not  attained  more 
than  one-tenth  their  final  weight 


or  bulk.     Long  before  the 


ears 


Primitive  Hominy  Mortar. 


form  the  entire  ground  is  occu- 
pied between  the  rows  with  their 
long  and  slender  fibres. 

Observing  farmers  have  long 
since  discovered  that  much  hill- 
ing of  the  corn  crop  is  injurious 
to  its  growth,  and  lessens  its  pro- 
duct. But  they  generally  assign 
wrong  reasons.  One  of  our  best  practical  writers  lately  stated  that  hilling  does 
harm  by  throwing  the  water  of  falling  rains  away  from  the  roots  of  the  plant — 
supposing  that  they  are  crowded  in  a  little  mass  a  few  inches  in  length  at  the  foot 
of  the  stalks,  instead  of  actually  spreading  far  and  wide.  As  heavy  rains  soak 
the  ground  alike  over  the  field,  the  hilling  would  make  little  difference;  or  if  it 
did,  the  water  would  be  as  freely  thrown  on  the  roots  between  the  rows  as  in  them. 

The  writer  then  refers  to  other  erroneous  methods  of  reasoning  and  practice 
sometimes  followed,  which  consists  of  throwing  the  soil  away  from  the  plants  for 
a  time,  to  admit  the  rays  of  the  sun  to  the  roots,  and  further  says: 

This  mode  is  just  the  reverse  of  hilling,  and  if  performed  to  any  depth 
would  be  as  likely  to  cause  injury  by  uncovering  or  breaking  the  roots  as  burying 
them  unnaturally  deep  in  high  hilling  would  occasion  harm.  Both  methods  are 
founded  on  the  supposition  of  short  roots,  and  both  deprive  the  plants  of  the  ben- 
efit of  the  broad,  even,  mellow  bed  of  earth  for  the  roots  to  extend  in  at  all  dis- 
tances from  the  plants,  where  there  is  little  or  no  hilling. 

Shallow  culture  is,  therefore,  to  be  preferred  for  corn,  stirring  the  soil  only  on 
the  surface,  but  very  frequently.  This  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  dry 
weather,  and  after  rains,  when  the  surface  has  become  hardened  and  dry.  Some 
farmers  go  over  the  field  with  the  harrow  before  the  corn  makes  its  appearance 


188  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


from  the  ground,  in  order  to  destroy  the  young  weeds  when  in  the  germ,  and 
before  they  have  taken  hold  of  the  soil;  this  may  be  well  if  the  field  has  been 
plowed  a  week  or  two  before  planting,  and  has  the  effect  of  cleaning  the  soil  of 
weeds.  After  the  corn  is  well  up  and  has  taken  root,  it  should  be  cultivated  for 
the  purpose  of  checking  the  weeds  and  promoting  the  growth  of  the  crop.  If  it 
could  be  cultivated  as  often  as  once  a  week  until  after  it  has  tassled  out,  it  would 
be  of  great  benefit  to  the  crop.  The  old-time  custom  of  hand-hoeing,  still  prac- 
ticed to  a  considerable  extent  in  some  sections,  especially  New  England,  is  unprof- 
itable and  expensive,  and  should  be  superseded  by  the  use  of  the  horse  hoe  or 
cultivator,  which  will  be  of  more  effectual  benefit  to  the  crop,  with  less  labor,  time 
and  expense. 

WHEAT. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  extensively  cultivated  of  the  cereals,  and 
next  to  maize  or  Indian  corn,  is  the  most  productive  of  all  the  grasses  belonging 
to  the  genus  Triticum.  It  has  been  cultivated  for  the  food  of  man  from  the  ear- 
liest ages,  the  Bible,  as  well  as  the  Egyptian  and  Chinese  records,  substantiating 
this  fact;  and  although  it  is  not  known  in  a  wild  state,  most  botanists  incline  to 
the  belief  that  it  had  its  origin  in  the  central  portions  of  Asia.  Rice  forms  the 
principal  sustenance  of  the  vast  population  of  India  and  China;  corn  and  the 
various  other  grains  also  contribute  to  the  support  of  multitudes  of  the  human 
family;  but  wheat  forms  one  of  the  principal  articles  of  food  of  the  most  powerful 
and  civilized  nations  of  the  world.  It  may  be  cultivated  in  a  variety  of  soils,  and 
will  adapt  itself  to  either  cold  or  warm  climates,  but  thrives  best  in  the  temperate 
zones,  and  in  soils  that  are  rich  and  rather  heavy.  The  lowest  mean  temperature 
in  which  wheat  will  ripen  is  57.2  degrees. 

While  the  increased  consumption  of  wheat  in  a  country  is  an  indication  of 
an  improved  style  of  living  among  the  general  population,  its  extended  culture  ia 
also  an  index  of  an  improved  agriculture,  since  it  is  only  on  soils  naturally  fertile 
or  have  been  rendered  so  by  careful  cultivation  that  it  can  be  successfully  grown. 

VARIETIES. 

There  are  already  many  varieties  and  sub-varieties  of  wheat,  and  the  number 
is  constantly  being  augmented  by  either  the  accidental  discovery  of  new  ones,  or 
by  cross-fertilization  artificially  brought  about  for  this  purpose.  Some  of  these 
varieties  are  more  hardy  than  others;  but  among  the  most  popular  kinds  culti- 
vated, some  may  be  found  that  can  be  successfully  grown  in  almost  any  section 
of  the  United  States  and  the  southern  portion  of  British  America. 

The  most  common  classification  of  wheat  is  that  made  by  the  time  of  its 
sowing,  it  being  sown  both  in  autumn  and  spring;  hence,  the  terms  "winter 
wheat"  and  "spring  wheat."  This  distinction,  however,  often  misleads,  for  while 
it  is  true  that  there  are  certain  varieties  best  adapted  for  autumn  and  spring 
growing,  respectively,  it  is  also  true  that  many  kinds  will  admit  of  being  sown  at 
either  season.  The  spring  wheat  has  been  obtained  by  a  gradual  change  in  the 
time  of  sowing.  As  a  general  rule,  winter  wheat,  in  localities  adapted  to  its  cul- 
tivation, gives  a  stronger  growth  of  straw  and  larger  yield  of  grain  than  the 
spring  wheat,  and  the  heads  grow  more  erect  and  full  with  heavier  grains.  Many 
of  the  varieties  that  give  the  most  favorable  results  in   cultivation  at  the  South. 


CEREALS. 


18!) 


are  not  hardy  enough  for  the  climate  of  the  Northern  States,  while  many  of  the 
winter  varieties  are  not  sufficiently  hardy  for  the  extreme  North.  The  selection 
of  seed  should  always  be  adapted  to  the  climate,  and  the  more  hardy  varieties 
sown  in  the  colder  temperatures. 

Spring  varieties  may  bring  a  surer  crop,  and  involve  less  risk  of  loss  to  the 
farmer  in  localities  where  the  winters  are  so  long  and  severe  that  the  crop  some- 
times "winter  kills,"  though  this  may  frequently  be  due  to  improper  preparation 
of  the  land  through  lack  of  under-draining,  or  other  causes;  but  is  often  due  to 
want  of  hardiness  in  the  wheat-plant.  The  wheat-growers  are  constantly  forced 
to  seek  other  varieties  to  keep  up  the  average  yield. 

Some  writers  attribute  this  frequent  tendency  to  deterioration  in  quantity 
and  quality  to  be  a  natural  inclination  to  return  to  the  original  unimproved, 
uncultivated  condition;  but  we  believe,  if  the  real  cause  were  known,  it  would  be 
found  to  be  more  in  the  deterioration  and  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  together  with  a 
lack  of  judicious  care  in  selecting  the  very  best  seed 
of  the  crop  for  sowing,  and  that  if  farmers  would 
restore  those  elements  extracted  from  the  soil,  in  the 
production  of  the  harvested  crop,  in  the  form  of  pro- 
per fertilizers,  before  sowing  the  succeeding  one,  and 
select  only  the  choicest  and  most  perfect  seeds  for 
that  sowing,  the  deterioration,  so  often  the  complaint 
of  farmers,  would  not  be  known.     . 

Some  kinds  will  do  best  in  one  section,  and 
others  in  another;  we  doubt  whether  any  variety 
Will  ever  be  produced  that  will  thrive  equally  well 
in  all  localities. 

The  soft,  plum-berried  varieties  are  frequently 
found  the  most  productive,  and  for  this  reason  are 
much  in  favor  with  those  farmers  who  would  natu- 
rally think  more  of  quantity  than  quality.  The  flint 
and  glutinous  varieties  make  the  best  flour,  especially 
where  that  which  is  called  the  "  new  process  "  mill- 
ing is  employed,  and  consequently  flinty  varieties  are  more  popular  with  the 
millers. 

Wheat  that  is  cut  early  makes  not  only  whiter  flour,  but  flour  that  contains 
more  starch  in  proportion  to  the  gluten  than  that  made  from  wheat  which  is  har- 
vested after  becoming  fully  ripe.  The  microscope  reveals  the  fact  that  the  starch 
and  gluten  are  not  formed  in  the  grain  at  precisely  the  same  period,  the  starch- 
cells  in  the  interior  of  the  grain  kernel  being  filled  with  starch-granules  several 
daya  before  the  gluten-cells  (which  are  next  to  the  bran)  are  quite  filled.  For 
this  reason,  wheat  that  is  allowed  to  get  as  ripe  as  possible,  to  avoid  waste,  makes 
better  flour,  because  it  contains  more  gluten,  although  it  is  not  quite  as  white  as 
from  wheat  that  is  early  cut.  The  quality  of  the  grain  is  somewhat  modified  by 
the  soil;  if  the  soil  be  a  moist  clay  and  other  conditions  favorable,  the  berry  will 
be  plump  and  soft,  while  a  dry,  sandy  soil  will  produce  a  smaller  but  harder 
kernel,  a  better  quality,  but  less  in  quantity. 

It  is  stated  hy  good  authority  that  American  wheat  contains  more  gluten  than 
English,  and  that  produced  in  the  Southern  States  more  than  that  in  the  North- 


Primitive  Corn  Shelter. 


190  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


em;  and  as  gluten  is  an  element  that  imparts  to  flour  the  quality  that  is  termed 
by  bakers  "strength,"  and  which  enables  it  to  absorb  a  large  quantity  of  water 
when  made  into  bread,  consequently  in.  an  equal  number  of  pounds  of  flour  pos- 
sessing a  greater  and  less  per  cent,  of  gluten,  the  quantity  possessing  the  largest 
per  cent,  of  this  material  will  make  proportionally  the  largest  quantity  of  bread; 
hence,  it  has  been  asserted  that  while  fourteen  pounds  of  American  flour  will 
make  twenty-one  and  a  half  pounds  of  bread,  the  same  quantity  of  English  flour 
Avill  only  make  eighteen  and  a  half  pounds.  Of  course,  different  varieties  of 
wheat  will  differ  in  the  proportion  of  gluten  furnished;  but,  as  a  general  rule, 
other  considerations  being  equal,  the  dryer  or  warmer  the  climate  is  in  which  the 
grain  is  raised,  the  greater  is  the  evaporation  and  the  more  condensed  is  the  flour 
of  the  grain,  and  consequently  the  more  moisture  it  is  capable  of  absorbing. 
There  is  considerable  difference  in  the  productive,  as  well  as  other  qualities  of  the 
various  varieties  of  wheat;  and  it  is,  of  course,  well  for  the  farmer  to  endeavor  to 
select  the  best  that  is  adapted  to  his  soil  and  climate;  but  the  kind  to  be  sown  is 
not  more  essential  than  the  thorough  preparation  of  the  land  to  receive  it,  since  no 
variety,  however  good,  would  thrive  except  the  soil  be  first  well  prepared.  The 
important  question  as  to  how  may  the  increase  of  wheat  per  acre  be  accomplished 
may  therefore  be  answered  in  the  following  manner :  By  better  tillage,  by  improv- 
ing the  soil,  and  by  soAving  better  seed. 

PREPARATION    OF    SOIL    FOR    WHEAT. 

There  is  scarcely  any  crop  that  requires  more  thorough  and  careful  prepara- 
tion of  soil  for  successful  results  than  wheat,  yet  having  once  obtained  a  vigorous 
start,  it  grows  very  rapidly  under  favoring  circumstances,  although  it  is  not  as 
hardy  as  some  other  of  the  cultivated  grains.  It  is  partial  to  a  very  fertile  soil, 
its  cultivation  usually  being  very  successful  in  rich  clays  or  heavy  loams,  although 
many  light  soils,  when  in  proper  condition,  will  produce  a  good  yield.  Lands  for 
wheat  should  never  be  too  wet,  and  when  an  excess  of  moisture  exists  it  should 
be  obviated  by  a  good  system  of  drainage,  for  unless  this  is  done,  the  crop  suffers 
by  being  heaved  out  by  frosts  in  winter,  and  "winter-killed,"  or  chilled,  or 
dwarfed,  in  the  spring  and  early  summer,  clay  lands  being  especially  liable  to  this 
difficulty.  The  beneficial  effects  of  the  best  tillage  on  lands  of  the  most  superior 
quality  will  be  counteracted  by  a  surplus  of  water;  hence,  the  proper  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  soil  should  receive  the  first  attention.  The  land  should  be  so  well 
drained  that  no  water  will  stand  in  the  furrows.  The  field  to  be  appropriated  to 
wheat  culture  should  be  well  plowed  at  least  twice,  and  afterward  thoroughly  har- 
rowed to  reduce  it  to  as  mellow  and  pulverized  a  condition  as  possible,  as  this  will 
serve  to  unlock  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  put  it  in  a  state  to  best  sustain  the 
growing  plant;  it  should  then  be  well  rolled  to  be  as  firm  as  possible  before 
putting  in  the  seed.  The  old  adage,  that,  "Tillage  is  manure,"  is  a  very  true  one, 
and  one  especially  adapted  to  the  culture  of  Avheat.  If,  after  being  thus  well  pre- 
pared, a  rain  happens  to  fall  in  sufficient  quantity  to  form  a  crust  upon  the  sur- 
face, it  should  be  harrowed  and  rolled  again  in  the  same  manner  before  sowing 
the  grain.  By  the  thorough  use  of  the  harrow  and  the  roller,  the  best  pulveriza- 
tion of  the  soil  can  be  secured,  and  a  sufficient  density  given  it  without  packing 
it  too  closely,  and  also  leaving  it  sufficiently  porous  for  the  access  of  air  and 


CEREALS. 


191 


Device  for  Shocking  Corn,  Fig.  1. 


water.  Many  of  our  most  successful  wheat  growers  plow  the  land,  letting  it  lie 
for  several  weeks  or  even  months,  thus  giving  the  heat  and  air  an  opportunity  to 
act  upon  the  soil,  working  it  occasionally  with  the  harrow  and  roller,  until  a  com- 
plete pulverization  is  secured.  The  summer  fallow  is  regarded  with  much  favor 
in  some  localities.  A  good  depth  of  soil  is  indispensahle  to  a  large  crop,  as  the 
wheat  plant  has  two  sets  of  roots;  the  first  springing  from  the  seed  and  extending 
downward;  the  second,  extending  laterally  from  the  first  joint  and  lying  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground.     A  difference  of  opinion  exists  respecting  the  depth  of 

plowing  for  wheat,  some  advocating  only  three  or 
four  inches,  others  considerably  greater  depth;  we 
are  of  the  opinion  that  for  most  soils,  from  four  to 
rive  inches  is  the  proper  depth,  where  land  has  pre- 
viously been  deeply  cultivated  for  other  crops ; 
much,  however,  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
In  clearing  up  new  lands,  such  as  those  previously  occupied  by  a  forest,  where 
the  trees  have  been  chopped  and  the  soil  burned  over,  as  is  the  practice  in 
some  of  the  unsettled  portions  of  the  country,  a  fair  wheat  crop  can  be  obtained 
with  but  slight  labor  in  preparing  the  soil,  since  the  proper  plant  food  for  the  seed 
is  found  in  the  decaying  vegetable  matter  of  the  soil,  and  the  ashes  of  the  debris 
burned  in  clearing;  hence,  a  good  crop  of  wheat  is  often  grown  upon  the  inverted 
sod  with  but  little  further  preparation  of  the  soil;  but  for  old  lands  the  most 
thorough  preparation  is  necessary.  Early  plowing  is  always  desirable  for  wheat 
crops.  If  wheat  is  sown  upon  oat-stubble,  it  is  best  to  plow  the  stubble  as  soon  as 
the  crop  is  off,  and  before  the  ground  becomes  too  hard  to  plow  well.  The  scat- 
tered oats  will  sprout,  but  may  be  destroyed  by  harrowing  thoroughly  and 
repeatedly. 

FERTILIZING  OF  SOIL  FOR  WHEAT. 


Some  soils  are  so  rich  naturally,  that  they  will  require  little  or  no  addition  to 
their  fertility  to  secure  a  large  yield  of  wheat,  but  these  are  the  exceptions  rather 
than  the  rule,  and  even  most  of  these  will,  after  a  few  years' 
cropping,  become  sufficiently  exhausted  to  necessitate  the  use  of 
fertilizers  in  the  form  of  plant  food.  This  sustenance  should 
always  be  in  condition  for  immediate  use;  hence,  coarse  ma- 
nures, that  cannot  readily  be  taken  up  by  the  delicate  feeding 
wheat  plant,  will  not  meet  the  demand,  or  be  of  any  assistance 
in  sustaining  its  life  until  sufficient  time  has  passed  for  them  to 
become  assimilated  to  its  use  through  atmospheric  and  other 
agencies,  which  often  require  two  or  three  years. 

A  crop  of  wheat,  if  fertilized  by  coarse  barn-yard  manure, 
for  instance,  might  starve  before  the  plant  food  that  lay  within 
the  soil  would  be  in  a  condition  to  nourish  it.  Whenever 
barn-yard  manure  is  used,  therefore,  in  the  culture  of  wheat, 
it  is  essential  that  it  be  pulverized  very  fine;  when  applied  in 
this  condition,  it  is  highly  valuable. 

A  heavy  crop  of  clover,  which  has  received  a  good  dressing  of  lime,  is  some- 
times plowed  under  with  very  good  results ;  but  this  should  be  done  several  weeks 


Device  for  Shocking  Com, 
Fig.  2. 


192 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


before  sowing  the  wheat,  that  it  may  have  sufficient  time  to  decay,  and  be  in' con- 
dition to  stimulate  the  growth  of  the  crop.  Lime  has  long  been  regarded  as  an 
important  aid  in  the  growth  of  wheat,  and  in  preventing  rust;  also,  in  obviating 
an  undue  growth  of  straw,  and  assisting  in  tilling  out  the  grain. 

For  some  very  old  lands  which  show  a  tendency  to  exhaustion,  liniu  and  salt  are 
often  used  with  good  effect.  Mr.  J.  B.  Lawes,  of  Rothamsted,  England,  recom- 
mends Peruvian  guano  as  the  best  manure  for  the  wheat  crop  in  the  English  soil, 
to  be  sown  broadcast  and  harrowed  in  before  sowing  the  seed;  he  also  mentions 
that  if  mixed  with  twice  its  weight  of  common  salt  or  ashes  a  more  equal  distri- 
bution through  the  soil  is  attained.  Whatever  the  fertilizer  used,  the  soil  should 
be  made  very  rich,  and  the  material  for  making  it  so  should  be  put  very  near  the 
surface;  for  if  buried  too  deep  in  the  soil  it  will  be  beyond  the  reach  of  the  deli- 
cate roots  of  the  wheat  plant,  and  hence  of  no  material  aid  in  its  sustenance.  It 
is  a  common  complaint  with  farmers  in  many  sections  that  the  lands  that  for- 
merly produced  large  crops  of  wheat  now  yield  only  about  one-half  that  quantity. 

This  is  due  to  the  exhaustion  of  soil  at- 
tending constant  cropping  without  the  use 
of  fertilizers  to  return  the  lands,  thus 
drained  of  their  fertility,  an  equivalent; 
hence,  their  former  fertility  cannot  be  re- 
stored without  the  application  of  an  abun- 
dance of  plant  food. 

In  England  the  problem  of  wheat  pro- 
duction seems  to  have  approached  a  very 
satisfactory  solution,  the  average  product 
of  this  grain  sixty  years  ago  having  been 
only  sixteen  bushels  per  acre;  now  the 
average  is  thirty  bushels,  and  many  farm- 
ers harvest  regularly  an  average  of  from 
forty-eight  to  sixty  bushels  per  acre. 
Mr.  George  Cowen,  of  England,  states  that  when  on  a  visit  to  Mr.  Mackenzie's 
noted  farm  in  Manitoba,  that  gentleman  informed  him  that  his  average  yield  of 
wheat  was  forty-one  bushels  per  acre,  and  the  year  preceding  thirty-six  bushels ; 
and  that  his  oat  crop  the  previous  year  yielded  an  average  of  eighty-eight  bushels 
per  acre.  When  the  farmers  in  the  United  States  can  attain  an  equal  average  in 
the  production  of  these  grains,  the  pursuit  of  agriculture  will  be  attended  with 
more  satisfaction  and  profit  than  at  present.  We  believe  this  can  he  accomplished 
by  proper  tillage  and  a  liberal  supply  of  the  right  kind  of  fertilizing  element. 

Mr.  Fust,  of  Quebec,  says,  in  relation  to  this  subject:  "It  is  my  firm  belief 
that  the  reason  why  our  wheat  crops  only  yield  half  as  much  as  the.  English  crops 
is  that  in  England  they  utilize  sheep  as  grain  growers,  while  wo  only  consider 
them  as  wool  and  mutton  makers." 

The  great  value  of  sheep  as  fertilizers  is  elsewhere  treated  in  this  work,  and 
therefore  does  not  require  repetition  here,  but  we  fully  concur  in  the  above 
expressed  opinion,  and  believe,  if  our  farmers  would  utilize  sheep  for  enriching 
the  soil,  they  would  realize  a  decided  increase  in  their  yearly  crops  of  Avheat 

In  the  experiments  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  of  England,  a  repeated  cropping  of 
the  same  lands,  yearly,  for  thirty  years,  gave  an  average  of  sixteen  and  three-fourths 


U.  S.  Patent  Corn  Husker,  A.  D.  1837. 


( IEREALS. 


193 


bushels  of  wheat  per  acre,  with  mineral  manures  alone,  while  the  unmanured 
gave  fourteen  bushels  per  acre  during  that  time.  The  addition  of  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  with  the  same  repeated  cropping  of  the  same  land,  brought  the  average 
up  to  thirty-six  bushels  per  acre.  With  the  leguminous  crops  it  was  the  reverse, 
the  experiments  proving  them  to  be  greatly  benefited  by  mineral  manures.  They 
also  found,  by  repeated  experiments,  that  cereals  are  most  helped  by  nitrogen, 
next  by  phosphates,  and  very  little  by  potash. 

For  wheat,  we  would  advocate  the  use  of  artificial  fertilizers,  in  preference  to 
farm  manure,  for  the  reason  that  farm  manure  is  rarely  applied  in  a  mechanical 
condition  to  be  readily  assimilated  by  the  wheat  plant,  while  the  former  responds 
very  quickly,  and  is  in  a  condition  to  be  readily  taken  up  by  the  growing  plants. 
This  will,  of  course,  involve  some  outlay,  but  the  increase  of  the  crop  will  well 
repay  for  the  expenditure,  experiments  frequently  proving  that  the  judicious 
application  of  ten  dollars'  worth  of  proper  fertilizers  often  brings  a  return  of 
from  twenty  to  thirty  dollars'  worth  of  grain.  Too  great  importance  cannot  be 
placed  upon  finely  pulverizing  the  soil,  and  having  the  fertilizing  element  near 
the  surface,  where  it  can  be  within  the  reach  of 
the  plant  when  it  first  gets  started.  Some  farmers 
apply  the  fertilizers  with  a  drill  at  the  time  of  sow- 
ing the  grain;  when  this  is  done,  it  is  better  to  mix 
the  fertilizers  with  about  twice  the  quantity  of  earth, 
or  to  apply  it  broadcast  and  harrow  it  in,  taking  care 
that  it  is  not  covered  too  deeply;  either  of  these 
methods  prevent  injury  to  the  seed  that  might  re- 
sult by  having  the  strong  chemical  fertilizers  com- 
ing in  direct  contact  with  it,  which  would  have  a 
tendency  to  injure  the  germ. 

Ground  bone  or  superphosphate  of  lime  is  a 
very  valuable  and  available  fertilizer  for  wheat;  it 
also  hastens  its  maturity  from  one  to  two  weeks  in 
many  soils.  It  should  be  lightly  harrowed  in,  and  never  mixed  deeply  with  the  soil. 
From  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  four  hundred  pounds  or  more  per  acre  should  be 
applied,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  It  is  estimated  by  good  authority 
that  twenty-five  bushels  of  wheat  with  straw,  takes  from  an  acre  of  ground  51.85- 
pounds  of  ammonia,  33.70  of  potash,  and  2G.  10  of  phosphoric  acid,  which  is  equal 
to  about  fifty-seven  pounds  of  bone  phosphate  lime. 


Permanent  Corn  Crib. 


SELECTION    OF    SEED. 


In  order  to  secure  the  best  results  in  the  culture  of  wheat,  it  is  not  only 
important  that  the  soil  be  sufficiently  fertile  and  thoroughly  prepared  for  the- 
reception  of  the  seed,  but  that  the  seed  upon  which  the  future  crop  is  dependent, 
should  be  the  very  best  quality,  perfectly  sound,  fully  developed  in  kernel,  well 
ripened,  and  entirely  free  from  imperfections  of  any  kind.  The  natural  law  of 
"like  producing  like"  is  as  arbitrary  in  the  culture  of  grains  as  in  the  propaga- 
tion of  animals,  or  any  other  department  of  nature,  and  the  deterioration  of  the 
wheat  crop  so  common  in  some  sections  is  largely  due  to  carelessness  and  indiffer- 
ence in  the  selection  of  seed.     The  best  soil,  the  most  careful  cultivation  will  not 

13 


194  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


produce  a  good  crop  from  inferior  seed.  The  difficulty  and  time  required  to  sepa- 
rate the  largest  and  most  perfect  kernels  for  sowing,  is  probahly  the  reason  why 
so  much  inferior  seed  is  sown.  Many  years  ago,  before  the  grading,  fanning-mills, 
and  separators  were  invented,  farmers  were  obliged  to  resort  to  various  devices 
for  separating  the  best  kernels  for  this  purpose.  One  method  was  to  dip  up  from 
the  pile  from  one  end  of  the  barn-floor  a  small  quantity  of  wheat  in  a  saucer,  and 
throw  it  upon  the  floor  at  the  other  end  as  far  as  possible ;  by  this  means  the 
heaviest  grains  would  go  farther  than  the  light  ones,  and  when  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity had  accumulated  at  the  farthest  end  of  the  whole  mass,  the  best  seed  was 
secured. 

Another  method  was  to  put  up  a  wire  sieve  several  feet  long,  giving  it  a  suffi- 
cient slant  to  have  the  grain,  when  poured  in  at  the  highest  end,  pass  over  its  sur- 
face; by  gently  shaking  this  sieve  the  small  grains  would  drop  through,  and  the 
large  ones  go  on  over  the  opposite  end.  Others  selected  the  perfect  heads  from 
the  bundles  of  wheat  and  shelled  them  by  hand,  which  was  a  long  and  labored 
process  of  obtaining  a  quantity  of  seed.  The  grading-mill  saves  much  of  this 
labor  and  time,  but  it  is  by  no  means  without  objection,  since  many  imperfect 
seeds  find  their  way  among  the  selected  ones,  though  it  is  perhaps  the  best  prac- 
ticable method  where  very  large  quantities  are  required  for  sowing.  Where  prac- 
ticable, the  selection  of  the  best  heads,  with  a  further  grading  by  sifting  out  all 
the  smaller  seeds,  will  give  a  better  selection,  and  by  carefully  cultivating  these 
and  permitting  no  weeds  to  grow  among  the  wheat,  yearly  repeating  this  process, 
combined  with  the  best  cultivation,  will  not  only  prevent  deterioration  in  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  the  crop,  but  improve  it  in  all  respects. 

One  of  the  best  means  of  securing  the  choicest  grains  of  seed  is  to  take  those 
growing  in  the  lower  half  of  the  head,  these  being  invariably  larger  and  more 
plump  than  those  in  the  upper  half.  This  process  of  selection,  of  course,  involves 
much  labor  and  time,  but  it  might  be  accomplished  easily  where  only  a  small 
amount  of  seed  were  required,  for  a  choice  plot,  or  for  experiment  in  growing  for 
seed.  Some  very  successful  wheat  growers  save  all  the  grain  for  seed  that  shells 
out  itself  in  handling  the  sheaves,  since  the  largest  and  heaviest  kernels  will  shell 
out  the  more  readily.  A  recent  writer  says  that  by  this  means  of  selection  he  has 
not  only  largely  increased  his  average  crop  of  wheat,  but  that  the  heads  are  much 
longer  and  heavier  and  the  kernels  larger.  Mr.  IT.  Stewart  says,  in  this  connec- 
tion: 

The  question  occurs,  how  the  habit  of  growing  long,  full  ears  is  to  be  fixed 
on  a  variety.  I  answer,  by  selection  and  constant  cultivation,  and  producing  a 
pedigreed  variety.  Every  farmer  might  do  this  for  himself,  but  few  will;  there- 
fore, there  is  a  large  and  profitable  business  for  farmers  to  grow  seed  and  make  a 
special  thing  of  it;  not  only  by  producing  new  varieties  by  crossing,  but  by  cul- 
tivating the  best  that  we  now  have  and  improving  them  in  prolificness.  If,  by 
enriching  the  soil,  we  can  produce  only  half  the  standard  number  of  ears,  and, 
by  selection  of  seed,  gain  an  average  length  of  five  inches  of  ear,  Ave  have  fifty 
bushels  of  wheat  per  acre,  and  can  afford  to  snap  our  finger  at  bonanza  farming. 

As  to  the  varieties  of  seed,  upon  the  selection  of  which  so  much  depends,  no 
definite  rule  can  be  given,  since  some  kinds  are  best  adapted  to  one  locality  and 
others  to  another;  careful  and  repeated  experiments  alone  will  determine  their 
adaption  to  certain  soils  and  temperatures. 


CEREALS. 


195 


TIME    OF    SOWING   WINTER   WIIEAT. 

Winter  wheat  should  ho  sown  in  time  to  give  it  a  start  before  the  ground' 
freezes,  which  will,  of  course,  be  modified  by  the  latitude.  The  usual  time  at  the 
North  is  from  the  10th  to  nearly  the  last  of  September,  although  many  farmers 
consider  it  expedient  to  have  it  sown  at  or  before  the  15th  of  September,  in  order 
to  give  it  time  to  root  well  before  the  frost  makes  its  appearance.  The  time  of 
sowing  at  the  South  is  from  the  middle  of  October  to  the  middle  of  November, 
although  in  some  sections  it  is  sometimes  delayed  until  the  early  part  of  Decem- 
ber; but  this,  we  think,  rather  late  for  any  wheat-growing  section,  and  involve;', 
some  risk  to  the  crop.  The  appearance  of  the  Hessian  fly  sometimes  modifies 
the  time  of  sowing  winter  wheat,  it  generally  making  its  appearance  about  the  first 
of  September,  and  if  sown  at  this  time  may  be  liable  to  its  attack.  If  it  is  sown 
sufficiently  early  in  any  section  to  secure  a  good,  strong  root  to  the  wheat  plant 
before  the  ground  freezes  in  the  fall,  an  earlier  growth  in  the  spring  is  secured,! 
and  consequently  an  earlier  ripened  crop  for  harvest. 


QUANTITY    OF   WHEAT    SOWN   TO    THE    ACRE. 

There  has  been  rmuh  discussion  upon  the  subject  of  thick  and  thin  sowing 
of  wheat,  many  of  the  advocates  of  both  methods,  as  is  usually  the  case  on  all 
subjects,  being  extravagant  in  praise  of  his  own 
favorite  method,  and  often  erring  in  carrying  out 
their  ideas  to  the  extreme,  some  insisting  that  but 
a  few  quarts  per  acre  is  all  that  is  essential  for  pro- 
ducing a  good  crop,  and  that  all  seed  sown  in  excess 
of  that  quantity  is  mere  waste.  Others  would  sow 
so  thick  that  the  growth  of  the  plant  would  be  well 
nigh  impossible  for  want  of  room.  We  believe  that 
medium  is  generally  the  safer  ground  on  most  sub- 
jects, and  this  especially. 

When  the  largest  and  most  perfect  kernels  are 
separated  from  all  others  for  sowing,  as  they  always 
should  be,  a  less  quantity  will  be  required  than 
where  many  of  the  grains  are  imperfect  and  will  fail 
of  germinating;  hence,  a  difference  should  be  observ- 
ed in  the  kind  of  wheat  to  be  sown.  A  heavy  sow- 
ing will  generally  produce  lighter  straw  and  heads, 
as  all  plants,  when  crowded  thickly  together,  are 
more  slender  in  groAvth.  There  is  also  a  tendency  in 
wheat  and  most  of  the  other  cereals  to  tiller  or  throw 
out  new  shoots  for  future  growth,  which  seems  to 
be  an  effort  in  nature  to  cover  the  entire  ground 
occupied.  Thick  sowing  will  generally  prevent  this  in  a  great  measure;  however, 
ii  sown  too  thick  there  is  not  sufficient  room  for  the  growth  of  the  plants,  and 
not  only  a  lighter  straw  is  the  result,  but,  we  think,  that  it  also  modifies  in  a  meas- 
ure the  size  of  the  kernel,  as  well  as  that  of  the  heads,  and  this  manner  of  sow- 
ing will  soon  deteriorate  the  quality  of  the  wheat.  Light  sowing  produces  a 
strong,  vigorous   growth,  with   large,   well-filled  heads.     We   would,   therefore, 


Roots  of  Com  Plant. 


196 


PROFITABLE  FARMING 


advise  a  medium  in  quantity  sown,  and  avoid  either  extreme.     Mr.  H.  Stewart 
says,  in  giving  the  result  of  his  expeience  and  observation: 

It  is  a  fact  that  a  field  of  good  wheat,  whatever  may  be  its  yield,  bears  a 
pretty  constant'  number  of  ears  per  acre,  and  this  standard  number  is  about 
1,250,000,  or  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  the  square  yard,  or  twenty-eight  to  the 
square  foot.  This  would  bring  the  ears  over  the  field  to  within  two  and  one-half 
inches  of  each  other.  Now,  every  farmer  may  know  that  this  is  possible,  for  it  is 
easy  to  grow  one  plant  on  a  square  foot  with  twenty-eight  ears  on  it.  The 
1,250,000  grains  are  equal  to  two  bushels,  so  that  the  amount  of  crop  depends 
upon  the  number  of  grains  to  each  ear.  This  number  varies  greatly,  both  in  the 
length  of  the  ear  and  its  contents  of  grain.  If  the  ears  average  twenty  grains, 
the  product  should  be  forty  bushels.  I  have  found  that  good  wheat  generally 
carries  about  ten  grains  to  the  inch  of  the  ear,  but  that  ears  vary  with  regard  to 
the  compactness  with  which  the  grain  is  packed  in  them.     I  have  found  only 

fifty  grains  in  an  ear  of  Clawson  wheat  seven 
inches  long,  and  forty  grains  in  an  ear  of  Tread- 
well  four  inches  long,  and  the  same  in  an  ear 
of  Red  Mediterranean,  and  several  others.  The 
desirable  point  to  be  reached,  then,  is  to  pro- 
duce long,  well-filled  ears.  I  do  not  think 
this  is  possible,  except  with  thinner  sowing 
than  is  usual.  Two  bushels  of  plump  seed 
will  contain  1,250,000  grains,  but  in  not  one 
case  in  a  hundred  or  in  a  thousand,  will  tbe 
crop  produce  one  ear  for  each  grain  sown,  or 
one  ear  for  every  two  and  one-half  inches  each 
way.  I  once  sowed  a  field  of  thirteen  acres 
with  Treadwell  wheat,  in  strips,  from  one 
bushel  of  seed  to  the  acre  up  to  two  bushels;  there  being  five  strips,  increasing  by 
a  peck  of  seed  from  one  side,  crossing  these  strips  with  others  that  were  dressed 
with  superphosphate  of  lime  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  to  three  hundred  pounds 
per  acre;  there  being  five  strips,  also,  increasing  by  fifty  pounds  of  fertilizers.  It 
was  all  manured  with  twenty  loads  of  good  manure  and  of  even  character.  The 
whole  field  when  threshed  averaged  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre. 

The  strip  with  four  pecks  was  best  of  all;  the  ears  on  this  averaged  seven 
inches  in  length,  and  one  ear  was  picked  out  that  was  nearly  nine  inches  long, 
and  had  92  grains  in  it.  On  this  corner  of  the  field,  the  seed  was  much  thinned 
out  by  a  neighbor's  pigeons,  and  several  stools  had  each  thirty  ears.  The  opposite 
plat  produced  ears  not  much  over  two  inches  long,  and  the  straw  was  quite  thin; 
the  ears  were  much  smaller  and  thinner  all  along  this  strip  of  the  field.  The  best 
were  on  the  strip  most  thinly  seeded.  At  a  careful  estimate,  taking  the  grains  in 
average  ears,  the  best  of  the  field  produced  over  40  bushels  per  acre,  and  the 
poorest  not  more  than  15.  The  length  Di  ears  were  so  conspicuous  on  the  thin- 
seeded  portion,  which  was  next  a  public  road,  that  many  neighbors  stopped  and 
gathered  liberal  bunches  for  their  own  use  without  the  formality  of  asking  for 
them. 

I  consider  this  to  have  been  a  proper  and  useful  experiment  from  which  one 
could  gather  definite  knowledge,   and  better  than    those  made    on  small  plats, 


U.  S.  Patent  Com  Husker,  A.  D.  1883. 


CEREALS. 


197 


because  it  was  made  in  regular  farm-work.  It  would  have  boon  more  certain  had 
the  crop  from  each  square  of  about  half  an  acre  been  kept  separate  and  measured, 
but  my  object  was  attained  as  well  by  noting  the  size  of  tho  ears  and  their  contents 
in  grains.  It  proved  two  things,  one  being  the  advantage  of  one  bushel  of  seed 
per  acre,  and  the  other  was,  the  usefulness  of  300  pounds  per  acre  of  superphos- 
phate against  other  quantities. 


SOWING. 


This  may  be  done  either  broadcast  or  in  drills,  the  latter  being  by  far  the 
better  and  improved  method,  and  will,  in  all  probability,  soon  supersede  broad- 
cast sowing,  where  it  baa  not  already,  wherever  the  land  is  in  a  suitable  condition 
to  admit  of  it.     Its  advantage  over  broadcast  sowing  consists  in  distributing  and 


A  Fine  Harvest. 

covering  the  seed  more  evenly,  and  putting  it  in  at  proper  distances;  this  method 
also  requires  less  seed,  and  admits  of  after-cultivation,  insuring  a  stronger  and 
heavier  growth  of  grain,  besides  the  grain  grows  more  uniformly,  the  heads  being 
all  about  of  a  height,  and  ripening  about  at  the  same  time.  It  is  comparatively 
of  recent  date  that  farmers  have  learned  that  after-cultivation  will  pay  in  the 
wheat-field,  and  that  there  is  nothing  of  greater  promise  to  grain-growers  in  this 
direction  than  the  stirring  of  the  soil  between  the  rows  of  wheat,  and  killing  the 
weeds  that  obstruct  and  retard  its  growth.  Cultivation  is,  of  course,  only  possible 
where  the  grain  is  in  regular  rows,  and  regularity  of  sowing  is  only  attained  by  the 
use  of  the  drill,  hence,  the  invention  of  the  wheat-hoe  or  wheat  cultivator  follows, 
as  almost  a  necessity,  that  of  the  drill,  which  is  merely  a  seed  sower  on  a  large 


198  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


scale.  A  box  contains  the  seed  which  is  delivered  by  tubes,  generally  eight  in. 
number,  at  the  desired  distance  apart  for  the  drills,  and  which  can  be  arranged 
to  distribute  a  lar  er  or  less  number  of  seeds  in  a  given  place.  The  difference  in 
the  varioua  styles  consists  mainly  in  the  arrangements  fur  opening  the  soil,  the 
covering  of  the  drills,  and  the  regular  supply  of  the  seed.  They  also  have  an 
attachment  for  sowing  concentrated  fertilizers  with  the  grain,  when  desired,  and 
can  be  used  for  sowing  corn,  grass  and  clover  seed,  and  all  other  kinds  of  grains 
and  similar  seeds,  by  means  of  an  adjustable  feeder. 

THE    DEPTH  OP    COVERING   WHEAT 

will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil;  a  heavy  moist  soil  requiring 
less  depth  generally  than  one  that  is  light  and  dry.  From  two  to  two  and  a  half 
inches  is  the  usual  depth,  although  some  very  dry  soils  may  require  three  inches, 
and  some  that  are  very  moist  and  mellow  may  not  require  more  than  one  and  a 
half,  but  this  would  be  the  exception;  we  should  say  that  about  two  and  a  half 
inches  would  be  the  average  depth  for  most  soils.  A  recent  experiment,  by  a  well 
known  agriculturist,  on  the  depth  at  which  wheat  should  be  covered,  resulted  as 
follows:  Of  fifty  grains  deposited  at  the  depth  of  eight  inches,  only  two  came  up 
and  these  formed  no  heads;  at  a  depth  of  seven  inches  one-fourth  came  up  but 
formed  no  heads.  Ten  out  of  fifty  came  up  at  five  inches  deep,  but  had  defective 
heads.  At  four  inches  covering  there  were  a  few  perfect  heads,  but  the  majority 
were  objectionable.  Of  those  covered  three  inches,  all  came  up,  but  the  best  yield 
was  from  those  covered  only  two  inches  deep.  We  regret  to  state  that  in  these 
experiments  the  conditions  of  the  soil  or  its  quality  was  not  stated,  nor  the  state 
of  the  season,  but  from  the  results  obtained,  we  infer  that  the  soil  was  moist,  and 
that  the  season  afforded  the  average  amount  of  rain. 

AFTEK-GULTUKE    OF   WHEAT. 

It  has  been  found  by  repeated  experiments  that  loosening  the  soil  about  the" 
roots  of  the  growing  wheat  plants  adds  materially  to  the  crops  when  done  at  the 
proper  time  and  in  the  proper  manner;  hence,  when  wheat  is  sown  broadcast, 
harrowing  in  the  spring  is  often  resorted  to,  and  although  it  may  result  in  the 
loss  of  some  of  the  plants,  this  process  is  thought  to  produce  such  an  increased 
and  rapid  growth,  combined  with  the  tillering  it  produces,  that  the  benefits  derived 
more  than  compensate  for  the  loss,  tillering  being  desired  when  it  occurs,  so  that 
the  heads  will  ripen  about  the  same  time.  In  England  the  practice  of  drilling 
wheat  and  hoeing  between  the  rows  or  drills  has  been  generally  followed  for  several 
years,  and  the  increase  in  the  amount  thus  produced  seems  to  well  repay  for  the 
additional  labor.  The  practice  of  cultivating  the  growing  crop  has  been  adopted 
only  to  a  limited  extent  in  this  country,  but  will  probably  become  in  a  few  years 
the  common  method,  especially  where  wheat  is  sown  in  drills.  Some  of  the  wheat 
hoes  and  cultivators  that  have  recently  been  invented  have  proved  very  efficient 
and  valuable  implements  for  this  purpose.  These  should  be  employed  to  loosen 
the  soil  and  exterminate  the  weeds,  but  care  should  be  used  not  to  break  or  dis- 
turb the  roots  of  the  growing  plants.  The  former  practice  in  England  of  hoeing 
drilled  wheat  by  hand  involved  much  time  and  labor.  This  process  would  not,  of 
course,  be  practicable  in  this  country  on  farms  where  its  extensive  culture  is  car- 


CEREALS, 


199 


ried  on.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  go  over  a  field  of  winter  wheat  with  a  roller  in  the 
spring,  in  order  to  press  back  those  roots  of  the  plant  that  have  been  thrown  out 
by  the  action  of  the  frost.  This  should  not  be  done,  however,  until  the  frost  is 
entirely  out  of  the  ground. 

HARVESTING. 

The  time  for  harvesting  wheat  is  when  the  part  of  the  stalks  near  the  ground 
has  turned  yellow  and  the  interior  of  the  kernel  has  passed  from  a  milk  state  into 
a  harder  consistency,  sometimes  denominated  the  "dough  state,"  which  is  when 
it  is  easily  compressed  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  If  cut  before  this  time, 
repeated  experiments  have  proven  that  the  kernels  of  grain  will  shrink  and  give 
light  weight  and  reduced 
measure,  although  the 
straw  will  be  more  valu- 
able for  fodder,  as  a  por- 
tion of  the  nutriment  that 
goes  to  perfect  the  kernel 
still  remains  in  the  stalk. 
If  the  wheat  stands  later 

than    this     period     before  Sowing-Broadcast  and  Drill. 

harvesting,  the  grain  will  be  liable  to  waste  by  shelling  out  in  the  field,  and  the 
straw  will  become  quite  hard  and  less  valuable  for  use  as  fodder.  Where  only  a 
few  acres  of  wheat  are  raised,  it  can  be  cut  by  hand,  but  large  fields  require  the 
use  of  the  reaper.  Cutting  by  hand  is  a  slow  and  laborious  process,  and  where 
the  field  is  large  much  of  the  grain  will  become  over-ripe  and  shell  out  with  con- 
sequent loss;  therefore,  it  is  always  best  to  hire  a  reaping  machine  where  one  is  not 
owned  on  the  premises. 

The  improved  reapers  and  binders  of  the  present  time,  that  will  reap  and 
bind  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  acres  of  any  kind  of  grain  per  day,  with  the  aid  of 
only  one  man  and  a  pair  of  horses,  show  the  advancement  made  in  agriculture 
since  the  period,  comparatively  but  a  few  years  remote,  when  all  the  grain  har- 
rested  was  cut  by  hand. 

THRESHING. 

The  common  practice  with  extensive  grain-growers  at  present,  is  to  thresh 
the  grain  in  the  field  with  machines  driven  by  either  steam  or  horse-power. 
Before  the  use  of  machines,  all  the  grain  was  threshed  by  hand,  which  was  a 
laborious  practice,  but  since  the  introduction  of  the  various  agricultural  imple- 
ments in  present  use,  the  amount  of  labor  requisite  for  the  cultivation  of  agricul- 
tural products  has  not  only  been  greatly  lessened,  but  the  amount  of  crops  pro- 
duced vastly  increased,  resulting  in  a  proportionate  increase  of  wealth  and  pros- 
perity of  the  country. 

By  the  use  of  the  thresher,  the  farmer  is  enabled  to  prepare  his  grain  f<  >r 
market  in  a  short  time,  if  desirable,  when  prices  favor  an  early  sale,  thus  saving 
the  expense  and  labor  of  storing  it,  and  the  possible  consequent  loss,  besides  the 
trouble  of  insuring  it,  to  say  nothing  of  the  loss  of  interest  and  annoyance  of 
rermin  that  often  attend  its  storage. 


200  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


DISEASES   AND   INSECTS    OF   WHEAT. 

The  diseases  and  enemies  of  wheat  are  more  numerous  than,  those  of  any 
other  cereal,  and  have  sometimes,  in  certain  localities,  nearly  or  wholly  cut  off 
the  entire  crop.  The  most  destructive  diseases  of  wheat,  and  the  ones  which  the 
farmer  has  most  frequently  to  contend  with,  are  smut  and  rust.  The  destructive 
insects  are  numerous,  the  principal  being  the  chinch-bug  and  Hessian  fly. 

Smut  is  a  disease  of  grains  in  which  the  kernels  assume  a  dark  brown  or 
black  appearance,  or  are  converted  into  masses  of  blackish  powder.  It  is  caused 
by  parasitic  fungi  which  are  propagated  by  spores,  and  which  absorb  the  nutritive 
juices  of  the  stalks  or  heads  to  which  they  are  attached.  There  are  many  varie- 
ties of  this  minute  plant-growth  or  fungus;  hence,  that  which  attacks  wheat  (Til- 
letia  caries)  is  of  a  different  species  from  that  of  oats,  rye,  or  that  which  produces 
distortion  of  the  ears  of  corn.  It  usually  first  attacks  the  weaker  grains;  hence, 
it  is  essential  that  only  the  largest  and  most  perfect  seed  should  be  sown,  and  also 
those  obtained  from  a  field  unaffected  by  this  disease.  The  usual  remedy  is  to 
soak  the  seed  in  very  strong  and  quite  hot  brine  before  sowing,  stirring  it  well, 
and  skimming  off  all  the  imperfect  kernels  that  rise  to  the  top,  afterward  mixing 
it  thoroughly  with  slaked  lime,  and  sow  as  quickly  as  possible.  This  process 
seems  to  destroy  the  germ  of  the  fungi,  and  is  one  of  the  best  remedies  known. 
Another  method  to  cleanse  the  seed  is  to  soak  it  in  a  tub  for  two  or  three  hours  in 
a  solution  made  of  four  ounces  of  sulphate  of  copper  to  a  gallon  of  water,  or  the 
grain  may  be  put  in  a  basket  on  an  elevation,  under  which  a  board  may  be  placed 
in  a  sloping  condition  with  a  tub  under  the  end  to  catch  the  solution  as  it  is 
poured  over  the  grain  and  filters  through.  A  flannel  cloth  should  be  placed  over 
the  tub  to  strain  out  the  smut  that  washes  from  the  grain.  When  it  ceases  to 
drip,  the  contents  of  the  tub  can  again  be  turned  into  the  basket  over  the  grain, 
and  the  process  repeated  until  it  is  thoroughly  cleansed,  after  which  it  should  be 
spread  on  the  barn  floor  and  dried  by  being  mixed  with  a  little  lime. 

Rust  is  also  produced  by  microscopic  vegetation,  and  is  most  common  in  wet 
hot  weather.  Winter  wheat  is  more  liable  to  be  attacked  by  it  than  spring  wheat, 
and  some  varieties  are  more  readily  affected  than  others.  Like  smut  it  is  more 
liable  to  attack  the  weaker  plants,  which  is  an  added  argument  in  favor  of  always 
Bowing  the  best  seed,  since  these  will  produce  the  most  hardy  plants,  and,  conse- 
quently, crops  less  liable  to  disease  of  any  kind.  It  affects  the  stalks  of  wheat 
while  the  grain  is  forming,  the  minute  plants  making  horizontal  ridges  along  the 
stalks  of  wheat,  which  are  of  a  russet  orange  tint.  It  is  supposed  that  the  spores 
or  seeds  of  the  fungus  are  constantly  in  the  air,  and  when  they  fall  upon  the 
stalks  and  leaves  of  some  plants,  quickly  germinate,  and  subsist  upon  their  sap. 
Rusts  of  different  species  affect  the  leaves  of  many  plants — wheat,  oats  and  beans, 
strawberiy,  raspberry,  pear,  apple,  quince,  hawthorn,  mountain-ash,  oak,  beet, 
cabbage,  clover,  fern,  flax,  barberry,  rose,  sorrel,  thistle,  and  many  others,  both 
wild  and  cultivated.  It  is  a  question  if  one  kind  will  not  affect  a  plant  of  another 
variety;  it  is  known  that  some  rusts  infect  other  plants  than  their  own  native 
sort. 

There  seems  to  be  no  remedy  for  this  disease  when  it  once  makes  its  appear- 
ance in  the  field,  and  the  grain  should  be  harvested  as  soon  as  admissible.  The 
only  remedy  is  a  prevention  by  selecting  the  most  hardy  varieties,  and  sowing  the 


"So  Tired'.' 


202  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


most  perfectly  formed,  and  ripened  seed  of  such  varieties.  Sowing  on  elevated 
lands,  where  the  air  has  a  free  circulation,  and  the  abundant  use  of  fertilizers  that 
contain  salt,  lime,  or  gypsum,  is  thought  by  some  to  be  in  a  great  measure  a  pre- 
ventive. The  evil  may  be  largely  remedied  by  treating  the  seed  before  sowing  as 
directed  for  smut.  This  process  has  a  tendency  to  destroy  the  germ  of  the  disease. 
The  use  of  a  solution  of  bluestone  in  the  proportion  cf  one-fourth  of  a  pound  to 
a  bushel  of  wheat,  is  recommended  by  Professor  Pendleton  for  both  rust  and  smut. 

OATS. 

The  oat  plant  is  one  of  the  most  hardy  and  thrifty  of  grains,  and  is  a  native 
of  the  cold  climates,  although  it  will  adapt  itself  to  a  wide  range  of  latitude  and 
a  great  variety  of  soils.  It,  however,  succeeds  best  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
temperate  zone,  being  decidedly  a  plant  ofi  that  section,  but  does  not  reach  as  far 
north  as  barley.  It  can  be  grown  in  a  southern  latitude  where  the  summers  are 
long  and  very  warm,  but  it  does  not  flourish  as  well  in  such  localities,  and  is  apt 
to  degenerate  under  such  conditions  very  rapidly. 

As  with  most  of  the  other  cereals,  there  are  many  varieties  and  sub-varieties 
of  oats,  the  difference  in  the  latter  being  mainly  due  to  the  difference  in  soil  and 
climate.  While  new  kinds  are  being  frequently  introduced,  some  of  which  prove 
very  valuable  and  fully  merit  the  praises  they  receive  from  the  extensive  adver- 
tisements given  them,  others  are  found  by  repeated  experiments  and  considerable 
expense  to  the  farmer  to  be  failures,  as  far  as  their  adaption  to  general  cultiva- 
tion is  concerned.  Oats  that  are  imported  from  Norway  and  Scotland  and  a  sim- 
ilar latitude,  are  quite  heavy  and  have  a  plump  kernel,  also  those  in  Canada,  but 
if  sown  in  a  latitude  considerably  farther  south,  the  product,  with  the  cultivation, 
that  they  at  present  receive,  soon  degenerates  to  the  common  local  standard  in. 
quality.  We  believe  that  this  deterioration  is  mainly  due  to  the  indifferent 
treatment  that  the  oat  receives  almost  everywhere  in  this  country,  and  if  proper 
care  were  exercised  in  the  selection  of  seed  and  preparation  of  the  soil  to  receive 
it,  it  might  be  prevented.  The  grain  sown  should  be  the  most  plump  and  perfect 
kernels  from  a  crop  cultivated  on  good  soil  and  unaffected  by  disease  of  any 
kind,  such  as  rust  and  smut.  We  see  no  reason  why  oats  may  not  be  cultivated 
here  and  kept  up  to  their  original  standard  of  excellence,  or  even  improved  upon, 
as  well  as  any  other  crop,  when  properly  treated.  The  general  idea  prevalent 
among  farmers  is,  that  oats  can  grow  on  almost  any  soil,  and  with  but  little  pre- 
paration, the  poorest  and  most  indifferent  culture  being  accordingly  given  them. 
Were  it  not  a  very  hardy  plant,  it  woald  utterly  fail  under  such  treatment.  With 
some  pains  taken  in  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  and -a  suitable  supply  of  manure 
given,  a  profitable  crop  is  almost  always  a  certainty. 

This  grain  has  obtained  the  reputation  of  being  very  exhaustive  to  soils  on 
which  it  is  grown,  which  we  are  inclined  to  think  is  unmerited,  and  that  if  the 
soil  before  sowing  received  the  same  amount  of  fertilizing  properties  given  to 
other  crops,  it  would  be  found  to  leave  that  soil  after  the  harvest  more  fertile  than 
many  crops  that  have  not  this  reputation.  It  is  a  strong  and  vigorous  plant,  and 
being  such  will  sometimes  smother  and  too  heavily  shade  smaller  and  weaker 
plants  that  may  be  grown  with  it — grass,  for  instance. 

Oats  are  one  of  the  very  best  crops  cultivated  for  feeding  working  animals, 
and  especially  as  provender  for  the  horse,  they  are  superior  to  all  other  grains. 


Ruth,  the  Gi.fanfr. 


(203) 


204  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


In  Scotland,  oatmeal  forms  a  very  important  item  in  the  diet  of  the  peasantry, 
as  well  as  that  of  the  more  wealthy  classes  also,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  which  fact 
has  heen  attributed  the  robust  health,  strength  and  well-developed  forms  and 
muscles  characteristic  to  that  nationality.  More  than  half  the  annual  grain  crop 
of  Scotland  consists  of  oats.  In  this  country  the  use  of  oatmeal  as  an  article  of 
diet  has  been  more  common  for  a  few  years  past,  and  if  the  taste  of  the  American 
people  could  be  cultivated  more  generally  in  the  direction  of  regarding  it  a  dish 
to  tolerate  (if  not  as  a  palatable  one),  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  Avould  do  much 
towards  increasing  their  strength  and  vigor  of  constitution. 

"We  once  heard  a  gentleman  remark,  while  ordering  a  dish  of  oatmeal  at  a 
hotel,  that  he  did  not  like  the  food,  on  the  contrary  it  was  very  distateful  to  him, 
but  he  ate  it  from  principle,  out  of  a  sense  of  duty,  or  "  as  a  sort  of  penance  for 
his  sins,"  hoping  to  receive  good  to  the  body  thereby,  which  is  certainly  a  novel 
theory  on  diet.  For  invalids  and  young  children,  it  is  very  nutritious  when 
properly  prepared.  Oat-straw  makes  quite  good  feed  for  farm  animals  when  cut 
fine  and  mixed  with  other  materials.  When  cut  while  in  blossom  and  cured  like 
hay,  it  makes  excellent  fodder  for  cows  that  are  giving  milk,  or  for  sheep;  espe- 
cially pregnant  ewes  or  those  with  young  lambs.  When  stirred  into  water  oat- 
meal makes  a  very  healthful  beverage  for  laborers  in  hot  weather,  and  obviates 
the  evil  effects  of  drinking  too  much  water  under  such  circumstances. 

Winter  oats  are  said  to  be  larger  and  the  grain  heavier  and  more  suited  for 
milling  purposes  than  most  of  the  spring  varieties.  The  common  white  oat  has 
been  more  extensively  cultivated  in  the  United  States  than  any  other,  but  new 
varieties  have  for  a  few  years  past  been  introduced,  and  many  of  them  proven, 
for  certain  sections,  far  superior  to  the  old  in  quality  and  productiveness.  By 
testing  new  varieties,  or  depending  upon  reliable  experiments  of  others  in  this 
respect,  the  farmer  can  soon  ascertain  which  are  the  most  desirable  kinds  and 
best  adapted  to  his  own  soil  and  climate,  as  some  will  thrive  best  in  one  locality 
and  others  in  another,  the  soil,  climate  and  kind  of  cultivation  affecting  materially 
the  product,  both  in  quality  and  quantity. 

CULTIVATION. 

Oats  will  thrive  well  on  almost  any  land  that  is  well  drained  or  naturally  dry, 
a  wet  soil  being  very  injurious  to  the  plants,  and  almost  sure  to  result  in  killing 
them.  Of  course,  the  better  the  soil,  as  a  general  rule,  the  bettor  the  crop,  but 
oats  will  give  a  fair  remuneration  for  their  culture  on  quite  poor  soil  and  with  but 
little  care  in  preparation,  although  we  should  not  advise  any  farmer  to  practice 
this  style  of  cultivation  for  any  crop,  for  we  believe  it  most  profitable  and  the  best 
economy  to  endeavor  to  obtain  the  best  results  always,  and  adapt  the  cultivation 
to  that  end.  They  are  sometimes  sown  on  inverted  turf,  but  this  practice  is  not 
to  be  recommended,  as  they  do  best  on  pulverized  soil.  They  will  generally  thrive 
well  to  follow  potatoes,  corn,  or  any  of  the  well-manured  hoed  crops.  Unless  the 
soil  is  naturally  quite  fertile  it  should  be  enriched  by  some  kind  of  manure,  which 
may  be  well-prepared  compost  harrowed  in,  guano,  or  any  of  the  concentrated 
fertilizers  in  use  at  the  present  time,  but  no  green  barn-yard  manure  should  be 
used.  Many  of  the  special  fertilizers  are  valuable.  Salt,  sown  broadcast  over  the 
land  from  two  to  six  bushels  per  acre,  is  highly  recommended  by  some  as  a  fertil- 


CEREALS.  20: 


izer,  and  is  also  useful  in  destroying  insects  injurious  to  the  oat  crop.  It  is  useful 
on  lands  where,  grain  would  be  liable  to  lodge,  and  should  always  l>e  used  when 
sown  on  the  sod. 

The  soil  for  oats  should  be  plowed  to  a  medium  depth  and  well  pulverized. 
We  believe  it  a  general  rule,  with  but  few  exceptions,  that  all  small  seeds  and  grain 
require  a  good  seed-bed  and  their  "  food  cut  fine."  In  a  moist  season  oats  will  do 
well  on  a  sandy  soil,  but  we  believe  that  the  best  yields  arc  made  on  a  line  clay 
loam  with  good  drainage  and  the  seed  sown  early.  We  believe  in  sowing  as  early 
as  practicable,  as  in  most  sections  a  better  harvest  is  the  result,  but  not  until  the 
soil  is  dry  and  mellow.  In  some  localities  mildew  is  quite  sure  to  affect  the  stalks 
and  grain  if  put  into  the  ground  late  in  the  season.  While  bright  straw  and  a 
heavy  berry  will  usually  result  from  early  sowing,  those  sown  late  arc  almost 
always  light  and  of  poor  quality. 

Greater  vigor  and  productiveness  is  secured  to  oats,  as  to  wheat  and  most 
other  crops,  by  occasionally  changing  the  seed,  although  wo  do  not  think  it  neces- 
sary to  make  such  a  change  very  often.  Many  of  the  best  agricultural  writers  in 
England  assert  that  in  making  this  change  it  should  always,  if  possible,  be  from 
an  earlier  climate  and  better  soil;  others  assert,  with  equal  confidence,  that  while 
this  is  true  respecting  high-lying  lands  which  represent  poorer  soil  and  a  colder 
climate,  yet  with  a  good  soil  and  fair  climate  the  best  results  are  obtained  with 
seed  from  the  latter  locality.  We  are  inclined  to  the  latter  opinion,  from  our 
own  experience  and  observation  and  believe  that  new  seed  oats  should  always  be 
brought  from  a  northerly  locality,  as  they  are  heavier  and  larger  grained  than 
those  of  a  southerly  climate.  Many  farmers  carefully  cultivate  their  grain  for 
seed  on  a  small  field  apart  from  the  main  crop,  giving  it  the  best  soil  and  fertil- 
zers,  in  order  to  keep  up  the  highest  quality  of  the  variety  unimpaired,  or  to 
improve  upon  it  if  possible.  This  method  is  almost  invariably  attended  with 
good  results. 

HARVESTING. 

Oats  should  be  harvested  when  the  lower  part  of  the  stalk  has  turned  yellow; 
the  plant  then  ceases  to  draw  nutriment  from  the  soil,  and  the  grain  has  passed 
from  the  milk  state  and  may  be  easily  compressed  between  the  thumb  and  linger. 
If  cut  at  this  period  the  straw  is  better  for  fodder  and  other  purposes,  and  the 
grain  more  plump  than  later;  but  if  the  cutting  be  delayed,  the  kernels  will  be 
liable  to  shell  out,  and  considerable  loss  to  the  crop  may  be  sustained,  besides  the 
quality  of  the  straw  impaired. 

Small  fields  of  oats  may  be  cut  with  a  cradle,  and  when  badly  lodged  a 
scythe  is  used  for  the  purpose,  but  for  large  fields  a  reaper  seems  to  be  a 
necessity;  those  that  both  reap  and  bind  are  of  course  the  best,  since  they  econo- 
mize labor  most.  It  is  very  important  that  the  oats  should  be  well  dried  before 
being  put  away,  if  not  threshed  in  the  field,  as  they  will  be  very  liable  to  heat 
badly  and  the  grain  become  discolored.  Exposure  to  rain  and  dew  will  also  have 
a  tendency  to  discolor  the  grain,  and  lessen  its  value  for  market  purposes. 

It  is  very  important  that  oats  be  cut  in  dry  weather,  and  the  bundles  put  in 
small  stacks  for  a  day  or  two,  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  that  they  may  become 
entirely  free  from  moisture.  When  cut  by  a  cradle  or  reaper  that  is  not  self- 
binding,  they  must  dry  in  the  swath  before  being  bound.     Much  of  the  labor  of 


206 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


handling  bundles  and  stacking  them  away  is  obviated  by  threshing  the  grain  in 
the  field  with  a  machine  that  also  cleanses  it  and  bags  it  ready  for  market. 
When  rain  chances  to  fall  upon  a  crop,  it  should  be  thoroughly  dried  as  soon  as 
possible. 

DISEASES    OF    OATS. 


There  are  fewer  diseases  and  insects  that  affect  oats  than  most  grains,  it  being 
seldom  injured  by  rust  or  smut.  Whenever  it  is  attacked  by  either,  it  is  usually 
in  warm  damp  weather.  The  wire-worm  has  at  times  been  very  destructive  in 
some  localities,  and  is  most  liable  to  be  troublesome  when  fresh  sod  is  used  for 
sowing.  We  would  not  advise  the  use  of  fresh  sod  for  this  crop,  but  whenever 
«uch  a  course  is  pursued  it  would  be  well  to  turn  it  over  late  in  the  fall  before  the 
ground  freezes,  which  leaves  the  insect  pests  without  a  retreat  from  the  frost.  The" 
use  of  salt  as  a  fertilizer,  and  also  lime,  has  a  tendency  to  extirpate  them  from 
the  soil.  When  rust  or  smut  are  seen  in  a  field,  it  is  best  to  have  the  crop  cut  as 
soon  as  possible.  The  brine-wash  for  the  seed  does  not  seem  to  have  the  same 
■effect  in  destroying  the  germ  of  the  fungus  in  oats  as  with  wheat  and  rye,  owing 
to  the  hard,  thick  covering  of  the  grain. 

[Note. — The  cultivation  of  barley,  rye,  buckwheat,  and  rice  is  confined  to 
such  a  small  portion  of  the  Southern  States,  and  we  are  so  much  crowded  with 
other  material  of  more  general  importance,  that  we  do  not  treat  them  in  this  .vol- 
ume.— Ed.] 


CHAPTER  XI. 


SEsculcut  STuuers,  Boots,  anft  peanuts. 


BY   J.   W.    FITZ   AND   B.   W.   JONES. 


00T  CROPS,  which  form  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  agri- 
cultural products  of  the  English  farmer,  have  not  received 
that  attention  in  this  country  generally,  that  their  real  value 
would  seem  to  warrant,  hut  are  gradually  gaining  favor, 
being  cultivated  more  extensively  at  present  as  a  food  for 
stock  than  formerly.  There  are  reasons  why  the  English 
farmer  cultivates  roots  so  extensively,  aside  from  the  real 
value  of  the  crops.  The  climate  of  the  country  is  especially 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  roots,  while  it  is  not  adapted 
to  the  successful  cultivation  of  corn.  On  the  contrary,  the 
climate  of  the  United  States  is  not  as  well  adapted  as  that  of 
England  to  the  cultivation  of  roots,  while  it  is  most  admirably  adapted  to  that  of 
corn.  Yet,  notwithstanding  these  considerations,  there  are  many  reasons  why 
the  farmers  of  our  country  should  devote  more  attention  to  the  cultivation  of 
roots  than  has  formerly  been  the  custom. 

Various  experiments  have  proved  the  fact  that,  although  roots  are  not  desira- 
ble as  an  exclusive  or  principal  article  of  food  for  animals,  yet  when  used  in  con- 
nection with  grain,  meal,  hay,  or  other  substances,  animals  will  thrive  better, 
fatten  more  readily,  and  keep  in  a  more  healthy  condition  than  when  roots  are 
entirely  discarded  from  their  food  It  is  nlso  a  fact  well  known  to  all  dairymen,  that 
more  milk  of  a  better  quality  can  be  obtained  from  cows  fed  with  a  liberal  supply 
of  roots  during  the  winter,  than  when  hay,  meal,  and  bran  only  are  used,  and 
that  butter  made  from  such  milk  will  not  only  be  of  better  flavor  and  color,  but 
more  in  quantity.  Stock  should  have  some  kind  of  green  food  during  the  long 
winters,  and  roots  are  admirably  adapted  to  this  purpose,  taking  the  place  of  gras3 
in  a  measure,  where  ensilage  is  not  used  on  the  farm.  Roots  are  easily  cultivated, 
and  large  quantities  can  be  grown  on  comparatively  small  areas  of  land.  In 
England  turnips  form  the  most  important  root  crop  in  cultivation,  being  used  for 
feeding  stock,  and  also  as  a  clearing  and  fallow  crop  in  the  regular  rotation  of  the 
soil.     The  potato  is  one  of  the  most  important  crops  in  the  United  States. 

Indian  corn  is  a  good  crop  to  precede  any  root  crop,  and  by  heavily  manuring 
the  land  for  it,  and  supplying  a  good  dressing  of  composted  manure  to  the  land 

(207) 


208  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


the  fall  previous  to  cultivating  the  roots,  or  commercial  fertilizers  Avell  harrowed 
in  about  the  time  of  sowing  the  latter,  good  results  Avill  generally  be  secured. 

POTATOES. 

The  potato  has  become  the  most  extensively  cultivated  and  valuable  of  escu- 
lent tubers,  both  in  this  and  foreign  countries,  although  when  first  introduced  as 
an  article  of  food  it  was  regarded  with  disfavor  or  indifference  by  the  majority, 
and  won  its  way  gradually  into  popular  esteem,  until  it  has  become  an  important 
article  of  diet  with  all  classes,  from  the  opulent  to  the  very  poor,  and  is  one  of 
the  leading  crops  cultivated. 

It  is  a  native  of  this  continent,  being  iound  in  a  wild  state  in  the  elevated 
tropical  valleys  of  Mexico,  Peru,  Chili,  the  Argentine  Republic  and  the  island 
Chiloe,  where  it  closely  resembles  the  cidtivated  product,  except  that  the  tubers 
of  the  former  are  much  smaller,  they  rarely  being  more  than  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  the  flavor  very  unpalatable;  careful  cultivation  having  not  only  increased  the 
size,  but  the  edible  properties  in  a  proportionate  degree  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  introduced  into  Virginia  from  Florida  by  the  Spanish  explorers,  and  was  car- 
ried to  Spain  and  Italy  from  Peru  as  early  as  the  sixteenth  century.  Its  intro- 
duction into  Great  Britain  from  Virginia  was,  according  to  some  authorities,  in 
the  year  1565,  by  Sir  John  Hawkins,  and,  according  to  others,  about  the  year 
1586,  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  Houghton,  in  his  "Collections  on  Husbandry  and 
Trade,"  gives  this  somewhat  amusing  description  and  history  of  this  product: 

The  potato  is  a  biciferous  herb  with  esculent  roots,  bearing  winged  leaves 
and  a  bell  flower.  This  I  have  been  informed  was  brought  first  out  of  Virginia 
by  Sir  "Walter  Raleigh;  and  he  stopped  at  Ireland,  some  was  planted  there,  where 
it  thrived  very  well  and  to  good  purpose;  for  in  their  succeeding  wars,  when  all 
the  corn  about  the  ground  was  destroyed,  this  supported  them;  for  the  soldiers, 
unless  they  dug  up  all  tho  ground  where  they  grow,  and  almost  sifted  it,  could 
not  extirpate  them;  from  whence  they  were  brought  to  Lancashire,  where  they 
are  very  numerous,  and  now  they  begin  to  spread  all  the  kingdom  over.  They 
are  a  pleasant  food,  boiled  or  roasted,  and  eaten  with  butter  and  sugar.  There  is  a 
sort  brought  from  Spain  that  are  of  a  longer  form,  and  are  more  luscious  than 
ours;   they  are  much  set  by,  and  sold  for  sixpence  or  eightpence  per  pound. 

The  potato  was  at  first  regarded  in  Europe  as  a  delicacy,  but  it  was  not  until 
near  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  it  acquired  any  real  importance 
there  outside  of  Ireland.  It  was  also  unknown  in  New  England  until  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  there 
from  Ireland.  It  is  sometimes  called  a  root,  which  is  an  erroneous  term,  as  the 
roots  are  entirely  distinct  from  these  tubers,  or  underground  stems,  It  is  applied 
to  several  powerful  narcotics,  such  as  tobacco,  henbane,  and  belladonna,  and  other 
common  esculents,  viz:  the  tomato  and  egg-plant.  According  to  the  best  authority, 
the  strong,  bitter  principle  of  the  potato  is  more  or  less  poisonous,  and  is  aggra- 
vated by  the  light,  such  as  exposure  to  the  sun  by  having  the  soil  long  removed 
from  it  in  the  hill,  and  which  causes  the  portions  of  the  tubers  thus  exposed  to 
turn  green.  All  such  parts  should  be  removed  before  cooking.  The  potato  con- 
sists (aside  from  water)  almost  entirely  of  starch,  the  analysis  of  it  giving  about 
seventy-five  per  cent,  of  water  and  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  dry  nutritive  matter; 


ROOTS,  TUBKKS,  AND  PEANUTS.  209 


it  is,  therefore,  deficient  in  nitrogen,  and  not  adapted  for  an  exclusive  article  of 
diet.  Its  composition  shows  it  to  ho  designed  as  an  accompaniment  of  meat, 
instead  of  a  substitute  for  it,  and  all  nations  now  using  it  appropriate  it  to  this 
purpose. 

The  proportions  of  ils  constituents  vary  according  to  the  different  stages  of 
ripeness  and  different  varieties.  The  more  mature,  the  less  the  quantity  of  water, 
some  of  the  richer  varieties  furnishing  as  high  as  thirty-two  per  cent,  of  dry 
nutritive  matter,  the  latter  consisting  mostly  of  starch,  with  a  small  proportion  of 
sugar,  gum,  cellular  fiber,  fatty  matter,  mineral  matter,  etc. 

Aside  of  its  use  as  food  for  the  human  family  and  all  domestic  animals,  it  is 
largely  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  starch,  as  well  as  alcohol.  Sugar  has  even 
been  made  from  it,  but  not  extensively,  owing  to  its  being  more  cheaply  made 
from  other  products.  Previous  to  the  appearance  of  the  disease  known  as  potato- 
rot,  which  occurred  in  1845,  and  destroyed  nearly  the  entire  product,  this  was  a 
very  productive  crop,  and  was  cultivated  with  little  expense,  and  extensively  used 
in  fattening  all  kinds  of  stock;  but  since  that  period  the  varieties  then  most 
esteemed  have  been  replaced  by  others,  and  the  yield  has  largely  decreased.  The 
cost  of  production  has  also  proportionately  advanced. 

VARIETIES. 

In  the  early  period  of  the  cultivation  of  the  potato  it  was  regarded  as  a  species 
of  vegetable  having  no  distinct  varieties.  For  the  introduction  of  different  vari- 
eties Ave  are  indebted  to  the  market  gardeners  near  Manchester,  England,  who, 
being  encouraged  by  the  demand  for  this  product,  vied  with  each  other  in  endea- 
voring to  produce  the  best. and  earliest  kinds  for  the  market.  They  did  this  by 
marking  the  plants  that  blossomed  earliest,  saving  and  sowing  their  seeds,  and 
again  securing  the  earliest  from  their  product,  until  they  finally  obtained  varieties 
that  were  two  months  earlier  than  those  formerly  cultivated.  They  also  preserved 
the  seed  of  the  most  farinaceous  and  best  flavored,  most  productive  and  best 
shaped  tubers,  and  in  this  manner  produced  both  edible  and  productive  qualities, 
as  well  as  early  maturity. 

The  varieties  at  the  present  time  are  almost  innumerable,  differing  in  form, 
size,  color,  texture,  smoothness  of  surface,  flavor,  time  of  ripening,  productive- 
ness, hardiness,  etc.;  those  being  most  preferred  that  are  most  farinaceous,  fine- 
textured,  delicate-flavored,  and  have  a  smooth  surface,  combined  with  the  other 
desirable  qualities,  such  as  vigor  of  growth,  hardiness,  productiveness,  and  free- 
dom from  disease.  A  potato  that  is  termed  "soggy" — that  is,  watery  and  defi- 
cient in  farinaceous  properties — is  one  of  the  most  undesirable  articles  of  food, 
and  however  productive  or  hardy  such  a  variety  may  be,  it  is  unprofitable  as  far 
as  the  market  value  is  concerned,  except  as  food  for  live-stock,  and  even  then 
such  kinds  are  not  as  nutritious  for  this  purpose  as  those  that  are  light  and  flaky 
when  cooked.     A  deep-eyed  potato  is  also  objectionable. 

One  of  the  leading  agricultural  writers  of  the  "Country  Gentleman,'' 
expresses  the  following  facts  and  opinions  respecting  potato  culture:  From  such 
facts  as  have  come  to  my  notice,  I  am  led  to  the  conclusion  that  when  potatoes, 
and  indeed  all  or  nearly  all  vegetables,  and  perhaps  the  cereals,  which  have  origi- 
nated in  cool  climates  and  grown  under  a  Warmer  latitude  than  where  they  make 

H 


210  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


the  strongest  and  best  development,  they  require  a  soil  very  much  stronger  in  the 
inorganic  elements  of  plant  food,  such  as  potash,  lime,  magnesia,  and  phosphoric 
acid,  and  demand  also  to  be  grown  wider  apart,  one  from  the  other,  because,  per- 
haps, the  extra  stimulating  forces  of  a  hot  climate  shorten  the  period  of  growth, 
and  there  must  not  only  be  room  enough  for  the  feeding  roots,  but  the  soil  must 
be  full  of  plant  food.  Going  South,  one  notices  that  nearly  all  common  Northern 
vegetables  have  a  tendency  to  grow  above  ground,  and  I  was  told  that  unless  the 
soil  is  heavily  manured  with  stable  manure,  it  is  nearly  impossible  to  get  cabbages 
to  head,  turnips  to  bottom,  or  potatoes  to  come  to  full  growth.  In  the  truck 
patches  about  Mobile,  where  cabbages  are  planted  out  in  November  and  potatoes 
in  February,  an  experienced  grower  informed  me  that  his  success  with  cabbages 
and  potatoes  was  just  in  proportion  tto  the  amount  of  stable  manure  and  cotton- 
seed meal  he  used  in  the  case  of  the  cabbages,  and  potash  in  form  of  the  ash  of 
cctton-seed  hulls  in  an  incredible  quantity,  was  absolutely  essential  to  success 
with  a  potato  crop.  Perhaps  the  absence  of  vegetable  gardens  in  the  South,  which 
so  forcibly  strikes  the  Northern  observer,  is  quite  as  much  due  to  the  want  of 
manure  (on  account  of  the  limited  quantity  of  stock  of  all  kinds,  which  is  seldom 
yarded  and  rarely  stabled,)  as  to  any  indisposition  to  do  the  work  of  successful 
truck  patching. 

POTASH    FOE    POTATOES. 

Potash  in  the  soil  is  not  only  essential  to  the  vine-growth  of  the  potato,  but 
its  quality,  since  the  mealiness  so  much  sought  after  results  from  the  presence  of 
starch  in  the  tuber,  not  a  grain  of  which  can  be  formed  in  the  absence  of  this 
salt.  In  cool  climates,  the  growth  and  ripening  of  the  potato  extend  over  some 
months,  and  the  processes  of  the  elaboration  of  starch  occupy  many  weeks; 
hence,  it  will  be  found  that  a  poor  soil,  in  a  high  northern  latitude,  will  grow 
better  potatoes  and  more  of  them  than  a  richer  one  farther  south.  When  potatoes 
are  grown  on  the  worn,  sandy  first  and  second  bottoms  of  the  Mississippi  river, 
north  of  Cairo  and  as  far  north  as  St.  Louis,  the  crops  are  not  unfrcquently 
tolerably  large  ones;  but  the  tubers  are  apt  to  be  soft,  watery,  and  waxy,  showing 
that  while  there  is  enough  potash  in  the  soil  to  answer  the  purpose  of  vine  and 
tuber  growth,  there  is  not  enough  to  admit  of  the  changing  of  the  cellulose  into 
starch,  in  the  brief  space  of  the  intensely  hot  summer  season  allowed  for  this 
process.  But  the  growers  of  the  St.  Louis  market  manure  highly  with  material 
obtained  in  the  city  stables,  and  the  crop,  though  never  comparable  to  northern 
grown  tubers  in  quality,  is  a  fairly  good  one.  Probably  the  extraordinary  fine 
quality  of  the  Peerless  potatoes  I  have  eaten,  grown  for  the  northern  spring 
market  in  the  winter  vegetable  gardens  in  the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans,  owed  their 
excellence  to  the  very  liberal  use  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  ash,  in  connection  with 
stable  manure,  as  is  the  case  of  those  in  the  suburbs  of  Mobile. 

Probably  the  best  form  of  potash  for  potatoes  is  in  that  of  wood-ashes, 
leached  or  unleached,  the  former  being  of  more  than  half  the  value  of  the  latter, 
while  soft  coal-ashes  are  by  no  means  to  be  despised,  especially  in  the  western 
country,  where  more  or  less  wood  is  burned  in  connection  with  coal.  Indeed,  for 
vegetables  of  any  kind,  coal-ashes,  whether  hard  or  soft,  are  to  be  sought  after, 
since  they  are  always  valuable  as  an  amendment  to  the  soil,  and  possibly  though 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  PEANUTS.  211 


they  may  contain  no  plant  food,  they  do  contain  ingredients  which  render  certain 
kinds  of  insoluble  plant  food  soluble. 

The  lesson  to  he  learned  is  that  potash,  and  an  abundance  of  it,  is  essential 
to  potato-growing;  that  its  best  form  is  wood-ashes,  not  forgetting  soft  coal-ashes 
and  well-rotted  stable  manure,  and  that  as  one  goes  south  ho  must  increase  the 
quantity  of  potash  and  other  inorganic  elements  of  plant  food,  in  order  that  the 
starch  in  the  tuber  may  be  quickly  elaborated. 

Virgin  soil  with  little  or  no  manure  will  produco  the  hest  quality  of  pota- 
toes, as  a  general  rule. 

Whatever  the  character  of  the  soil,  it  should  he  plowed  deeply  and  thoroughly 
pulverized  with  the  harrow  before  planting.  A  deep,  mellow  soil  is,  according  to 
the  best  authority,  better  adapted  to  resist  the  extremes  of  moisture  and  drought 
than  any  other. 

"When  barn-yard  manure  is  used,  it  should  bo  well  decomposed,  or  composted, 
fresh  manure  being  objectionable  for  potatoes,  as  it  causes  them  to  grow  ill- 
shaped,  with  deep  eyes,  and  gives  them  a  strong  unpleasant  flavor.  The  same  is 
also  true  in  regard  to  turnips,  beets,  parsnips,  etc.,  and  causes  onions  to  be  coarse 
in  texture  and  thick-necked. 

Poultry  manure,  wood-ashes,  and  plaster,  mixed  in  equal  proportions,  makes 
an  excellent  fertilizer  for  this  crop.  Superphosphate  of  lime  also  gives  very  good 
results,  as  well  as  marl,  bone-dust,  guano,  and  similar  fertilizers,  and  on  wet  soils 
are  very  beneficial  in  rendering  them  more  dry,  as  they  are  of  an  absorbent  nature. 

As  has  been  previously  stated,  potash  is  highly  beneficial  to  this  crop,  and 
may  be  applied  in  the  form  of  wood-ashes,  which  should  be  placed  in  the  hill  in 
planting. 

As  a  general  rule  fall  plowing  is  to  be  preferred,  unless  the  soil  is  very  friable. 
When  sod  is  used  for  the  crop,  or  heavy  land  with  a  hard-pan  or  clayey  subsoil,  it 
should  be  plowed  rather  deep  in  the  fall,  and  harrowed  and  plowed  again  in  the 
spring  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  enough  to  be  friable. 

If  the  manure  is  of  a  fine  texture,  it  should  be  spread  on  and  harrowed  in, 
but  if  coarse  manure  is  used,  it  can  be  spread  on  before  the  spring  plowing  or  put 
in  the  hill  or  furrow.  Some  prefer  to  spread  a  part  broadcast,  and  the  remainder 
to  be  applied  either  in  the  hill  or  drill,  according  to  the  method  of  planting. 
Chemical  fertilizers  are  often  used  in  this  manner  in  connection  with  yard  manure, 
the  former  deposited  near  the  seed,  and  the  latter  spread  broadcast  and  harrowed 
in.  Chemical  fertilizers  should,  however,  be  mixed  with  the  soil,  for  if  applied 
directly  to  the  seed  they  will  be  liable  to  destroy  the  eyes  or  young  sprouts. 

New  land  is  commonly  considered  the  best  for  securing  large  crops  that  are 
free  from  disease.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  new  land  contains  more 
potash  than  that  long  cultivated,  which  is  an  element  necessary  to  the  development 
of  the  potato.  Many  of  the  chemical  fertilizers  made  especially  for  this  crop,  of 
which  the  superphosphates  are  the  principal  basis,  often  prove  highly  beneficial  in 
producing  large  yields  of  the  best  quality. 

Potatoes  do  not  require  so  much  fertility  as  corn,  but  still  thrive  best  with  an 
abundance  of  it,  and  in  as  nearly  mineralized  condition  as  may  be,  well  com- 
posted, ready  to  be  easily  taken  up  as  plant  food. 

The  quantity  should  be  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  new  lands  requiring 
less  manure  than  those  that  have  been  long  in  cultivation. 


212 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


If  the  soil  is  manured  too  heavily,  and  the  growth  over  rapid,  many  of  the 
varieties  "will  be  hollow  in  the  centre  of  the  tuber,  or,  as  is  commonly  termed, 
"hollow  hearted.''  A  long,  slow  growth  is  better  than  a  forced,  hasty  maturity, 
giving  a  better  quality  as  well  as  a  larger  crop,  that  can  be  better  preserved,  being 
less  liable  to  disease. 

Some  farmers  use  from  eighteen  to  twenty-two  horse  loads  of  good  yard  manure 
per  acre  spread  broadcast,  and  from  seven  to  eight  hundred  pounds  of  chemical 
fertilizers  in  the  hills  in  addition,  and  consider  this  the  most  desirable  amount  for 
this  crop;  others  use  twice  this  quantity  of  manure  with  artificial  fertilizers.  The 
quantity  of  fertility  supplied  to  this  crop  should  be  modified  in  a  great  measure 
by  the  character  of  the  soil. 


SELECTING    AND    CUTTING    POTATOES    FOE    PLANTING. 

The  varieties  chosen  for  cultivation  should  be  those  possessing  fine,  edible, 
and  productive  qualities,  and  also  those  best  adapted  to  the  soil.     The  most  perfect 

specimens  of  tubers 


should  be  selected  for 
planting ;  that  is, 
those  of  medium  size, 
not  too  large  or  too 
small,  and  which  are 
as  nearly  perfect  in 
size  and  condition  as 
possible,  caref  u  1 1  y 
a voidi  n  g  a  n  y  th  at 
have  the  least  ap- 
pearance of  disease. 
Since  it  is  the  law  of 
nature  that  "like  pro- 
duces like,"  if  dis- 
eased potatoes  be 
potato  Planter.  planted  the  crop  will 

be  very  liable  to  be  not  only  a  small  one,  but  an  unsound,  diseased  one  as  well; 
or,  if  disease'  does  not  make  its  appearance  with  the  maturity  of  the  crop,  it  will 
lie  liable  to  at  a  later  period,  and  necessitate  quite  a  loss  before  the  folloAving 
spring. 

There  is  still  quite  a  diversity  of  opinion  among  farmers  as  to  whether  it  is 
better  to  plant  pieces  of  the  largest  potatoes  or  whole  small  ones;  also,  if  pieces 
be  used,  which  is  the  best  end  of  the  tuber  for  planting  and  the  best  size.  There 
has  also  been  quite  a  variety  of  opinions  as  to  whether  the  perfectly  ripe  tuber 
should  be  used,  or  those  not  fully  ripened,  some  claiming  that  the  latter  are  more 
vigorous  and  early  in  sending  out  shoots. 


MEDIUM    SIZE    POTATOES    POP    PLANTING. 


Repeated  and  careful  experiments  by  some  of  our  most  successful  agricultur- 
ists, as  Avell  as  long  practice,  go  far  in  establishing  the  opinion  that  potatoes  of  a 
medium  size  are  best  for  planting,  and  that  pieces  are  better  than  the  whole  tuber 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  PEANUTS.  213 

for  this  purpose,  although  good  crops  are  often  obtained  from  small  whole  ones; 
that  those  perfectly  ripe  are  to  he  preferred  to  those  not  fully  ripened,  and  that 
the  eyes  from  one  part  of  a  potato  are  as  prolific  as  those  of  another  part. 

Some,  however,  according  to  the  old  custom,  still  make  a  practice  of  planting 
whole  potatoes,  one  large  and  two  small  ones  in  a  hill;  on  the  other  hand,  Mr. 
M.  J.  Wheeler,  of  Massachusetts,  says  that  the  best  crop  of  potatoes  that  ho  ever 
produced  came  from  sprouts  taken  off  the  potato.  Cutting  to  a  single  eve  is  at 
present  quite  extensively  practiced,  and  is  a  method  highly  recommended  by 
some  of  our  best  authorities  on  this  subject.  Mr.  B.  K.  Bliss  says  cutting  is  one 
of  the  most  important  subjects  to  be  considered  in  the  propagation  of  potatoes, 
and  there  is  such  a  diversity  of  opinions  regarding  the  manner  and  method  of 
doing  it,  that  many  pages  could  be  filled  by  giving  the  different  experiences  of  the 
professors  in  this  art.  While  we  do  not  attempt  to  decide  this  question  to  the 
satisfaction  of  every  one,  Ave  shall  give  our  own  views,  and  claim  that  in  our 
method  an  enormous  quantity  of  tubers  now  annually  planted  may  be  thrown 
into  the  market,  causing  a  reduction  in  the  prices  charged  for  this  common  and 
necessary  crop. 

Without  discussing  the  respective  merits  of  planting  whole  potatoes,  or  half 
a  dozen  pieces  in  a  hill,  each  piece  containing  three  or  four  eyes,  Ave  shall  state 
what  has  been  proA'en  by  so  many  cultiA^ators,  that  two  good  eyes  are  ample  for 
one  hill,  and  the  yield  of  large  marketable  potatoes  is  larger  than  Avhen  more  are 
planted. 

This  practice  will  seem  a  small  alloAvance  for  a  field  crop  by  those  Avho  haA'Q 
been  accustomed  to  use  a  larger  quantity;  still,  Ave  know  it  has  many  advocates, 
and  that  too  much  seed  is  usually  planted,  which  results  in  croAvding  in  the  hills, 
and  producing  a  large  number  of  very  small  tubers,  Avhich  are  nearly  Avorthless, 
except  as  food  for  farm  animals,  too  much  seed  being  as  detrimental  to  the  crop 
as  too  little. 

CULTIVATION. 

Frequent  stirring  of  -the  soil  and  freedom  from  Aveeds  are  indispensable  to  a 
large  yield  of  potatoes.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  plant  rather  deep,  and  give  the  soil 
one  or  two  good  harrowings  before  the  young  plants  make  their  appearance  from 
the  ground,  in  order  to  check  the  weeds.  Even  after  they  are  Avell  started  and 
are  from  tA\ro  to  three  inches  high,  many  farmers  use  the  harroAV  Avith  little  or  no 
injury  to  the  plants,  as  they  are  then  Avell  rooted  and  have  a  firm  hold  upon  the 
soil,  and  if  a  few  become  broken  off,  the  new  shoots  will  groAV  very  rapidly  and 
take  their  places.  By  these  repeated  harroAvings  in  the  early  stages  of  groAvth, 
the  after  cultiATation  is  made  more  easy,  as  it  effectually  checks  the  weeds  at  this 
period  and  prevents  their  getting  a  hold  upon  the  soil. 

When  the  plants  are  well  up,  the  cultivator  or  horsedioe  can  be  used  to  good 
advantage.  If  the  planting  is  in  hills,  the  ground  should  be  stirred  between 
them  by  running  the  cultivator  in  both  directions,  which  can  be  brought  quite 
close  to  the  plants  without  injury;  if  planted  in  drills,  it  can  be  used  only  in  one 
direction,  between  the  roAvs.  This  stirring  of  the  soil  should  be  frequent  in  order  to 
cheek  the  weeds  and  keep  the  ground  mellow  and  open  to  atmospheric  influences. 

After  the  plants  have  made  their  appearance,  some  farmers  make  a  practice 
of  top-dressing  with  compost,  chip  manure,  or  a  little  plaster  and  ashes  i::  which 


214 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


a  small  proportion  of  salt  has  been  mixed;  this  stimulates  the  growth  of  the 
plants,  and  the  latter  has  also  a  tendency  to  keep  off  for  a  time  injurious  insects. 
The  hilling  horse-hoe  is  often  used  for  this  purpose.  Some  farmers  follow  the 
practice  of  harrowing  the  whole  surface,  as  has  been  previously  suggested,  regard- 


sSM^A;1 


week  or  more  before  the  shoots 
then  drag  with  a  smoothing 
fore  they  break  the  ground, 
all  the  weeds  that  are  then  up, 
twice  after  they  are  above 
this,  the  cultivator  is  run  be- 
two  or  three  times  before  the 
after  which  they  will  require  no 
vation,   providing    the    weeds 


less  of  rows,  a 
come  wp,  and 
harrow  justbe- 
which  will  kill 
using  itonce  or 
ground.  After 
tween  the  rows 
plant  blooms; 
further  culti- 
have  previous- 
ly been  prop- 
erly kept  down. 

No  culture  should  be 
given  after  the  blossoms    ^ 
begin  to  appear,  as  it  will  Jw 
cause  the  setting  of  a  new  Ja" 
lot   of   tubers   and 
prove  a  great   injury   to 
the  crop.     The  use  of  the 
hand-hoe  may  be  neces- 
sary in  potato  culture,  in 
order   to   destroy   a    few 
weeds   that    are    nearest 
the  plants  and  may  be  so  located 
as  not  to  be  accessible  to  the  cul- 
tivator or  horse-hoe.     It  was  for- 
merly the    custom    among  some 
farmers  to  pick  off  all  the  buds 
before  they  opened  in  blossoms, 
in  order  to  improve  the  crop,  but 
the  slight  gain  thus  obtained  doe? 
not  repay  the  labor,  and  the 
tice  is  noAV  obsolete. 

POTATO  BUG  OE  COLORADO  BEETLE 


This  insect  has  become  the 
scourge  of  the  potato  crop  and  the 
greatest  pest  known  to  the  farmer  in  the 
cultivation  of  this  product,  which  is  one  of 
such  vast  importance  in  our  own  and  for- 
eign countries.    Its  destructive  powers  are  so  great  and  its  dissemination  has  been 
so  extensive  since  18G0  that  few  insects  have  attracted  more  attention  during 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  PEANUTS.  215 

that  period.  Intho  year  1819,  the  noted  entomologist,  Mr.  Thomas  Say,  of  Phila- 
delphia, accompanied  the  United  States  government  exploring  expedition  to  the 
Northwest  Territories,  he  being  atthat  time  the  zoologist  of  the  expedition.  While 
on  this  tour  of  exploration  numerous  species  of  hectics  were  found  on  the  upper 
Missouri  near  the  hase  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  among  them  tlio  Doryphora  10- 
lineata,  which  has  since  become  commonly  known  as  the  Colorado  beetle,  and  which 
was  first  described  by  him  in  1824.  It  gradually  extended  its  course  eastward,  and 
in  1859  wo  first  hear  of  its  invading  the  potato  fields  of  Nebraska,  In  18G1  it 
became  known  in  Iowa,  being  assisted  in  its  course  by  railroads,  doubtless,  as  they 
were  often  found  in  and  on  the  cars  of  the  trains  that  had  passed  that  in  Tested  dis- 
trict. They  traveled  eastward  in  a  direct  line  over  fifteen  hundred  miles  in  six- 
teen years,  and  became  spread  over  an  area  of  about  1,500,000  square  miles  dur- 
ing that  time,  until  now  their  ravages  are  extended  throughout  the  entire  country, 
and  there  seems  to  be  no  method  known  of  wholly  exterminating  them,  paris 
green  being  the  most  effectual  remedy  thus  far  tried  for  checking  their  increase. 
With  this  insect,  as  with  many  others,  it  is  the  larva  that  is  the  most  destructive 
to  plants. 

Professor  C.  V.  Riley  says  of  it:  This  insect  hihernates  in  the  perfect  or  beetle 
state  under  old  rubbish  or  in  sheltered  situations  of  whatever  kind,  but  normally 
in  the  ground,  generally  but  a  few  inches  beneath  the  surface,  but  exceptionally 
at  the  depth  of  three  feet.  As  vegetation  starts  in  the  spring  it  issues  forth  from 
the  ground,  and  long  before  potatoes  are  up,  or  even  planted,  it  may  be  seen  flying 
on  genial  days  in  search  of  food  and  company,  the  rose-red  underwings  contrast- 
ing prettily  with  the  yellow  and  black  of  the  elytra.  It  will  frequently  Avorkinto 
a  sprouting  hill  of  potatoes,  as  these  are  raising  the  soil,  and  feed  upon  the  tender 
sprouts  and  tubers,  and  as  soon  as  the  plant  shows  itself  the  female  begins  to  lay 
her  oval  orange  eggs  in  clusters  from  ten  to  forty,  each  attached  by  one  end  to 
the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  or  to  a  stem.  With  favorable  weather,  there  hatches  in 
the  course  of  a  week  from  each  e2;g  a  small  dark  Venetian-red  hunch-backed  larva, 
which  becomes  paler  and  acquires  a  douhle  row  of  lateral  black  spots  as  it  advances 
to  full  growth.  This  period  arrives  in  about  three  weeks  from  hatching,  and  the 
larva  finally  burrows  into  the  ground,  where,  within  a  simple  earthen  cavity,  it 
becomes  a  pupa,  and  finally  a  beetle  in  from  seven  to  ten  days;  the  whole  cycle 
of  its  transformation  from  the  egg  to  the  beetle  requiring  rarely  more  than  a 
month. 

Mr.  J.  C.  Tache,  in  his  pamphlet  entitled  "La  Mouche,  ou  la Ohrysomele des 
Patates,"  says,  respecting  the  number  of  eggs  deposited:  The  eggs  are  deposited 
in  rows  and  by  groups,  of  which  the  number  most  frequently  ranges  from  ten  to 
forty;  but  groups  have  often  been  observed  of  all  degrees  of  numerical  value. 
In  the  course  of  numerous  experiments  which  I  have  made  with  insects  kept  sep- 
arate, I  have  seen  groups  of  all  numbers,  from  a  deposit  composed  of  a  single  egg 
up  to  one  of  122  eggs,  laid  without  quitting  the  spot,  by  a  female  kept  in  close 
seclusion. 

From  two  to  four  broods  are  hatched  and  perfected  during  the  season,  accord- 
ing to  the  locality  and  length  of  the  season,  the  last  brood  going  into  the  ground 
in  perfect  beetle  state,  to  lie  dormant  during  the  winter,  reappearing  as  soon  as 
the  ground  becomes-  warm  enough  in  the  spring  to  revive  them.  Each  female  is 
said  to  lay  from  five  to  ten  hundred   eggs  during  the  season;  therefore,  if  in  the 


216  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


spring,  when  they  first  make  their  appearance  from  the  ground,  some  practical 
method  of  destroying  them  could  he  effected,  large  numbers  prospective  could  be 
disposed  of  in  every  female  bug  that  should  be  killed.  Destroying  by  hand  the 
first  beetles  and  eggs  that  make  their  appearance  on  the  young  plants  is  often 
resorted  to,  but  this  is  a  slow  and  laborious  process;  it  will  well  repay,  however, 
in  the  check  it  may  give  early  in  the  season.  Machines  for  horse  and  hand  power 
have  been  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  some  sections  after  the  plants  have 
attained  considerable  growth,  but  it  is  better  to  prevent  their  depredations  upon 
the  crop  before  this  period,  if  possible,  as  much  injury  may  be  done  the  tender 
plants  when  the}'  first  make  their  appearance  from  the  ground. 

PARIS    GREEN    FOR,   KILLING    POTATO    BUGS. 

Paris  green  (arsenite  of  copper)  is  the  most  effectual  remedy  yet  known  for 
exterminating  these  pests,  but  it  must  be  used  with  the  utmost  caution,  being  a 
deadly  poison.  Nothing  in  which  it  has  been  placed  should  be  used  for  any  other 
purpose,  and  that  it  should  be  kept  from  all  animals,  as  when  mixed  with  water 
and  carelessly  left  where  horses  or  other  animals  could  have  access  to  it,  it  has 
often  been  drunk  by  them,  and  valuable  stock  lost  in  this  manner.  When  used 
in  the  powder  or  in  water  animals  gaining  access  to  the  field  would  be  very  liable 
1o  be  poisoned  by  cropping  the  vines  or  other  herbage  containing  it. 

Paris  green  may  be  applied  either  in  a  dry  or  liquid  state;  each  method  has 
its  peculiar  advantages  as  Avell  as  disadvantages.  When  used  in  the  powder  it  is 
usually  applied  when  the  dew  is  on  the  vines  or  after  a  shower.  The  advantage 
of  this  method  over  the  liquid  is  in  its  adhering  better  to  the  leaves  and  stalks; 
in  the  absence  of  heavy  rains  it  retains  its  power  longer  than  when  in  the  liquid 
form.  The  advantage  of  the  liquid  application  consists  in  the  facility  with  which 
it  is  applied,  and  the  less  danger  attending  its  use.  Like  many  other  substances 
of  general  commerce,  paris  green  is  frequently  adulterated  and  its  effects  propor- 
tionately diminished;  hence,  there  are  many  grades  of  the  poison,  the.  pure 
article  being  more  effective  than  any  of  its  adulterated  forms  and  requiring  a  less 
quantity  to  accomplish  the  results  intended.  When  the  pure  article  is  used,  a 
tablespoonful  of  the  powder  to  three  gallons  of  water  is  the  usual  quantity.  Some 
also  mix  a  little  molasses  in  the  solution  to  render  it  sticky  and  cause  it  to 
adhere  to  the  plants.  This  poison  is  not  readily  soluble  in  water,  and  will  sink 
to  the  bottom;  therefore  it  must  be  frequently  stirred  to  secure  a  uniform  distri- 
bution over  the  field.  It  may  be  applied  with  a  common  watering-pot,  if 
performed  by  hand,  or  a  small  brush-broom  with  a  handle  sufficiently  long  to 
keep  the  hands  protected  from  the  water.  By  passing  down  the  rows  with  a 
pail  of  the  solution,  and  frequently  inserting  the  broom  and  sprinkling  the  plants 
and  insects,  taking  both  rows  right  and  left  in  passing,  the  labor  will  be  made 
more  easy  than  when  only  one  row  is  sprinkled  at  a  time,  as  this  process  reduces 
the  labor  of  traversing  over  the  whole  field  by  one-half. 

Several  machines  for  sprinkling  with  horse-power  have  been  devised  and  are 
in  use  in  some  sections.  The  fields  should  be  sprinkled  as  often  as  the  larvse 
make  their  appearance  in  order  to  hold  them  in  check.  When  powder  is  used,  it 
is  generally  mixed  with  thirty-five  or  forty  parts  of  some  dilutant,  like  lime, 
a-''   'S,  or  flour;  the  latter  is  considered  the  best  by  main-,  as  causing  it  to  adhere 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  PEANUTS.  217 

■to  the  leaves  and  stalks  best,  while  lime  is  highly  recommended  by  others  as  being 
an  aid  in  exterminating  the  insect  as  well  as  afertilizer  and  invigorator  to  the 
a- i  nes.  Many  farmers  use  a  considerably  less  proportionate  quantity  of  the  poison, 
and  consider  one  pound  of  paris  green  sufficient  for  seventy-five  pounds  of  lime 
and  other  mixture;  much  depends  upon  the  quantity  silted  upon  each  plant. 
We  prefer  the  liquid  form  as  being  more  safe  and  moro  easily  accomplished. 

There  is  great  danger  of  inhaling  the  powder,  when  applied  dry.  Various 
dusters  have  been  invented  and  are  employed  when  this  method  is  practiced. 
Some  farmers  make  a  duster  for  their  fields  by  puncturing  a  tin  box  in  the  bottom 
and  attaching  it  to  a  long  handle,  and  with  this  sift  the  powder  over  the  plants. 
Applying  it  in  this  manner  would  he  dangerous  when  there  Was  a  breeze,  unless 
the  operator  kept  carefully  to  the  windward,  as  there  would  be  a  liability  of  inhal- 
ing the  poison  or  getting  it  into  the  eyes,  either  of  which  would  produce  serious 
results. 

SWEET    POTATOES. 

The  sweet  potato  is  a  native  of  Southern  Asia,  and  was  formerly  considered 
an    exclusively    southern    product,  but   repeated    experiments  demonstrated  to 
Northern  farmers  a  few  years  since  that  it  might 
.he  grown  in  almost  any  of  the  Northern   States 
with  very  fair  success.     It  is  now  quite  commonly 
cultivated   in   many  sections  North,  although  the 
quality  of  this  product  is  not  generally  considered 
quite  equal  to  that  of  some  of  the  Southern  or  Mid- 
dle States,  and  Northern  growers  are  obliged   to 
take  better  care  of  the  crop  than  those  ot  a  south- 
ern latitude  in  order  to  insure  success,  and  to  have  Potato  nigger. 
the  tubers  matured  before  the  frost  makes  its  appearance. 

With  the  exception  of  precautionary  measures  against  the  frost,  the  general 
methods  of  cultivation  for  both  North  and  South,  are  essentially  the  same.  This 
crop  is' an  article  of  food  as  common  in  every  southern  household,  white  or  black, 
rich  or  poor,  as  the  Irish  potato  is  at  the  North,  or  rice  in  China,  while  through- 
out the  country  it  is  regarded  as  a  very  delicious  and  valuable  vegetable.  It  was 
stated  some  time  since  on  the  authority  of  Dr.  Voelcker,  who  analyzed  the  potato 
sent  him  by  Colonel  Ott,  of  Virginia,  that  the  starch  obtained  from  it  was  proven 
to  be  more  valuable  than  that  from  the  Irish  potato.  It  seems  surprising  that  a 
product  of  so  much  value  as  the  sweet  potato  should  be  so  little  known  in  Europe. 
In  some  localities  the  yield  is  surprisingly  large,  it  having  been  known  to  reach  as 
high  as  four  hundred  bushels  per  acre,  varying,  of  course,  according  to  the  soil, 
climate,  season,  and  cultivation ;  the  average  yield,  with  fair  culture,  being  about 
a  hundred  and  twenty-five  or  fifty  bushels  per  acre. 

VARIETIES. 

There  are  comparatively  but  few  varieties  of  the  sweet  potato.  A  yellow  variety, 
known  as  the  Nansemond,  is  generally  preferred  and  most  extensively  cultivated 
at  the  South.  A  large  light-yellow  variety,  called  in  some  sections  the  "yam,"  is 
more  productive  and  early,  and  also  keeps  well,  but  does  not  equal  the  former  in 
quality.     For  Northern  culture  the  early  Peabody  is  generally  regarded  as  the 


218  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


best,  being  of  good  quality,  large  size,  hardy,  and  quite  productive.  Those  raised 
North,  though  fair  in  quality,  do  not  equal  those  of  Southern  cultivation  in  this 
respect. 

The  following  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  James  G.  Tinsley,  of  Virginia,  an  expe- 
rienced and  successful  sweet-potato  grower,  Avill  give  the  method  of  cultivating 
this  crop  in  that  section  of  the  country,  which  differs  in  some  minor  respects  from 
that  already  described: 

Sprouting  the  sweet  potatoes  in  the  bed  is  the  first  step  to  be  taken.  In  this 
latitude  the  best  time  to  put  the  beds  down  is  the  first  of  April,  as  the  slips  can- 
not with  safety  be  put  out  before  the  10th  of  May;  this  gives  ample  time  to  get 
them  large  enough. 

First,  dig  out  a  pit  nine  inches  deep,  five  feet  broad,  and  as  long  as  you  may 
desire  it,  say  fifteen  feet,  as  that  is  a  convenient-sized  bed;  then,  to  keep  moles 
and  ground  rats  out,  plank  up  the  sides  by  nailing  the  planks  to  stakes  driven  in 
the  ground,  raising  the  plank  from  the  north  side,  say  one  foot  above  the  ground, 
and  on  the  south  side  six  inches  above  the  ground;  then  slant  the  short  sides  of 
the  bed  that  run  from  north  to  south,  so  that  the  cover  that  is  usually  of  planks 
or  slabs,  will  make  a  tight  fit;  now  throw  the  dirt  that  you  have  thrown  out  of 
the  pit  back  against  the  plank  that  is  above  ground.  The  object  of  having  the 
lower  side  to  the  south  is  to  have  a  better  exposure  to  the  sun.  The  next  step  is 
to  fill  this  bed  so  as  to  generate  a  moderate  heat  to  sprout  the  potatoes.  There  is 
as  much  danger  of  too  much  as  too  little  heat. 

I  will  now  try  to  describe  the  cheapest  and  simplest  way,  and  one  that  is  used 
almost  universally  in  this  section.  First  put  oak-leaves  in  the  bed,  watering  and 
trampling  them  well,  and  continue  to  do  it  till  there  are  six  inches  of  leaves  well 
moistened  and  trampled.  Now,  upon  these  leaves,  put  three  inches  of  fresh  sta- 
ble manure  after  it  has  been  well  packed  in  the  bed — not  putting  as  much  as  three 
inches  in  the  middle  of  the  bed,  as  the  heat  is  always  greater  in  the  centre  than 
on  the  sides;  upon  this  manure  put  three  inches  of  mould  from  the  woods,  or  light 
dirt  if  you  cannot  procure  the  mould;  on  this  put  the  potatoes  as  thick  as  you  can 
without  letting  them  touch  each  other;  after  you  have  completed  the  layer  of 
potatoes,  then  cover  with  mould  or  dirt  two  inches. 

Now  you  have  finished  the  business  of  putting  the  potatoes  down  to  get 
sprouts.  Examine  your  bed  every  day  to  see  if  you  have  too  much  or  too  little 
heat;  if  you  want  to  increase  the  heat,  it  is  very  good  to  cover  the  dirt  on  top  of 
the  bed  with  three  or  four  inches  of  pine-tags  or  straw,  as  that  helps  to  keep  in 
the  heat.  Raise  the  covers  every  warm,  clear  day  about  9  o'clock,  remove  the 
pine-tags  and  put  them  in  the  sun,  and  let  the  bed  be  exposed  to  the  sun  until 
about  4  o'clock  in  the  evening,  when  the  tags  must  again  be  put  on  them  and  the 
covers  let  down.  Continue  to  use  pine-tags  until  the  sprouts  are  about  to  come 
through  the  ground,  then  dispense  with  them  altogether.  When  you  find  you 
have  too  much  heat  on  your  bed,  the  best  thing  you  can  do  will  be  to  drive  a  short 
stake  in  the  centre  of  the  bed,  through  to  the  bottom  and  shake  around  suffi- 
ciently to  make  a  vent  for  the  heat  to  escape.  After  the  plants  come  up,  con- 
tinue to  cover  them  as  long  as  there  is  any  danger  of  frost;  then  remove  tho 
covers,  as  it  is  necessary  to  harden  them  before  setting  out.  In  drawing  the 
plants,  be  very  particular  not  to  mash  or  trample  the  bod,  and  draw  the  slips  one 
at  a  time,  drawing  them  sideways  to  keep  from  pulling  up  the  potato.     After  the 


Aftss.  Work  is  Over. 


(219) 


220  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


plants  have  been  drawn,  water  the  bed  well  and  continue  to  keep  the  ground 
moist  as  long  as  you  wish  to  raise  plants,  as  nothing  makes  them  grow  faster  than 
for  them  to  be  well  watered, 

We  usually  try  to  set  out  all  Ave  can  in  the  month  of  May — set  out  after  that 
time  the  crop  is  not  generally  remunerative.  The  proper  soil  is  a  light,  sandy 
one,  or  any  land  that  is  well  impregnated  with  sand.  Stable  manure  is  the  best 
fertilizer,  and  after  that  cow-pen  manure.  In  this  section  mould  from  the  woods 
and  pine  tags  are  used  in  large  quantities,  the  same  land  being  often  put  in  pota- 
toes. I  never  have  been  able  to  make  good  sweet  potatoes  with  guano  or  artificial 
fertilizers  alone;  but  it  is  necessary  to  supply  some  kind  of  coarse  manure  to  mix 
with  it.  My  plan  is  to  drill  all  the  stable  and  cow-pen  manure  I  can  spare  for 
my  potatoes,  and  by  that  means  it  goes  much  farther.  Three  feet  is  the  best  dis- 
tance for  the  rows  to  be  apart,  and  I  am  accustomed  to  list  on  the  manure  that  I 
have  drilled  in  the  rows,  throwing  up  the  list  as  high  as  I  can  with  a  single  plow, 
putting  two  furrows  together.  I  make  it  a  rule  never  to  list  in  a  clay  more  than 
I  can  set  in  a  clay,  as  the  plants  live  better  in  a  fresh  soil. 

The  distance  apart  for  the  plants  in  the  row  is  twenty  inches,  and  it  is  best 
to  set  them  deep  in  the  ground,  as,  if  they  should  be  cut  off  by  cut-worms  or  any- 
thing else,  they  will  be  more  apt  to  come  out  again.  The  evening  is  the  best  time 
for  setting  out,  and  after  a  good  rain  in  May;  jrou  can  set  out  usually  for  four  or 
five  evenings.  In  June  the  sun  is  so  hot  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  plants  to  live 
without  a  good  season.  In  the  cultivation  of  potatoes  the  secret  of  success  is 
never  to  let  them  get  grassy,  but  work  them  as  soon  as  a  crust  forms  on  the  ground, 
If  they  get  grassy  it  is  impossible  to  remove  the  grass  without  injuring  the  potato 
roots;  and  it  is  easier  to  work  them  three  times  where  there  is  no  grass  than  once 
when  they  are  grassy.  You  must  always  see  that  the  hoes  do  not  cut  into  the 
hill,  but  merely  scrape  the  ground  around  the  plant  and  then  pull  up  a  little 
dirt  to  it. 

Now,  by  my  plan  of  horse  cultivation  I  save  a  great  deal  of  hoe  work.  First, 
throw  out  in  about  ten  days  after  setting  out  the  plants  the  little  balk  that  was 
left  in  throwing  up  the  list,  and  try  to  get  the  dirt  as  high  as  you  can  upon  the 
list,  so  as  to  smother  out  any  grass  that  might  start  to  grow  on  the  list  where  the 
potato  plant  is.  Before  this  dirt  that  I  have  thrown  up  by  thi  s  plowing  commences 
to  put  up  grass,  I  run  a  cotton-scraper  (which  is  attached  to  Watts's  A  and  B 
plow)  as  close  as  I  can  to  the  potato  plants,  throwing  the  dirt  from  them,  trying 
not  to  let  it  cut  more  than  half  an  inch  deep.  A  good  plowman  can  run  the 
scraper  in  less  than  an  inch  of  the  potatoes. 

If  the  vines  have  run  any,  of  course  I  have  to  send  a  man  ahead  to  throw 
the  vines  in  every  alternate  balk,  and  the  scraper  has  to  run  all  through  the  patch 
on  one  side  of  the  list,  and  then  have  the  vines  thrown  back  on  that  side  that  has 
been  worked  and  run  to  the  other  side.  The  last  working  with  the  plow  is  to 
throw  all  this  dirt  that  the  scraper  has  pulled  away  from  the  list  back  to  it,  moving 
the  vines  out  of  the  way  just  as  you  did  for  the  scraper,  and  plowing  one  side  of 
the  list  all  through  the  patch,  and  then  come  back  and  plow  the  other  side  in  the 
same  way,  trying  to  make  this  fresh  dirt  meet  in  the  middle  of  the  list.  Let 
your  hands  come  on  behind  and  see  that  no  vines  are  covered  up,  as  nothing 
lessens  the  size  of  potatoes  in  the  hill  more  than  to  have  the  vines  covered 
with  dirt. 


ROUTS,  TUBERS,  AND  I'EANUTS.       .  221 


HARVESTING. 

A  slight  frost  will  kill  tho  vines  of  sweet  potatoes.  When  ready  for  harvest- 
ing, which  should  be  before  tli e  cold  is  sufficient  to  effect  the  tubers,  the  vines 
should  be  cut  off  quite  near  the  ground;  this  may  be  done  with  a  scythe  or  sharp 
corn-knife,  the  former  being  the  easier  method.  In  some  sections  a  sharp  hoc  is 
used  for  this  purpose,  but  it  is  very  objectionable,  since  the  tubers  lie  so  near  the 
surface,  that  they  will  be  liable  to  be  injured  by  being  cut  by  this  process.  If  a 
few  potatoes  are  desired  for  household  purposes  before  the  crop  is  fully  matured, 
they  can  be  obtained  by  carefully  detaching  them  and  replacing  the  soil.  This 
can  be  done  by  running  the  finger  down  beside  the  vine  until  a  large  tuber  is 
met,  when  it  can  be  taken  out,  leaving  the  smaller  ones  to  grow.  Sweet  potatoes 
should  always  be  dug  when  the  soil  is  dry  and  in  a  clear  day.  It  is  better  to  dig 
them  in  the  forenoon  that  they  may  have  a  warm  sun  in  which  to  dry.  After 
the  vines  have  been  cut,  they  should  be  taken  out  of  the  way  so  as  not  to  inter- 
fere with  the  digging,  which  may  be  performed  in  various  ways.  A  plow  is 
frequently  used  for  throwing  the  potatoes  out  of  tho  ground,  but  they  are  liable 
to  be  cut  or  bruised  in  this  way;  besides  many  may  be  buried  in  the  soil.  A 
good  potato-digger  is  the  best  implement  we  know  of  for  this  purpose,  where  large 
quantities  are  to  be  harvested,  as  the  crop  is  less  injured  by  its  use  than  by  the 
plow,  and  the  labor  is  greatly  facilitated.  Where  extreme  care  is  observed,  and 
only  a  small  crop  is  to  be  harvested,  a  six-tined  fork  is  often  used  for  lifting  th^m 
out  of  the  soil. 

The  tubers  should  bo  handled  carefully,  as  even  slight  bruises  or  cuts  will 
cause  them  to  decay  very  quickly.  When  first  taken  from  the  soil,  they  should 
be  left  on  the  ground  fully  two  or  three  hours  exposed  to  the  sun  to  dry.  They 
are  then  sometimes  sorted  in  the  field,  when  desired  for  ready  market,  and  put 
into  barrels  or  boxes  for  that  purpose,  taking  care  not  to  injure  them  by  bruising 
or  otherwise. 

STORING. 

When  intended  for  winter  storage,  sweet  potatoes  are  usually  spread  in  a 
warm,  dry,  sheltered,  and  airy  place  for  a  week  or  two,  that  the  moisture  from 
the  surface  of  the  tubers  may  be  absorbed,  after  which  it  is  a  good  plan  to  pack 
them  carefully  in  dry  sand,  in  boxes  or  barrels,  rejecting  all  that  are  not  perfectly 
sound,  or  that  have  been  cut  or  bruised  in  the  least.  They  will  keep  best  when 
packed  like  eggs,  or  so  placed  that  each  tuber  will  be  separated  from  others  and 
entirely  surrounded  by  sand,  which  must  be  always  very  dry.  After  being  Avell 
packed  they  should  be  put  away  in  rather  a  warm,  dry  place,  as  they  are  very 
easily  chilled  and  are  entirely  worthless  if  once  touched  by  frost;  but  if  put  into 
a  place  where  the  temperature  is  too  warm,  the  dry  rot  will  be  liable  to  attack 
them.  Moisture  or  cold  are  equally  detrimental  and  the  principal  things  to  be 
avoided  in  storage. 

Some  care  will  be  required  to  have  the  temperature  kept  uniform  and  other 
conditions  just  suited  to  their  perfect  preservation.  It  is  always  best  to  pack 
them  without  transferring  from  one  place  to  another  more  than  necessary,  as  the 
more  they  are  moved  about  the  more  liable  they  are  to  get  bruised  and  conse- 
quently the  less  liable  to  keep  well. 


222  ■  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Where  sand  suited  to  the  purpose  is  not  convenient  of  access,  chaff,  fine-cut 
straw,  or  fine  shavings  are  frequently  used  for  packing  instead,  but  dry  sand  is 
the  best  material  we  know  of  for  this  purpose.  In  some  sections  where  this  crop 
is  largely  produced,  store-houses  are  built  especially,  the  wall  sometimes  being 
made  double  and  filled  with  sawdust  or  earth,  where  they  are  stored  in  shallow 
bins  or  boxes  without  being  packed  in  anything;  but  with  this  method  careful 
attention  is  always  necessary  in  order  to  maintain  a  proper  degree  of  temperature 
and  sufficient  ventilation,  as  well  as  to  also  remove  many  unsound  ones  as  soon 
as  they  begin  to  decay. 

TURNIPS. 

The  value  of  the  turnip  product  pi  this  country  is  not  to  be  compared  with 
that  of  England,  where  it  forms  one  of  the  most  important  of  field  crops  as  food 
for  stock,  and  where  they  are  also  commonly  fed  to  sbeep  from  the  fields,  which 
are  enclosed  with  hurdles  or  movable  fences.     There  is,  however, 
scarcely  a  farmer  in  this  country  but  that  has  his  turnip-field, 
[although  usually  limited,  when  compared  to  the  extent  of  land 
'appropriated  to  many  other  crops.     The  nutritive  properties  of 
the  turnip,  when  compared  with  some  otber  root  crops,  are  not 
great,  on  account  of  the  large  proportion  of  water  in  their  com- 
position, Avhich  is  about  90  per  cent.;  but  they  are  valuable  when 
fed  with  other  substances.     The  turnip  is  found  growing  wild  in 
The  Turnip.         Northern  Europe  and  Asia,  but  cultivation  has  improved  i:  beyond 
recognition  as  the  same  species  of  plant. 

The  common  flat  turnip  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  by  our  Eng- 
lish ancestors,  and  has  ever  since  that  time  been  regarded  as  a  palatable  vegeta- 
ble for  the  table.  In  this  country  turnips  are  used  for  feeding  sheep  more  than 
any  other  stock,  carrots  and  mangel-wurzels  being  generally  considered  more 
valuable  food  for  cows  and  horses.  Turnips  are  a  crop  that  can  be  raised  Avith 
comparatively  little  labor  and  in  large  bulk,  the  average  yield  of  many  sections 
being  from  eight  hundred  to  one  thousand  bushels  per  acre,  and  hence  in  this 
respect  are  an  economical  crop  for  those  farmers  having  lands  and  stocks  suited 
to  their  cultivation  and  use.  They  are,  however,  considered  rather  cold  food  for 
severe  winter  weather,  and  when  given  to  pregnant  ewes  in  this  season,  should 
be  mixed  or  fed  in  connection  with  something  having  a  tendency 'to  produce 
warmth,  such  as  corn  or  meal. 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  comparative  nutritive  value  of  some  of  the  leading 
root  crops,  we  append  the  following  table  of  analyses  from  the  work  of  Doctors 
Voelcker  and  Lankester: 

TABLE   OF  NUTRITIVE   VALUE   OP  ROOTS. 

Sugar  beet,  - 

Mangel-Wurzels, 

Ruta-bagas, 

Yellow  Aberdeen  turnip, 

Large  Globe  turnip, 

Carrot,         - 


"WATER. 

FLESH 
FORMERS. 

FAT 

PORXERS. 

WOODT 

Fibers. 

ASH. 

81.05 

l.oo 

15.40 

1.03 

.80 

87.78 

1.54 

8.60 

1.12 

.96 

89.40 

1.44 

5.93 

2.54 

.62 

90.57 

1.80 

4.64 

2.34 

.65 

90.43 

1.14 

2  96 

2  00 

1.02 

85.00 

1.50 

10.80 

170 

1.00 

ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  PEANUTS.  223 

The  improved  American  is  largely  grown  in  this  country  both  for  table  and 
stock-feeding  purposes,  and'  is  of  line  quality  and  keeps  well  till  summer.  TI19 
Sweet  German  and  Long  White  French  are  both  sweet-flavored  and  fine-grained 
and  valuable  for  table  purposes;  they  are  quite  similar  in  all  respects,  tbe  latter 
being  a  variety  of  the  former.  In  good  soils  and  under  favorable  circumstances, 
tbe  Sweet  Gorman  will  grow  very  smooth  and  regular  in  form,  but  under  unfavor- 
able conditions  it  often  grows  very  uneven;  they  both  require  earlier  sowing  than 
other  varieties  of  turnips. 

CULTIVATION. 

Turnips  can  be  grown  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil,  from  sand  down  to  heavy 
clay  and  muck,  but  the  common  English  turnip  does  best  on  a  light  sandy,  or 
gravelly  loam,  well  manured  "with  super-phosphates,  bone-dust,  or  guano,  and 
ashes  applied  at  the  time  of  sowing  the  seed.  Ruta-bagas  thrive  best  on  a  heavy 
soil  made  very  rich.  Land  that  has  been  newly  cleared  and  burnt  over,  and  old 
pasture  plowed  two  or  three  time3  during  the  summer,  and  enriched  with  super- 
phosphates, bone-dust,  or  guano  and  ashes,  as  above  recom- 
mended, will  produce  the  smoothest  and  sweetest  turnips. 
When  farm  manure  is  applied,  it  must  be  thoroughly  decom- 
posed, and  made  very  fine,  besides  being  well  mixed  with  the 
soil.  Fresh  stable  manure  should  never  be  used  for  turnips, 
as  it  injures  the  crop  for  table  use,  giving  them  a  strong, 
unpleasant  flavor;  besides  they  are  more  liable  to  be  eaten 
by  worms  when  farm  manure  is  used  than  when  commercial 
fertilizers  are  applied;  neither  will  the  bulbs  groAV  as  regular 
in  form,  or  as  smooth.  Land  for  turnips  should  be  plowed  to 
a  moderate  depth  in  the  spring,  about  the  time  of  plowing 
for  corn,  and  kept  free  from  weeds  by  an  occasional  harrow-  The  Ruta-Bagas. 

ing.  Just  before  sowing  the  seed,  it  should  be  plowed  again  and  thoroughly 
harrowed,  that  the  soil  may  be  well  pulverized  and  moist,  to  induce  an  early 
germination  of  the  seed  and  rapid  growth. 

The  fertilizers  used  should  be  applied  broadcast,  and  well-mixed  with  the 
harrow.  A  rapid  growth  is  of  importance  in  order  to  get  the  plants  beyond  the 
danger  of  injury  by  insects  as  soon  as  possible.  The  sowing  may  be  broadcast  or 
in  drills,  though  the  largest  crops  are  obtained  by  the  latter  method,  which  admits 
of  after-culture,  and  which  is  of  great  benefit  to  the  crop,  while  the  former  does 
not. 

From  one  and  one-half  to  two  pounds  of  seed  will  be  required  per  acre  for 
broadcast  sowing,  and  from  one  to  one  and  one-half  sown  in  drills.  This  is  a 
larger  quantity  than  would  be  required  provided  all  the  seeds  would  germinate, 
and  the  plants  thrive;  but  as  some  will  not,  and  many  plants  be  destroyed  by  the 
turnip-fly,  or  other  insects,  it  is  safe  to  sow  liberally.  One-half  inch  is  a  sufficient 
covering  for  the  seed. 

It  is  best  to  put  in  the  seed  just  before  a  rain,  as  this  will  afford  a  better 
escape  from  the  fly,  and  induce  a  quick  germination  and  growth. 

For  the  fall  or  principal  crop  of  the  English  or  common  turnip,  the  sowing 
at  the  North  may  be  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  last  of  August;  at  the  South 
it  may  be  delayed  until  later  according  to  the  latitude.     If  in  drills,  the  rows 


224  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


should  be  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart;  Avhen  the  plants  are  well  started 
or  "when  the  rough  leaf  is  fairly  developed,  they  should  be  thinned  out  to  six  or 
eight  inches  apart.  This  may  be  done  with  a  small  hoe  the  first  time,  cutting 
out  rows  so  as  to  leave  small  tufts  of  four  or  five  plants  at  regular  intervals. 
After  the  plants  rally  from  this  operation,  the  surplus  ones  may  be  removed, 
leaving  the  strongest  and  most  vigorous  plant  of  each  tuft  for  the  growth.  This 
may  be  done  by  hand,  but  it  involves  considerable  labor  in  a  stooping  posture, 
which,  to  say  the  least,  is  very  uncomfortable.  This  labor  can,  with  little  prac- 
tice, be  very  easily  performed  with  a  hand-hoe;  it  is  accomplished  by  an  alternate 
thrusting  and  drawing  motion  of  the  hoe,  a  little  practice  of  which  will  enable 
the  operator  to  perform  so  successfully  that  double  plants  or  vacant  spaces  will 
be  very  rare  in  the  rows.  The  single. .plants  should  be  from  eight  to  ten  inches 
apart  after  the  last  thinning  process. 

The  weeds  should  be  kept  down  with  a  cultivator  or  horse-hoe,  and  the  soil 
stirred  in  this  manner  several  times  during  the  season  which  cultivation  should 
be  completed  before  the  plants  attain  a  very  large  growth.  A  hand-hoe  will  be 
required  for  use  between  the  plants.  Shortly  after  the  plants  are  out  of  the 
ground,  they  should  receive  a  sprinkling  of  lime  dust  early  in  the  morning  when 
wet  with  dew,  to  prevent  the  attacks  of  the  turnip-fly.  This  application  repeated 
a  few  times  with  three  or  four  days  intervening,  will  prove  an  efficient  safeguard. 
After  the  putting  out  of  the  rough  leaf,  they  are  safe  from  the  attack  of  the  fly. 
Many  farmers  give  the  soil  a  top  dressing  of  plaster  and  wood  ashes  immediately 
after  sowing  the  seed. 

HARVESTING.      . 

Turnips  should  be  gathered  before  severe  frosts  set  in,  although  in  those 
sections  of  the  country  not  affected  to  any  extent  by  frost  they  are  often,  when  on 
dry  soils,  left  on  the  field  during  the  winter;  the  quality  is,  however,  improved  by 
gathering,  as  they  are  less  liable  to  grow  rank  in  flavor  and  wormy  by  remaining 
in  the  ground  so  long.  The  tops  are  more  easily  cut  with  a  sharp  hoe  before 
pulling  the  turnips,  a  common  hoe  ground  sharp  being  used  for  the  purpose.  It 
is  better  to  cut  off  the  tops  about  an  inch  from  the  bulb,  if  possible,  as  they  will 
keep  better  than  when  cut  close.  The  roots  may  aftewards  be  pulled  with  a  chain 
harrow,  a  hoe,  or  by  hand.  The  following  method  of  harvesting  turnips  is  given 
by  a  leading  farmer  in  the  State  of  New  York:  The  one  thing  that  makes  labor 
in  the  root-field  so  unpalatable  to  Americans  is  the  constant  stooping  that  it 
nearly  always  involves.  I  obviate  this  almost  entirely  in  havesting  by  using  the 
hoe,  ground  sharp.  With  this  in  your  hands,  begin  at  the  outside  row,  and  as 
you  follow  it  down,  cut  the  top  clean  from  each  turnip  with  the  blade,  striking 
right  or  left,  as  is  most  convenient.  The  impetus  given  to  the  top  will  carry  it  about 
half  way  to  the  adjoining  row.  Returning  to  this,  you  strike  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, and  so  proceed.  After  a  few  minutes'  practice  two  or  three  tops  may  be  cut 
with  one  blow,  and  almost  any  one  can  "top"  as  fast  as  he  ordinarily  walks. 
After  the  field  has  thus  been  "topped,"  it  will  present  this  appearance:  Two 
rows  of  turnips  will  alternate  with  each  row  of  tops.  In  pulling  the  roots,  strike 
the  blade  of  the  hoe  back  of  the  turnip,  and  with  a  quick  jerk,  pull  it  toward  the 
adjoining  row,  pulled  or  unpulled.  The  blade  of  the  hoe  cuts  many  of  the  lateral 
roots,  thus  rendering  the  task  of  pulling  comparatively  easy.     After  topping  and 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  PEANUTS.  225 

pulling,  a  row  of  turnips  will  alternate  with  a  row  of  tups;  and  in  hauling,  the 
wagon  should  be  driven  between  these  rows  of  turnips.  I  have  myself  topped 
and  pulled  by  this  method  four  hundred  and  five  hundred  bushels  in  ten  hours. 
The  tops  are  worth  gathering  as  food  for  stock. 

STORING. 

Turnips  require  a  cool,  dark  place  for  storage.  When  raised  only  in  small 
quantities  they  may  be  stored  in  a  cellar,  cither  in  bins  or  upon  the  ground. 
They  will  keep  better  to  have  but  a  few  bushels  in  a  place,  and  cover  slightly  with 
earth  or  sand.  Heat  is  detrimental,  but  they  will  bear  considerable  cold  without 
injury. 

They  may  be  preserved  in  a  very  good  condition  in  trenches;  in  fact,  all  root 
crops  will  keep  better  in  trenches  than  in  a  common  cellar,  and  come  out  in  spring 
almost  as  fresh  as  when  put  in.  providing  the  trenches  are  properly  managed. 
They  should  not,  however,  be  piled  deep  in  these  pits.  Trenches  from  two  to  two 
and  a  half  feet  Avide  and  two  and  a  half  feet  deep,  and  as  long  as  required  for  the 
quantity  to  be  stored,  are  the  best  for  this  purpose.  The  turnips  should  be  put 
in  to  the  depth  of  only  a  foot  and  then  covered  with  the  earth  that  was  thrown 
out  in  digging.  It  is  better  to  have  the  soil  for  the  pits  quite  dry,  and  the  land 
a  little  sloping  to  admit  of  drainage.  Should  the  weather  be  very  severe,  a  cov- 
ering of  stable  manure  thrown  on  the  top  of  the  trenches  will  prevent  freezing. 
A  root-cellar,  made  similar  to  a  silo,  and  which  has  been  previously  recommended 
for  the  storage  of  potatoes^  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  storage  for  turnips;  they 
are,  however,  somewhat  expensive  in  construction,  but  when  once  made  are  ser- 
viceable for  many  years.  It  ir;  customary  in  some  sect'ons  to  lay  them  upon  the 
dry  ground,  in  a  locality  slightly  .doping  to  the  south,  in  long  piles  like  hay-wind- 
rows, the  piles  about  three  feet  through;  they  are  then  covered  with  straw  about 
six  or  eight  inches,  and  earth  eight  or  ten  inches,  leaving  a  straw  ventilator  every 
ten  or  twelve  feet.  Another  method  is  to  put  them  in  large  round  piles  from 
thirty  to  forty  bushels  each,  and  cover  in  the  same  manner.  These  methods 
involve  considerable  labor  and  some  risk  in  freezing  in  extreme  cold  weather, 
which  are  obviated  in  a  properly  constructed  root-cellar. 

Turnips  and  ruta-bagas  are  best  feed  to  cattle  in  an  uncooked  state;  they 
should  always  be  first  properly  cut  before  being  fed  to  stock  of  any  kind.  They 
should  also  never  be  fed  to  cattle  on  the  ground  in  a  yard  or  field,  but  always  in 
the  manger,  where  they  can  eat  them  more  quietly  without  danger  of  getting 
choked  or  hooked  by  others,  and  where  they  can  also  get  their  proper  share,  as  a 
few  in  every  herd  aie  the  "master-spirits,"  and  will  drive  or  frighten  all  the 
others  wher  they  havo  the  opportunity. 

MANGEL  WURZELS. 

This  is  a  large,  coarse-textured  variety  of  beet,  which  is  extensively  cultivated 
for  feeding  stock.  The  roots  grow  to  a  very  large  size,  but  are  similar  in  their 
constituent  properties  to  the  common  beet,  although  of  coarser  texture.  There 
are  several  varieties  ot  the  Mangel  Wurzel,  among  the  most  desirable  of  which 
are  the  Long  Red  Mangel,  which  is  sometimes,  when  young,  used  for  table  pur- 
poses; the  Mammoth  Long  Red,  which  as  its  name  indicates,  grows  to  a  very  large 

15 


226 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


size,  a  single  root  weighing  fifty  pounds  having  been  exhibited  not  long  since  at 
the  Smithficld  Club  Cattle-Show  ;  it  is  also  of  very  good  quality.  The  Yellow 
Globe,  Red  Globe,  and  the  Ovoid,  both  yellow  and  red,  are  also  good  varieties. 

In  the  feeding  of  Mangel  Wurzels,  only  a  small  quantity  should  be  given  at 
first,  as  they  will  have  a  tendency  to  irritate  the  bowels  if  fed  too  liberally,  until 
the  stock  is  accustomed  to  the  food,  or  if  fed  in  the  early  part  of  the  winter, 
before  the  ripening  process  is  completed,  and  the  starch  they  contain  is  converted 
into  sugar.  Where  turnips  are  used  for  stock  food,  it  is  better  to  feed  those  first, 
and  reserve  the  manjrds  till  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  the  winter,  when  they 
are  more  nutritious  and  will  not  be  as  liable  to  have  an  irritating  or  diuretic 
effect  upon  the  system  of  animals.  From  twenty-five  to  thirty  tons 
per  acre  is  the  average  yield,  although  under  favoring  circumstances  as 
many  as  eighty  tons  to  the  acre  have  been  produced,  the  jueld  depend- 
ing much  upon  thevariety,  soil,  etc.  They  will  keep  well  until  the  mid- 
dle of  the  summer  if  properly  stored. 


A 


CULTURE. 

The  soil  and  its  preparation  for  Mangel- Wurzel  should  be  similar 
to  that  for  the  ordinary  beet,  except  that  land  intended  for  the  former 
crop  should  be  plowed  and  finely  pulverized  long  enough  before  sowing 
the  seed  to  admit  of  its  settling  down  a  little  firmly  before  the  seed  is 
deposited,  which  should  be  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of 
May,  the  quantity  required  being  four  or  five  pounds  per  acre.  The 
seed  should  he  sown  about  two  inches  apart,  in  drills  that  are  from 
two  to  two  and  a  half  feet  apart,  in  order  to  admit  of  the  use  of  horse- 
power in  the  cultivation  of  the  crop.  If  the  soil  be  light  and  the 
weather  dry  the  roller  should  be  used  to  press  the  earth  down  upon 
the  seed  and  hasten  its  germination.  When  the  plants  are  up  about 
two  and  a  half  inches,  they  should  be  thinned  out  to  twelve  or  fifteen 
inches  apart,  and  the  after-culture  be  similar  to  that  of  the  common 
beet.  In  cultivating  as  much  care  as  possible  should  be  used  to  prevent 
breaking  the  leaves.  Two  or  three  hundred  weight  of  salt  per  acre  mixed  with 
the  manure,  is  thought  by  many  growers  to  be  of  great  advantage  to  the  crop 


HARVESTING   AND    STORAGE. 

Beets  should  he  harvested  before  there  is  danger  of  injury  from  frosts.  The 
tops  should  be  cut  to  within  one  inch  of  the  bulb,  and  the  small  roots  remain  on 
such  as  are  intended  for  late  keeping.  In  pulling  and  cleaning  the  roots,  care 
should  be  used  not  to  wound  or  cut  off  any  of  the  large  fibres,  as  it  injures  the 
quality  and  induces  a  tendency  to  decay;  neither  should  they  ever  be  allowed  to 
wilt,  for  having  once  become  wilted  or  shriveled,  they  Avill  never  recover  their 
firm  and  brittle  texture.  In  stacking  them,  they  will  keep  better  if  the  crowns 
are  placed  outward.  They  may  be  stored  in  a  cool  cellar  and  slightly  covered 
with  dry  earth,  or  in  piles  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  bushels  each,  and  covered 
with  sufficient  straw  and  earth  to  keep  out  the  frost,  as  recommended  for  ruta- 
bagas. 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  PEANUTS.  227 


Till'.    PEANUT   AND    ITS    VARIETIES,    BY    B.    W.    JONES. 

The  peanut,  pin dar,  ground-pea  or  guber,  (Arachis  hypoga;a)  is  probahly  of 
South  American  orgin,and  finds  its  appropriate  habitat  in  tropical  or  semi- 
tropical  regions.  But  one  species  has,  as  yet,  been  recognized  by  botanists. 
There  are,  however,  several  varieties  now  in  cultivation,  and  cultivation  and  selec- 
tion will  develop  more. 

The  best  and  most  popular  variety  is  the  Virginia  peanut.  The  vine  of  this 
kind  spreads  out  flat  upon  the  soil,  extending  from  two  to  three,  and  sometimes 
as  much  as  four  feet  in  diameter,  and  bears  a  great  number  of  pods  attached  to 
little  stems  or  peduncles  scattered  promiscuously  at  the  axils  of  the  branches.  1 1. 
is  not  uncommon  to  find  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  good  pods 
to  a  vine.  The  pods  contain  from  two  to  three  kernels  of  a  light  reddish  color, 
which  are  sweet  and  well  flavored.     This  kind  commands  the  highest  price. 

The  red  or  Tennessee  peanut  grows  much  like  the  Virginia  variety,  but  the 
pods  are  larger,  often  containing  four  kernels  instead  of  two  and  the  color  is  a 
deeper  red.  The  taste  is  slightly  rank  and  bitterish,  and  not  so  delicate  as  the 
Virginia. 

In  North  Carolina  and  other  points  South,  another  kind  is  grown  called  the 
guber  or  goober,  the  pod  of  which  is  much  smaller  than  either  of  the  other  two. 
It  is  a  more  solid  and  a  heavier  peanut  than  the  Virginia,  weighing  twenty-eight 
pounds  to  the  bushel.  It  is  not  extensively  grown,  and  is  objectionable  on 
account  of  the  size  of  the  pod,  which  makes  it  tedious  to  pick  off  and  handle. 

There  is  also  a  kind,  somewhat  largely  cultivated  in  Virginia,  called  the  bunch 
peanut,  the  vines  of  which  do  not  spread  out  flat  upon  the  soil,  like  the  sorts 
named  above,  but  grow  upright,  and  might  bo  readily  mistaken  at  a  little  distance 
for  the  common,  or  cow  pea.  The  pods  grow  all  in  a  bunch  near  the  main  stem, 
and  are  easy  to  pick  off,  but  can  in  no  way  be  distinguished  from  those  of  the  flat 
kind.  The  bunch  peanut  does  not  yield  as  much  per  acre  as  the  others  unless 
planted  nearer  together. 

A  variety  known  as  the  Spanish  peanut  is  popular  in  some  sections  of  the 
South.  It  is  so  different  from  the  others  as  to  be  almost  en  itled  to  be  classed  as 
a  distinct  species.  The  pod  is  extremely  small,  not  more  than  one-fourth  or  one- 
third  the  size  of  the  Virginia  peanut,  and  the  vine,  small  and  delicate  looking, 
grows  erect,  like  the  bunch  variety.  The  little  pods  grow  in  clusters  of  fifty  to 
one  hundred  near  the  main  root,  and  can  be  pulled  off  by  handfulls  at  a  time. 
The  kernels  are  about  the  size  and  shape  of  the  garden  pea,  which  they  much 
resemble  in  appearance,  and  the  taste  is  the  mildest  and  most  delicate  of  any  pea- 
nut yet  introduced.  The  vines  may  be  grown  very  near  together,  six  to  eight 
inches  apart. 

LOCATION. 


The  peanut,  although  a  tropical  or  sub-tropical  plant,  may  be  grown  in  per- 
fection over  a  very  broad  zone  of  the  earth's  surface.  It  has  become  quite  widely  dis- 
seminated over  the  Southern  States  from  Virginia  to  Texas,  and  up  the  Mississippi 
Valley  to  Missouri  and  Illinois. 

It  is,  however,  a  plant  very  choice  of  location,  and  will  not  thrive  except  in 
a  warm  and  genial  soil,  and  in  a  land  where  the  summers  are  warm  and  sunshiny. 
•Cold,  moist  countries,  with  much  rain  and  absence  of  sunshine,  are  very  objec- 


228  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


tionable  to  the  peanut.  The  warm  belt  of  country  along  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
coast,  from  Delaware  to  Texas,  has  proven  admirably  adapted  to  the  production 
of  this  profitable  crop.  But  even  there  the  belts  of  the  finest  peanut  soil  are 
detached,  scattered,  and  often  quite  narrow.  Not  more  than  a  third  of  the  land 
even  in  the  famous  peanut  zone  of  Virginia  is  well  adapted  to  its  profitable  culti- 
vation. The  cool  springs  and  autumns  of  the  mountain  sections,  and  the  red  and 
heavy  clays  of  the  sub-mountain  country,  are  poorly  suited  to  peanut  culture. 

SOIL. 

The  soil  best  suited  to  the  peanut  is  a  warm,  sandy  loam,  free  from  moisture 
and  acidity.  If  not  calcareous  naturally,  it  should  be  made  so  by  the  application 
of  lime  or  marl.  Oyster-shell  lime  is  the  best,  fifty  to  seventy-five  bushels  to  the 
acre  once  in  about  ten  years.  Marl  takes  the  place  of  lime  admirably,  and  is  com- 
monly used  as  it  is  generally  abundant  throughout  the  tide-water  section,  and 
costs  nothing  but  the  digging  and  hauling.  A  dressing  of  about  150  to  250  bushels 
once  in  ten  or  fifteen  years  is  a  fair  application. 

In  the  absence  of  lime  or  marl  land  plaster  is  often  used,  and  acts  well  in 
very  small  quantities,  if  applied  annually.  Two  hundred  pounds  is  enough  for 
an  acre,  scattered  along  the  drill  under  the  rows. 

Clay  soil  does  not  suit  the  peanut,  being  too  cold  and  slow  to  act,  and  too 
tenacious.  It  also  stains  the  pod,  giving  them  a  dingy  color  that  buyers  do  not 
like.  At  digging,  a  close  tenacious  soil  would  force  from  the  vines  many  of  the 
pods,  and  great  numbers  would  be  left  in  the  ground,  and  much  dirt  would  adhere 
to  the  vines.  A  porous  sand  yields  them  up  freely,  and  not  many  pods  are  left 
in  the  soil. 

The  peanut  is  very  sensitive  to  moisture,  and  hence  none  but  dry  soils  suit 
it.  The  light  grey  sands  of  the  tide-water  zone,  holding  little  or  no  trace  of  iron 
or  other  ingredient  to  stain  and  make  dingy  the  pod,  is  the  first  choice  for  this 
plant.     The  whitest  "  silver  edge"  peanuts  are  grown  in  a  soil  like  this. 

CULTIVATION. 

It  is  only  during  the  past  quarter  of  a  century,  beginning  about  the  year 
1866,  that  the  cultivation  of  the  peanut  in  the  Southern  States  has  attained  the 
magnitude  of  a  profitable  branch  of  farming.  The  aggregate  yield  now  (1890)  is 
probably  not  far  from  4,000,000  bushels  annually.  During  the  earlier  years  of  its 
cultivation,  it  paid  the  farmer  well,  bringing  him  from  seven  to  nine  cents  per 
pound,  one  dollar  and  a  half  to  two  dollars  per  bushel  of  twenty-two  pounds. 

Later  on,  in  consequence  of  the  doings  of  certain  peanut  trusts  who  got  con- 
trol of  the  market,  the  price  fell  to  two  and  a  half  or  three  cents  per  pound,  and 
the  cultivation  barely  paid  the  farmer  for  his  trouble. 

In  1889,  the  farmers,  through  the  organization  of  the  Alliance  and  their  pea- 
nut unions,  managed  to  force  the  market  up  again  to  from  five  to  seven  cents, 
which  price  leaves  them  a  small  margin  of  profit.  The  outlook  is  now  more 
favorable  for  the  peanut  grower  than  it  has  been  for  several  years. 

Tho  planting  time  of  the  peanut  is  during  the  month  of  May  in  Virginia 
and  similar  latitudes.  Some  farmers  plant  as  early  as  April  20th,  and  others  as 
late  as  June  10th.  Southward,  planting  begins  earlier  and  earlier,  according  to- 
the  latitude — April  1st  being  not  too  early  for  the  Gulf  States. 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  PEANUTS.  229 

The  soil  for  peanuts  should  bo  clear  of  rubbish,  coarse  litter,  and  stalks.  It 
should  bo  first  plowed  during  the  early  part  of  April,  and  rows  laid  off  from  two 
and  a  half  to  three  feet  apart,  according  to  the  variety  to  bo  grown  and  the 
strength  of  the  soil. 

If  fertilizer,  lime,  or  plaster  is  to  be  used,  sow  it  along  the  drill,  and  then 
foUow  with  the  turn-plow,  lapping  two  furrows  over  the  fertilizer  making  a  small 
ridge.  Tho  ridges  are  then  flattened  by.  any  method  most  convenient,  and  the 
seed  are  planted.  One  kernel  or  sometimes  two  aro  put  to  a  hill,  and  from  ten 
to  sixteen  inches  apart  along  the  row.  There  are  peanut  planters  that  do  good 
work,  and  home-made  implements  for  leveling  and  marking  tho  rows. 

In  about  two  weeks  after  planting,  or  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  well  up  and 
the  soil  is  getting  crusty  and  grassy,  the  peanuts  should  bo  ploughed  and  wed. 
Tho  work  may  be  done  with  the  cultivator,  or  with  a  light  turn-plow,  throwing 
the  dirt  from  the  plants.  The  weeders  follow  tho  plow  with  light  sharp  hoes, 
cutting  away  the  grass  and  leaving  the  soil  loose  about  the  young  vines. 

The  subsequent  working  may  be  done  Avith  the  cultivator,  keeping  down  tho 
weeds  and  grass,  and  making  the  soil  mellow.  Formerly,  three  or  four  weedings 
with  the  hoe  Avere  given,  but  recently  the  practice  is  to  cultivate  more  Avith  horse 
poAver  and  less  with  the  hoe.  With  good  and  frequent  cultivation  by  horsepower 
two  Aveedings  with  the  hoe  are  uoav  regarded  as  enough,  and  some  farmers,  in 
fact,  Aveed  but  once.  By  resorting  to  nice  and  timely  Avorking  Avith  the  cultivator, 
a  crop  of  peanuts  may  be  grown  without  any  hoe  Avork  at  all.  This  saves  labor 
and  reduces  the  expense.  By  the  use  of  Aveeding  and  scraping  attachments  to  the 
cultivator  the  need  cf  hand-hoeing  is  reduced  to  the  minimum.  It  is  generally 
best,  hoAvever,  especially  if  the  land  is  foul,  and  about  stumps,  and  the  ends  of 
the  roAvs,  to  use  the  hoe  once  or  twice  during  the  growth  of  the  crop. 

The  tAVO  essential  points  in  the  cultivation  of  the  peanut  are  to  prevent  grass 
and  Aveeds  from  groAving  and  smothering  the  crop,  and  to  keep  the  soil  about  the 
plants  loose  and  melloAV.  Any  mode  of  cultivation  that  "will  secure  these  ends 
accomplishes  the  purpose.  Thus  there  is  a  great  latitude  taken  as  to  the  methods 
of  cultiA'ation,  no  tAvo  planters  folloAving  the  same  course  in  every  particular. 

As  the  cultivation  proceeds,  and  the  plant  increases  in  size,  the  soil  should 
be  throAvn  more  and  more  to  the  plants,  leaving  them  at  the  last  ploughing  on  a 
broad,  fiat  ridge,  with  a  small  Avater-furrow  in  the  centre  of  the  balk. 

Tho  crop  should  receive  the  last  Aveeding  during  the  month  of  July,  or  not 
later  than  August  10th.  By  this  period  the  vines  should  be  lapping  all  along  the 
toavs,  and  nearly  touching,  some  of  them  quite  touching,  across  the  rows.  When 
this  is  the  case  the  cultivator  or  plow  is  apt  to  tear  the  vines,  and  cultivation 
should  cease.  At  this  time,  too,  if  hand-Aveeding  is  practiced,  great  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  cut  and  destroy  the  little  "  fingers,"  or  peduncles,  that  bear  the  pea. 
Every  one  of  these  cut  now  is  a  peanut  destroyed.  If  the  crop  is  getting  grassy 
in  the  hills,  one  had  better  resort  to  pulling  it  out  by  hand  than  to  depend  upon 
the  dangerous  experiment  of  removing  it  with  the  hoe.  The  peanut  begins  to 
floAver  in  Virginia  by  June  20th,  and  there  are  by  the  "laying-by  time"  a  great 
many  pods  already  formed  and  forming. 

At  this  stage  a  peanut  field  of  thirty  or  forty  acres  extent  is  a  beautiful  sight, 
the  entire  surface  covered,  and  looking  like  a  carpet  of  the  richest  green,  spread 
evenly  and  deftlv  OArer  the  field. 


230 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


The  crop  now  remains  untouched  for  some  eight  or  ten  weeks,  during  which 
time  the  pods  are  rapidly  forming  and  maturing.  So  long  as  the  vines  continue 
green  and  flourishing  the  peanut  is  growing,  hut  when  they  hegin  to  assume  a 
yellowish  color  they  are  approaching  maturity. 


HARVESTING 


By  October  1st  in  Virginia,  and  earlier  southward,  the  crop  is  ready  for 
digging  or  harvesting.  Frequently,  however,  it  is  the  last  of  October  or  the  mid- 
dle of  November  before  all  the  peanuts  are  dug  and  shocked. 

It  should  be  the  aim  of  planters  to  get  the  crop  dug  before  a  big  frost  catches 
it,  as  frost  destroys  the  value  of  the  vines  for  forage.     The  vine,  when  the  crop 


is  dug  before  the  frost  harms  it,  and  while  the  leaves  are 
all  on  makes  excellent  forage  for  horses  and  cattle,  and  as 
the  quantity  that  the  running  or  flat  peanut  yields  is  con- 
siderable, it  makes  quite  an  item  in  the  value  of  the  crop. 

As,  however,  planters  are  generally  anxious  to  neve  the  crop  remain  undu«- 
as  long  as  possible,  in  order  to  secure  better  maturity  and  weight  for  the  pods* 
many  of  them  pay  no  regard  to  the  vines  as  forage,  and  so  do  not  dig  until  about 
the  close  of  October  or  first  of  November.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  pea- 
nuts will  be  heavier,  if  allowed  to  remain  late  in  the  field,  but  sometimes  as  much 
is  lost  in  other  ways  as  is  gained  in  this,  and  perhaps  more.  We  prefer  earlier 
digging  if  the  color  of  the  vines  indicates  maturity. 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  PEANUTS.  231 


The  digging  of  peanuts  is  not  done  with  the  hoe,  as  some  might  suppose,  hut 
•with  tho  plow.  A  point  with  a  long  wing,  called  the  peanut  point,  is  attached  to 
the  common  turn-plow,  and  tho  plow  is  then  run  first  on  the  left  side  of  the  rows, 
and  deep  enough  to  pass  under  tho  peanuts  in  the  ground,  and  not  so  shallow  as  to 
cut  them  oif  and  leave  them  in  tho  soil.  Returning,  the  plow  passes  on  the  other 
side,  loosening  the  soil,  and  either  at  that  time  or  at  tho  first,  severing  tho  tap-root 
that  holds  tho  vino  firmly  in  the  ground.  Care  must  ho  observed  to  set  the  plow 
deep  enough  to  pass  under  the  peanuts  and  not  cut  them  ofF,  in  which  case  they 
would  be  left  in  the  soil  and  lost.  It  is  necessary  also  that  the  tap-root  of  the 
vine  be  cut,  or  the  vine  will  not  come  away  from  the  soil  easily. 

Hands  with  pitchforks  follow  the  plow,  lifting  the  vines,  shaking  them  clear 
of  dirt,  and  laying  them  down  again  either  singly  or  in  small  piles  by  putting 
three  rows  in  one  as  the  work  proceeds.  All  this  is  done  quite  expeditiously, 
and  a  large  field  of  peanuts  is  soon  dug  and  shocked. 

The  shocking  of  the  vines  may  begin  at  once  with  the  digging;  but  if  the 
vines  are  wet  with  dew,  it  is  better  to  wait  until  tho  afternoon  and  shock  up  in 
the  evening  what  have  been  dug  in  the  morning.  It  is  common,  however,  to  let 
the  vines  remain  till  the  next  afternoon,  when  they  will  be  Avilted  and  will  shock 
better.  If  the  weather  promises  to  be  fair,  the  vines  may  be  left  on  the  ground 
several  days  before  shocking  them.  The  peanuts  intended  for  seed  are  thus  left 
five  or  six  da}rs  to  cure  before  shucking  them. 

The  shocks  are  made  around  a  stout  stake  about  the  size  of  the  arm,  sharp- 
ened at  the  lower  end.  The  stakes  are  cut  previously  about  seven  feet  long,  and 
are  set  into  the  ground  about  one  foot,  so  that  the  shocks  will  be  about  six  feet 
high,  or  as  high  as  one  can  reach  conveniently  to  lay  up  the  vines  about  the 
stake.  Billets  of  wood  are  laid  around  the  stake  to  raise  the  shock  from  the 
ground,  and  the  vines  are  then  laid  up  around  the  stake  until  the  shock  is 
finished.  The  shocks  should  be  about  three  feet  in  diameter.  Care  should  be 
observed  to  have  all  the  peanuts  in  the  interior  of  the  shock,  and  not  exposed  on 
the  outside  to  the  weather,  birds,  &c.  The  shocks  should  be  finished  off  with  a 
round  top  to  shed  the  water  better.  Hay  may  be  wound  around  at  the  top  to 
protect  the  exposed  peanuts,  but  this  is  not  commonly  done. 

The  object  of  shocking  the  peanut  is  to  protect  them  from  the  weather,  and  to 
get  them  nicely  cured  before  picking  them  off.  Peanuts  cure  better  and  sooner  and 
of  a  brighter  color  in  well-made  shocks  than  anywhere  else.  Peanuts  well  shocked 
may  stand  in  the  field  many  weeks  without  the  least  harm  to  the  pods.  Only 
those  upon  the  outside  will  get  specked  or  mildewed.  Driving  rain,  however,  and 
Avarm  muggy  weather  at  that  season  will  be  sure  to  damage  the  crop  in  the  field 
considerably.  Some  seasons,  more  than'  half  the  peanuts  will  perhaps  become 
blackened  by  the  weather.  This  was  the  case  in  1887.  Warm  nights,  with 
heavy  dews,  after  the  peanuts  are  dug,  will  speck  all  the  exposed  pods. 

It  is  the  safer  course  to  haul  up  all  the  peanut  shocks  and  put  them  under 
shelter  just  as  soon  as  the  pods  are  sufficiently  cured  to  prevent  moulding  from 
close  packing. 

In  good  sunny  weather  peanuts  in  shock  Avill  cure  sufficiently  to  pick  off  in 
from  ten  to  fifteen  days,  and  should  then  be  put  under  cover  on  the  first  appear- 
ance of  a  rainy  spell.  This,  however,  is  not  the  common  practice.  Very  few 
farmers  have  shelter  room  for  several  hundred,  or  perhaps  one  or  two  thousand, 


232  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


shocks  of  peanuts,  and  must  perforce  allow  them  to  remain  in  the  field,  where 
the  peanuts  are  picked  off,  and  the  vines  reshocked  in  large,  round  shocks,  to  be 
fed  to  the  stock  as  needed. 

The  peanuts  are  picked  off  by  hand,  the  picker  receiving  about  ten  cents  per 
bushel  for  picking.  Swift  hands  get  four  or  five  bushels  a  day  if  the  vines  are 
full  of  pods.  The  raps  and  black  pods  should  be  put  in  a  separate  parcel.  The 
stems  should  be  carefully  pulled  away  from  the  pods,  and  litter,  dirt,  <fcc,  excluded 
as  much  as  possible. 

MARKETING. 

The  peanuts  are  now  bagged,  the  sacks  being  filled  as  full  as  they  will  hold, 
are  carefully  sewed  up,  and  are  now  at  last  ready  for  market,  where  we  will  fol- 
low them. 

The  cities  of  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis  are 
the  great  peanut  markets.  But  besides  these  there  are  a  thousand  smaller  cities 
Avhere  they  are  handled  as  a  staple  article  of  commerce.  They  are  first  taken  by 
the  country  merchant,  or  by  the  peanut  factories,  so-called,  of  which  there  are 
now  many,  some  owned  by  speculators  in  this  commodity,  and  others  by  the 
farmers  themselves.  Here  they  are  properly  cleaned,  sorted,  and  branded,  and 
are  then  ready  for  shipment  to  the  wholesale  buyers,  who  send  in  their  orders  to 
the  factories  and  warehouses  for  any  designated  brand  or  quantity. 

The  large  buyers  sell  them  to  retailers,  confectioners,  fruit  dealers,  oil  manu- 
facturers, and  the  peanut  vendors  at  the  street  corners,  and  on  the  steamboats 
and  railways.  They  go  everywhere,  to  all  parts  of  the  cities  and  towns,  to  all 
public  places  and  lines  of  public  travel.  Every  body  eats  them  in  some  form  or 
other — raw,  parched,  in  peanut  candy,  peanut  balls,  and  doubtless  in  cocoa,  choco- 
late, coffee,  &c.  The  oil,  which  is  bland  and  sweet,  enters  largely  into  medicines, 
the  fine  arts,  the  finer  soaps,  and  in  lard,  and  for  other  culinary  purposes. 

The  demand  for,  and  the  uses  of,  the  peanut  are  constantly  increasing  and 
extending.  The  old  world,  as  Avell  as  the  new  consumes  them,  and  many  a  Santa 
Clans  package  contains  the  peanut  along  with  other  nuts  and  fruits.  The  con- 
sumer pays,  perhaps,  five  cents  the  half  pint  for  them.  The  farmer  gets,  may  be, 
five  cents  the  pound  at  home;  a  difference  between  producer  and  consumer  of 
more  than  five  dollars  per  bushel.  Each  handler  has  to  have  his  profits,  and  the 
consumer  cheerfully  pays  it  all. 

The  usee  of  the  peanut  are  many.  We  have  alluded  to  a  few  of  the  commer- 
cial uses.  But  the  farmer  finds  an  important  use  for  them  outside  of  his  sales  to 
the  merchant.  The  scattered  nuts,  left  in  the  field  and  in  the  soil  at  digging,  serve 
to  fatten  his  pigs,  preparatory  to  butchering  them,  Nothing  fattens  a  hog  faster 
than  peanuts,  and  most  farmers,  in  the  peanut  belts,  fatten  most  of  their  pork  in 
this  way. 

The  poultry,  too,  (every  animal  loves  the  peanut,)  come  in  for  their  share, 
and  many  a  Christmas  turkey  owes  its  rotundity  and  fine  color  to  the  autumn 
feast  of  peanuts  picked  up  about  the  farm. 

As  a  profitable  farm  crop  for  the  South  there  are  very  feAV  things  that  surpass 
the  peanut.  Corn  does  not  begin  to  approach  it  in  acreage  value.  Cotton  does 
not.  Only  the  bright  and  better  grades  of  tobacco  equal  it  in  commercial  value 
per  acre.     It  is  a  crop,  loo,  of  easy  culture.     The  modes  of  cultivation  now  prac- 


ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  PEANUTS. 


233 


ticed  have  been  greatly  simplified  and  cheapened  since  the  earlier  years  of  its 
production — say,  in  1870-'7o.  Less  labor  is  required  now.  Improved  implements 
and  machinery  have  simplified  and  lightened  tbe  burden  of  cultivation.  The 
cost  of  production  now  is  scarcely  half  what  it  was  twenty  years  ago. 

Thus,  as  the  years  roll  on,  each  season's  experience  but  confirms  what  has 
been  long  apparent,  namely:  that  among  all  the  crops  adapted  to  our  Southern 
climate  and  soil  (and  they  are  many)  there  are  very  few  that  surpass  the  peanut 
as  a  money-making  and  farm-sustaining  crop.  It  works  well  in  a  system  of  rota- 
tion, is  adapted  to  wide  areas  of  country,  demands  constant  improvement  and 
nice  cultivation  of  the  soil,  is  a  crop  that  the  farmer  may  groAV  for  his  own 
use  as  well  as  for  the  market,  is  one  that  always  commands  the  ready  money,  is 
equal  to  cash  and  sometimes  preferable  to  cash  in  the  payment  cf  debts,  is  a  pro- 
duct that  will  keep,  is  a  crop  the  hay  and  waste  peanuts  of  which  will  pay  the 
•cost  cf  cultivation,  and  it  is  a  crop  that  is  adapted  to  a  soil  where  wheat,  oats, 
clover,  and  trucks  will  not  thrive.  Surely,  then,  it  has  a  field,  and  a  broad  and 
important  field,  in  a  practical  and  profitable  system  of  Southern  agriculture. 

Should  any  reader  desire  fuller  and  more  detailed  information  on  the  subject, 
he  is  respectfully  referred  to  the  author's  little  work,  "  The  Peanut  Plant,"  pub- 
lished by  the  Orange  Judcl  Company,  New  York. 


W 

m 


"I'ltW: 


m 


/V 


CHAPTER  XII. 


Silos  and  Silage 


BY    F.  D.  CURTIS,    U.    S.    DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE. 


HE  practice  of  preserving  plants  and  fruits  by  covering  with 
earth  is  a  very  ancient  one.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures, 
alluded  to  by  Columella,  Valeo  and  Pliny,  and  practiced  in  a 
crude  way  in  all  the  ages.  The  excavations  used  by  the  ancients 
were  more  for  the  preservation  of  grain  than  for  green  food,  and 
more  for  securing  food  for  the  human  race  than  for  domestic 
animals.  The  idea  of  preserving  green  forage  in  a  succulent 
state  in  silos  is  of  very  recent  date.  In  1870,  M.  Vil  Moriu,  in 
a  French  Agricultural  Journal,  called  the  attention  of  farmers 
in  France  to  the  experience  of  the  Germans  in  the  line  of  keep- 
ing forage  in  a  green  state.  Among  the  citizens  of  France  who 
took  up  these  ideas  and  extended  the  experiment  w as  M.  Goffort. 
He  carried  the  system  to  such  success,  particularly  with  the  preservation  of  the 
corn-plant,  that  he  received  from  the  government  of  France  the  decoration  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor.  His  plan  was  the  building  of  stone  houses  instead  of  pits, 
as  had  been  done  by  those  who  had  made  attempts  in  the  same  direction.  The 
Germans  hit  upon  the  method  of  saving  green  food  in  their  attempts  to  preserve 
the  leaves  of  the  beets  groAvn  for  making  sugar.  They  covered  piles  of  their 
leaves  with  earth  to  exclude  the  air  and  so  keep  them  from  decay  until  they  could 
be  utilized  as  food  for  their  stock.  M.  Goffort  was  quite  an  enthusiast  in  the 
work.  The  term  silo,  the  name  of  the  pit  and  the  more  recent  structure,  whether 
of  stone  or  of  wood,  is  of  Greek  origin,  and  is  said  to  be  derived  from  sizo,  mean- 
ing a  pit,  or  excavation.  By  putting  "  1 "  for  "  z  "  Ave  have  the  word  in  the  modern 
form.  Until  quite  recently  the  material,  silced,  or  put  into  the  silo,  was  called 
ensilage,  but  the  best  writers  now  designate  it  as  silage,  which  is  a  better  term. 
The  first  writers  alluded  to  this  system  as  the  "  French  mode  of  curing  forage" 
and  following  the  statements  of  M.  Goffort  reported  immense  yields,  as  high  as 
fifty-three  tons  per  acre  of  corn  fodder,  and  some  claimed  even  a  greater  amount. 
Their  extravagant  claims  regarding  the  corn-plant  in  France  excited  a  great 
deal  of  interest  among  Americans,  and  a  number  of  enterprising  men  sought  to 
test  the  wonders  of  the  so-called  silo. 

DEVELOPMENT   IN   AMERICA. 

Colonel  Francis  Morris,  of  Oakland  Manor,  Howard  county,  Md.,  has  the  credit 
of  erecting  the  first  silo  in  this  country-     This  was  during  the  summer  of  1876. 

(234) 


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236  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


J.  B.  Bunn,  a  citizen  of  New  York  city,  translated  the  book  which  M.  Goffort 
had  written  on  the  subject  of  silos  and  silage,  and  pushed  the  new  science  with, 
zeal,  by  holding  "Ensilage  Congresses,"  as  he  termed  meetings  on  this  subject. 
He  procured  cuts  of  the  buildings  erected  in  France  and  all  the  appliances,  and 
kept  the  subject  before  the  American  people. 

Soon  after,  a  Dr.  Bailey  wrote  a  book  on  silos  and  ensilage,  and  although  his 
statements  Avere  so  enthusiastic  and  extravagant  that  many  farmers  were  intensely 
prejudiced  against  the  whole  matter,  there  were  others  who  took  it  up  and  made 
trials.  There  was  a  lack  of  soft,  succulent  foods,  as  American  farmers  had  not 
then,  nor  have  they  since,  only  in  very  limited  numbers,  grown  roots  for  cattle  or 
other  stock.  A  number  of  wealthy  men  followed  the  example  of  the  French 
teachers,  and  the  lead  of  the  few  writers  who  espoused  the  cause,  and  erected 
costly  silos.  Others  tried  here  and  there,  and  persevered  with  many  failures. 
It  took  considerable  pluck  and  faith  to  keep  on  in  the  attempts  to  succeed, 
which  characterized  the  early  efforts  of  those  who  had  silos.  Those  men 
are  entitled  to  credit  for  perseverance,  for  the  results  were  far  from  satisfactory 
to  many,  and  not  perfectly  successful  to  any.  There  is  such  a  craving  on  the  part 
of  cattle  for  food,  other  than  the  dry  fodder  cured  for  winter,  that  they  would  eat 
the  contents  of  the  silos,  however  unsavory  and  unnatural  the  silage  might  be. 
There  was  often  so  much  taint  to  it  that  the  milk  of  the  cows  was  affected  by  it, 
and  the  proprietors  of  the  condensing  establishments  and  creameries  refused  to 
have  it.  Many  silos  were  built  to  be  abandoned;  and  the  others  who  realized  the 
want  of  more  succulent  food  for  dairy  cows  and  young  cattle  were  deterred  from 
investing  in  them.  There  were  many  objections  urged  against  the  use  of  silage 
other  than  the  taint  imparted  to  the  milk.  Some  of  it  was  highly  acid,  and  this 
was  considered  objectionable.  In  other  instances  it  was  quite  alcoholic,  and  in 
others  really  putrid.  The  State  experimental  stations  had  not  then  been  estab- 
lished, where  careful  and  scientific  experiments  could  be  made,  and  the  rich  men, 
who  had  been  tempted  by  the  novelty  of  the  thing  to  invest  in  it,  were  not  cal- 
culated to  make  careful  investigations.  The  enthusiasts  were  too  visionary  to  see 
better  results  from  a  more  painstaking  conformity  to  the  laws  of  science  and 
common  sense;  while  the  great  mass  of  practical  people  held  to  the  old  way  of 
curing  corn  fodder,  and  would  not  waste  time  and  money  in  experiments  so  far 
from  the  old  beaten  track  of  their  forefathers  and  their  own  knowledge.  At  last 
some  plain  farmers  and  dairymen,  realizing  the  great  want  of  more  succulent  food 
for  cows,  risked  a  little  by  the  erection  of  cheap  silos,  made  of  wood,  and  began 
the  work  of  attempting  the  preservation  of  corn  fodder  in  this  way.  These  are 
the  men  who  have  made  the  new  business  a  success.  They  did  not  follow  the 
lines  so  closely,  but  struck  out  according  to  their  own  judgments,  and  from  year 
to  year  made  improvements  in  culture,  curing,  and  erecting  structures,  until  they 
have  made  a  practical  success,  and  have  inaugurated  a  new  era  in  the  feeding  and 
care  of  dairy  cows  and  other  stook.  Silos  in  the  immediate  future  will  be  multi- 
plied rapidly,  and  especially  in  all  sections  of  the  country  where  dairying  is  carried 
on,  and  in  a  short  time  they  will  also  be  utilized  in  the  making  of  beef  and  mutton 
in  connection  with  the  growing  belief  that  better  housing  and  care  of  animals  in 
winter  are  factors  so  important  that  they  cannot  be  dispensed  with  where  a  paying 
profit  is  expected. 


SILOS  AND  SILAGE.  237 


VALUE   OF  SILAGE. 

It  is  not  claimed  that  the  preservation  of  corn  fodder,  clover,  or  other  green 
food  adds  very  much  to  its  value  as  compared  to  the  same  foods,  when  cured  and 
analyzed,  but  it  is  asserted  with  good  reason  that  the  food  properties  in  them  are 
more  digestible  and  hence  there  is  more  available  nutrition.  There  is  also  a  vir- 
tue in  the  succulent,  or  soft  and  more  juicy  condition  of  these  foods  when  thus 
preserved.  The  animals  which  have  a  liberal  ration  of  silage  bear  witness  to  this 
fact,  that  it  helps  to  keep  the  pores  open  and  to  stimulate  the  functions,  as  they 
invariably  have  softer  and  more  pliable  skins  and  more  silky  and  brighter  coats 
than  animals  fed  entirely  on  fodder;  although  they  may  have  the  same  amoui:t 
of  grain.  They  do  not  become  as  thirsty  and  thus  are  kept  from  the  chill  and 
bad  effects  of  excessive  drinkingof  cold  water.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  more 
milk  can  be  obtained  from  feeding  silage  than  from  dry  fodder  corn,  all  things 
being  equal.  Chemistry  or  analysis  will  not  reveal  the  fact,  nor  does  it  tell  us 
what  the  churn  does,  that  there  is  more  cream  in  a  given  amount  of  milk  pro- 
duced from  silage  than  from  dry  fodder.  These  statements  pre-suppose,  and  are 
founded  upon  the  fact,  that  the  fodders  are  of  the  same  kind;  the  only  difference 
being  that  one  has  been  preserved  in  a  silo,  and  the  other  cured  or  dried  in  the 
usual  way.  The  cow  gets  all  there  is,  in  one,  out  of  it;  and  in  the  other  case 
she  is  unable  to  do  so  as  portions  of  the  food  have  passed  beyond  the  digestible 
point  and  are  not  available.  In  tests  of  this  kind  the  silage  must  be  of  the  very 
best  quality  as  the  dried  fodder  may  also  be.  It  is  among  the  possibilities  that, 
in  those  States  where  the  business  of  steer  feeding  is  now  practically  destroyed, 
owing  to  the  competition  of  the  dressed  meat  monopoly,  it  may  be  partially 
restored  by  the  more  general  use  of  silage,  as  the  chief  food  for  wintering  grow- 
ing cattle,  designed  for  slaughter.  It  has  a  value  in  this  respect  not  yet  much 
developed,  but  it  can  certainly  be  made  a  very  great  aid  in  promoting  appetite 
and  cheap  growth. 

THE    OLD   AND   THE   NEW   SILO. 

More  money  was  expended  on  the  original  silo  than  is  found  to  be  necessary 
now  for  a  better  preservation  of  its  contents.  A  costly  structure  of  stone  or 
cement  is  no  more  adapted  to  keeping  silage  than  a  wooden  building.  The  old 
silo  was  oftentimes  sunk  in  part  into  the  ground  to  make  sure  that  the  contents 
would  not  freeze,  and  because  of  the  ancient  idea  of  a  pit,  which  still  casts  its 
influence  over  the  mind  of  the  builder.  There  was  not  painstaking  enough  in 
many  instances  to  make  the  Avails  perfectly  air-tight,  and  frequently  the  walls  were 
so  thin  that  they  became  clicked  and  admitted  the  air  in  many  places.  The  bot- 
toms were  also  wet,  or  held  moisture  to  such  an  extent  that  the  rotting  of  the 
contents  for  some  distance  upwards  was  inevitable.  The  stone  silos  were  almost 
sure  to  let  the  frost  in,  as  they  had  no  dead-air  space,  and  the  moisture  was  almost 
greater  by  the  processes  of  frost  and  condensation  in  the  inside  which  caused 
greater  fermentation  and  decay  of  the  contents  on  account  of  the  wet.  The  cel- 
lars or  underground  portions  were  also  liable  to  be  wet  and  to  produce  more  decay. 
The  new  silo  is  the  opposite  of  the  old  one,  in  that  it  is  built  for  dryness  on  the 
inside  and  to  shut  out  the  moisture  and  air.  The  bottom  must  be  hard,  and  the 
best  plan  is  to  pave  it  with  stone  and  cover  it  with  concrete  as  high  up  as  the 
tons  of  the  sills,  the  sills  being  bedded  in  the  concrete.     This  carefulness  will 


238  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


shut  out  the  air  and  wet,  and  cause  the  bottom  to  he  dry  and  air-tight.  Then  the 
sills  should  he  saturated  with  good  tar  put  on  hoiling  hot,  as  this  dressing  will  be 
found  to  be  a  great  preservative.  The  frame  may  be  made  of  scantling  two 
inches  thick  by  six  Avide.  These  should  be  set  up  edgewise  two  feet  apart,  which 
will  then  make  a  dead-air  space  of  six  inches  to  shut  out  tbe  cold  and  damp. 
Then  scantling  may  be  sixteen  or  twenty  feet  long.  The  higher  the  silo  is,  the 
more  difficult  to  carry  the  silage  into  it,  and  space  is  provided  for  by  greater 
ground  area.  An  increase  in  height  also  renders  the  lateral  pressure  more. 
Some  silos  are  strengthened  in  this  respect  by  iron  rods  crossing,  which  may  be 
placed  along  the  partition.  They  should  not  extend  across  the  open  space,  as 
they  would  prevent  the  silage  settling  easily  and  tend  to  make  spaces  for  air. 
These  studs  or  sides  of  the  frame  are  covered  on  the  outside  with  hemlock  or 
other  cheap  boards,  and  on  these  closely  fitted  together  is  nailed  tarred  building 
paper,  and  this  is  covered  with  matched  ceiling.  This  is  the  outer  wall  of  the 
silo,  and  the  inner  is  made  the  same  with  inch  hemlock  boards  nailed  across  the 
studs  and  covered  with  the  building  paper,  and  on  this  matched  ceilings  are  put 
running  up  and  down.  The  inner  ceiling  should  be  planed  to  admit  of  the  easy 
settling  of  the  contents.  This  is  the  best  form  of  a  silo.  There  should  be  a 
dormer  door  in  the  centre  of  the  roof  which  will  admit  the  contents,  or  the  door  at 
the  top  at  the  point  most  convenient  to  the  cutting  or  unloading  place.  A  silo 
sixteen  feet  high,  twenty  feet  deep,  and  sixteen  feet  wide  is  large  enough  for  an 
ordinary  farm.  It  will  hold  one  hundred  and  two  tons  of  silage,  as  one  cubic 
foot  of  silage  is  estimated  to  weigh  about  forty  pounds  or  fifty  feet  to  the  ton. 
The  roof  should  be  high  enough  above  the  top  of  the  silo,  which  is  in  reality  a 
big  tight  box,  to  allow  a  man  to  stand  erect  when  it  is  full.  There  should  be  a 
partition  in  the  middle  which  may  be  made  of  the  one  thickness  of  the  ceiling. 
This  partition  should  be  put  in  to  strengthen  the  structure  and  to  prevent  spread- 
ing. The  old  silo  was  most  liable  to  bulge  out  on  the  sides,  owing  to  the  pressure 
put  on  the  contents  at  the  top  in  the  form  of  weights  of  several  tons,  or  the  screw 
power  applied  to  press  the  contents  down.  This  is  all  unnecessary  with  the 
modern  system  of  preparing  the  contents  and  filling.  A  movable  shute  should 
connect  Avith  the  carriers  from  the  cutting  machine,  so  that  the  green  silage  may 
be  let  into  one  or  either  apartment  of  the  silo.  It  is  important  to  have  a  parti- 
tion in  every  silo,  so  that  the  contents  of  one  can  warm  up  and  ferment  while  the 
corn  or  other  material  is  being  put  into  the  other  apartment.  With  the  tAvo 
apartments,  the  work  of  filling  can  go  on  each  day  alternating  from  one  to  the 
other.  In  Avinter,  when  the  silage  is  being  used  AA'ith  two  apartments,  only  one 
need  be  used  at  the  time.  After  one  is  empty,  the  other  can  be  used.  In  a  silo 
of  large  area,  it  is  best  to  cut  down  the  contents  in  sections  and  not  expose  the 
whole  surface  at  one  time.  By  so  doing,  the  silage  will  better  retain  its  warmth 
and  moisture.  The  construction  of  a  silo  for  the  best  preservation  of  green  food, 
is  not  an  intricate  or  expensiA^e  operation.  In  almost  any  part  of  the  country  a 
silo  of  the  capacity  Ave  have  mentioned,  should  be  made  for  less  than  tAvo  hun- 
dred dollars. 

THE   LOCATION   OF   A    SILO. 

The  silo  should  be  located  in  some  place  handy  to  the  stables,  and,  if  possible, 
on  the  same  level  and  connected  with  them.     At  the  same  time  the  convenience 


SILOS  AND  SILAGE.  239 


of  filling  must  be  taken  into  the  account.     A  favorite  place  with  many  farmers 
is  to  build  the  silo  in  one  end  of  the  hay,  or  large  ground  space  in  the  barn  which 
is  used  for  storing  hay.     One  end,  or  the  outside  of  the  barn  and  a  part  of  one 
side,  are  utilized  as  the  outside  of  the  silo,  and  a  partition  through  the  hay  and 
in  front  make  the  other  sides.     A  silo  thus  located  can  be  filled  from  off  the 
barn-floor  or  at  the  end.     Silos  thus  made  can  be  made  a  success  provided  pains 
are  taken  to  make  them  air-tight  and  dry      A  lean-to  or  wing  may  be  added  to  the 
barn  or  stable  building,  and  this  addition  may  be  made  into  a  silo.     At  the 
Kirby  homestead  farm,  in  New  York,  a  lean-to  twenty  feet  wide  is  added  to  the 
gable  end  of  the  largest  barn,  and  this  connects  or  opens  directly  into  the  cow 
stables.     This  silo  is  filled  at  a  dormer  window,  in  the  centre  of  the  roof,  directly 
above  the  centre  of  the  silos  and  over  the  partition  which  separates  them.     There 
eould  be  two  dormer  windows,  one  over  the  centre  of  each  silo.     This  should  be  the 
case  whenever  the  silo  is  large,  as  the  material  could  be  discharged  from  the 
carriers  right  in  the  middle  and  save  extra  moving,  or  moving  not  so  far,  as  when 
the  material  was  delivered  from  the  other  side.     The  silo  mentioned  is  twenty  by 
sixteen  feet  and  sixteen  feet  high.     A  cow  stable  has  been  constructed  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  hay  in  the  barn,  and  a  strong  flooring  is  now  in  place  overhead 
on  which  hay  is  stored  to  the  top  of  the  barn.     The  silo  has  taken  the  place  of 
the  storage  space,  where  the  cows  are  now  stabled.     The  end  of  the  barn  makes 
a  side  for  the  silo.     The  silo  mav  be  the  building  entirely  by  itself  and  connect 
with  the  stable  by  a  covered  passage,  or  shed,  or  it  mny  be  put  into  the  middle  of 
the  barn-yard  and  thus  be  central  in  its  location.     It  will  be  found  in  the  long 
run  best  to  have  it  located  where  its  contents  are  required  the  most,  and,  if  possi- 
ble, where  the  silage  may  be  carried  in  a  cart  or  box  set  on  wheels,  from  which,  in 
front  of  each  cow,  the  contents  can  be  shoveled  in  the  mangers.     This  is  the  case 
at  the  Kirby  homestead  and  on  many  other  farms  where  convenience  and  economy 
in  labor  are  carefully  considered. 

THE   KINDS   OF   SILAGE — FODDER   CORN. 

Any  sort  of  green  food  can  be  preserved  in  the  silo  and  its  succulent  character 
preserved.  Experiments  have  been  made  with  clover  on  an  extensive  scale,  and 
it  has  been  determined  that  grain  of  any  kind  maybe  kept  in  a  succulent  form  if 
put  in  the  silo.  Grain  of  all  varieties  can  be  preserved  in  a  green  state.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  doubtful  question,  if  making  silage  will  pa}-  out  of  any  kinds  of  fodder 
other  than  clover,  millet,  sorghum  and  maize  or  corn.  When  clover  is  cut  and 
cured  before  getting  fully  ripe  it  is  a  very  complete  food,  and  has  more  of  the 
characteristics  of  silage,  its  nutritive  qualities  and  succulence,  than  any  other 
food.  Where  corn  can  be  grown  easily  it  is  better  to  cm*e  the  clover  and  feed  it 
as  hay,  than  to  go  to  the  trouble  of  converting  it  into  silage.  Sorghum  has  not 
been  tried  but  to  a  limited  extent,  and  no  pronounced  opinion  can  be  given 
regarding  its  value  for  the  silo.  It  is  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the  best  fodder  to 
feed  in  a  green  state,  as  all  kinds  of  animals  are  fond  of  it  and  it  has  special  fat- 
tening value.  How  well  it  will  keep  in  the  silo  has  not  teen  satisfactorily  deter- 
mined. Some  owners  of  silos  do  not  believe  that  sweet  corn  is  so  well  adapted  for 
making  silage  as  the  other  less  sugary  varieties.  Millet  is  better  for  silage  than 
hay,  and  in  both  cases  it  should  be  cut  before  the  seed  is  matured.     Corn  is  the 


240  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


great  staple  for  the  silo.  It  is  fitted  in  many  ways  to  be  the  natural  foundation^ 
for  the  develo}i>ment  and  success  of  a  new  era  in  the  care  of  domestic  animals  and 
the  growth  and  perfection  of  the  great  dairy  interests  of  America.  Fortunately 
we  have  a  great  variety  of  the  genus  corn,  and  some  kinds  suited  to  all  climates 
and  conditions  as  well  as  wants.  Much  has  been  learned  regarding  the  different 
kinds  of  corn  and  their  adaptation  for  making  good  silage  within  a  few  years.  The 
old  practice  of  sowing  the  dent  corn  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  three  or  four  bushels 
to  the  acre  is  becoming  obsolete.  When  sown  in  this  form  the  stalks  are  soft  and 
mushy,  and  the  leaves  small  and  few.  An  improvement  has  been  found  in  the  plan 
of  sowing  the  corn  in  drills,  with  a  somewhat  less  quantity  to  the  acre.  Recent 
experiments  have  demonstrated  that  still  less  seed  is  better,  and  that  whatever 
the  variety,  bo  it  great  or  small,  it  never  should  be  planted  so  thickly,  but  every 
stalk  should  have  space  to  grow  and  develop  its  full  nature  in  leaves,  stalk,  and 
ears.  It  is  now  a  mooted  question,  whether  the  loss  in  the  development  of  the 
ears,  on  account  of  thickness  in  the  rows  or  an  excess  of  seed,  is,  or  can  be  made 
up  by  more  stalks.  In  other  words,  it  is  claimed  that  of  any  kind  of  corn  more 
ears  with  less  weight  of  stalks  is  the  more  valuable  form  in  which  to  grow  corn 
for  either  fodder  or  silage.  It  has  been  found  that  corn  with  plenty  of  ears  can 
be  preserved  better  in  the  silo  and  will  return  a  much  greater  yield  in  butter, 
milk,  or  growth  than  all  stalks.  The  bulk  of  material  to  handle  is  not  so  great 
and  the  food  is  better  balanced  in  its  nutritive  properties.  The  corn  grain  is  soft 
and  digestible,  and  saved  in  this  form  does  away  with  the  labor  of  breaking  and 
the  necessity  of  grinding  in  order  to  insure  the  greatest  or  fullest  value  for  food. 
The  corn  most  in  use  for  putting  into  silos  is  the  Southern  white,  and  the  kind 
most  popular  and  the  best  suited  for  the  purpose,  so  far  as  obtaining  the  greatest 
amount  of  forage  is  concerned,  is  the  sheep-tooth  or  Sioux.  Both  this  and  the 
horse-tooth  are  grown.  In  New  York  and  the  Northwest,  where  silos  are  more 
common  than  elsewhere,  there  is  a  growing  opinion  that  the  native  flint  varieties 
of  corn  are  perhaps  the  best,  as  they  will  always  mature  ears,  which  is  not 
the  case  with  the  Southern  white  or  the  Western  dent.  A  greater  growth  of 
stalk  and  leaves  can  be  had  with  the  white  sheep-tooth  than  with  any  other. 
Another  kind  is  grown  quite  extensively  known  as  the  "B.  &  W."  This  is  similar 
to  the  other  dent  corn,  and  is  called  from  the  feed  firm  of  "  Burrill  and  Whitman." 
The  common  dent  grown  in  the  West,  planted  on  rich  ground,  will  make  a  large 
yield.  The  stalks  of  all  these  dent  varieties  grow  large  and  coarse,  and  on  this 
account  they  are  objected  to  as  furnishing  an  excessive  amount  of  woody  fiber 
and  pith  for  the  amount  of  sugar.  This  is  a  fault,  especially  when  the  season  is 
not  unusually  long  and  warm,  so  that  they  may  have  nubbins  if  not  ears.  It  is 
often  the  case  with  the  large  kinds'of  corn,  that  the  ears  never  reach  maturity  or 
even  a  boiling  6tate,  as  far  north  as  New  York  or  Wisconsin,  and  hence  there  is 
not  a  full  or  complete  development  of  the  food  properties.  There  is  an  excess  of 
water.  Experiments  are  now  being  made  to  bring  out  and  perfect  new  varieties 
of  corn,  especially  adapted  for  the  silo,  and  combining  large  growthy  stalks  with 
an  ear  or  ears,  Avhich  will  mature  during  the  average  season.  In  all  cases  the 
corn  should  be  planted  as  early  as  the  season  will  admit. 


SILOS  AND  SILAGE. 


241 


HOW   TO    PLANT — TILLAGE — WHEN    T<  >    HOUSE 


There  ;ire  machines  drawn  by  two  horses  or  one,  which  murk  the  rows,  drop 
and  cover  the  corn  all  at  one  time.  These  machines  can  be  set  to  plant  closely  in 
a  row,  in  the  form  of  drilling;  that  is,  with  hills  near  together  or  wide  apart. 
This  machine  is  a  valuable  aid,  and  almost  a  necessity  in  growing  fodder  corn  in 
a  good  form  for  the  silo.  A  common  grain  drill  can  be  utilized  by  allowing  the; 
seed  to  fall  into  the  required  drills,  so  as  to  place  the  rows  far  apart  enough  for 
tillage  with  the  cultivator;  of  course,  the  seed  may  be  distributed  by  hand  and  it 
may  be  covered  by  a  harrow,  being  dropped  into  furrows.  The  rows  should  always 
be  north  and  south  to  admit  of  the  sunshine  more  abundantly  than  of  the  rows 
running  east  and 
west.  Some  men 
experienced  with 
silos,  and  in  feed- 
ing silage  to  dairy 
cows,  will  not,  af- 
ter  experimenta- 
tion which  has  de- 
terred them,  sow 
corn  in  any  other 
way  than  in  hills, 
far  enough  apart 
to  insure  a  devel- 
opment and  matu- 
rity of  ears.  They 
claim  that  four 
hills  of  rich  corn  in 
the  form  of  silage 
will  furnish  food 
enough  for  a  cow 


for  24  hours.  Their 
statement  may  be 

tinged  with  some  enthusiasm,  but  certain  it  is  that  corn  thus  grown  has  four- 
fold the  feeding  value  of  the  soft,  jointless,  and  imperfect  fodder  corn  too  com- 
monly grown.  There  is  now  a  wise  determination  to  plant  less  of  all,  or  any  kind 
of  silage.  This  establishes  the  necessity  of  drill  culture;  but  nevertheless,  with 
clean,  mellow  ground,  corn  may  be  raised  by  the  broadcast  plan,  and  make  most 
excellent  fodder;  provided,  always,  it  is  sown  time  enough.  It  can  also  be  culti- 
vated when  put  in  this  form,  as  it  may  be  gone  over  to  advantage  with  a  common 
harrow,  or  what  is  less  destructive,  a  Thomas  smoothing  harrow,  an  implement 
with  round  teeth  turned  backwards.  The  culture  of  corn  in  drills  can  be  econom- 
ically aided  in  the  same  way,  and  in  both  forms  of  planting,  as  there  is  usually 
too  much  seed,  and  if  some  plants  are  pulled  out  it  is  all  the  better ;  to  get  the  best 
results  as  to  fodder  and  ears,  not  more  than  eight  quarts  of  seed  should  be  put  in. 
That  is  in  striking  contrast  with  the  old  silo  advocates,  who  used  from  three  to 
four  bushels,  and  boasted  of  the  great  weight  of  the  fodder,  which  was  probably 
eighty  or  eighty-five  per  cent,  water.  The  large  dent  variety  of  corn  should  be 
18 


The  Ensilage  Cutter. 


242  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


put  in  rows  not  less  than  three  and  one-half  feet  apart,  and  with  four  feet  there 
would  be  more  ears.  The  common  flint  variety  can  be  planted  in  rows  two  and 
one-half  apart.  The  tendency  is  always  to  put  in  too  much  seed,  and  too  close 
together.  We  never  knew  of  a  mistake  being  made  on  the  opposite  extreme. 
The  harrow  can  be  put  on  as  soon  as  the  first  leaves  or  blades  unfold,  or  when 
the  corn  is  about  two  and  one-half  inches  high,  and  they  maybe  kept  going  until 
the  corn  is  so  large  it  will  be  broken  by  the  teeth.  With  this  mode  of  tillage 
followed  by  the  cultivator  very  little,  if  any,  hand-hoeing  is  necessary. 

The  corn  should  bo  cut,  if  possible,  before  it  is  injured  by  freezing.  This 
will  depend  on  the  season.  When  the  season  is  favorable  and  the  danger  of  frost 
is  not  taken  into  account  the  corn  may  be,  and  should  be,  left  until  it  has  reached 
its  greatest  perfection.  This,  the  chemist  tells  us,  is  the  period  when  the  kernels 
begin  to  glaze.  Cut  at  this  time,  and  put  into  the  shocks  for  curing,  the  grain 
would  become  pretty  ripe  and  hard.  It  would  then  contain  by  analvsis  most 
nutrition,  but  we  are  of  the  opinion  that  for  use  in  the  silo  it  would  be  best  to 
cut  as  soon  as  it  had  reached  a  full  boiling  state,  or  in  other  words  to  cut  as  soon 
as  when  the  kernels  had  reached  their  full  growth.  More  succulence  should  be 
induced  at  this  stage  than  afterwards,  and  fully  as  much  of  the  silage  would  be 
digestible.  Chemistry  does  not  determine  the  digestibility  of  the  food,  but  it 
determines  its  component  parts.  It  is  safer  to  begin  earlier,  than  to  defer  the 
commencement  to  the  glazed  condition,  and  then  be  obliged  to  harvest  and  store 
more  woody  fiber  and  pith  unripe,  or  beyond  a  digestible  form. 

CUTTING    AND    FILLING   THE    SILO. 

If  not  too  large,  the  corn  may  be  cut  with  a  reaper  or  mowing  machine. 
Hand  cutting  is  slower;  but  in  this  Avay  the  stalks  may  all  be  laid  one  way  and 
even,  so  as  to  handle  better.  The  stalks  should  be  cut  a  day  or  two  before  being 
drawn  and  put  into  the  silo.  This  gives  an  opportunity  for  a  considerable  per 
cent,  of  the  moisture  to  evaporate.  Under  no  circumstances  should  the  corn  be 
put  into  the  silo  wet,  either  with  rain  or  dew.  The  old-time  silage  was  often 
ruined  by  the  excess  of  water  and  the  mode  of  filling. 

If  tbe  corn  fodder  can  be  matured  and  put  into  the  silo  with  no  more  than 
sixty-five  per  cent,  of  water  in  it,  all  the  better;  any  excess  of  this  amount  is  at 
the  risk  of  depreciating  its  value.  Here  is  the  explanation  of  the  failure  of  so 
many  who  have  attempted  to  make  a  sweet  or  even  decent  silage.  They  disre- 
garded this  fundamental  law,  allowing  too  much  water  to  get  into  the  silo,  and  by 
filling  too  rapidly.  There  should  be  no  haste  in  this  work.  Time  must  be  allowed 
for  the  corn  put  in  any  one  day  to  heat  up  to  125  or  135  degrees  before  any  more 
is  added  to  the  pile.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  corn  should  be  cut  fine,  or  cut 
at  all,  as  it  will  keep  whole.  It  is  handier  to  feed  in  the  winter  when  cut;  it  is 
best  cut  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length.  When  shorter  it  seems  to  hurt  the 
mouths  of  the  cows,  as  the  bits  stand  edgewise.  The  advantages  in  two  silos  are 
apparent  in  filling,  as  one  will  heat  up  while  working  on  the  other.  The  heating 
is  called  the  cooking,  and  it  arrests  fermentation  at  the  right  point  and  dries  out 
the  moisture.  The  corn  should  be  evenly  spread  out  and  well  tramped  to  insure 
compactness  and  keep  out  the  air.  The  owner  should  arrange  to  continue  filling 
as  soon  as  the  temperature  has  reached  the  required  degree,  as  the  addition  of 


SILOS  AND  SILAGE. 


243 


C^C^ri 


green  corn  will  arrest  fermentation  in  the  lot  cured  up.  A  mild  form  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  takes  the  place  of  the  natural  atmosphere,  and  in  this  gas  the  silage  is 
preserved  until  used.  The  silage  in  this  gas  pr  tects  itself  from  cold  and  from 
further  fermentation,  as  the  germ  or  organism  of  the  fermentation  have  been 
overcome  by  the  heating  and  only  a  very  mild  form  of  acid  has  been  developed. 
This  slight  acid  is  an  aid  to  digestion,  and  is  harmless  in  its  action  on  the 
secretions  of  the  animal.  By  giving  time  in  tilling  for  forty-eight  hours,  the 
silage  is  compacted  by  settling,  be- 
sides being  in  the  right  chemical 
condition  to  keep  well.  This  plan 
also  gives  time  for  the  air  to  be 
expelled,  and  carbonic  acid  gas  takes 
its  place;  there  is  not  enough  of  this 
gas  taken  into  the  stable  to  do  any 
harm,  or  to  effect  the  animals.  Dr. 
Henry    Stewart,    in     the     "Rural 

New    Yorker"     o'ives    the    Stages    Of  ^  FllledSilo  being  Emptied  by  Vertical  Slicing. 

fermentation  and  acidity  and  the  formula,  with  scientific  reasons,  covering  the 
condition  of  the  silage  during  the  different  periods  and  processes  of  change.  He 
says  (speaking  of  the  new  methods  we  have  described)  "the  chemical  change  is 
averted  before  acidity  is  produced." 


KEEPING    AND    FEEDING 


When  filled,  or  when  the  work  is  completed,  the  top  of  the  silage  should  be 
leveled  off  and  the  mow  trodden  down  and  covered  with  a  layer  of  building 
paper,  and  on  this  matched  boards  should  be  placed.  The  paper  and  the  covering 
of  wood  should  be  in  sections,  so  that  only  a  portion  should  be  removed  at  one 
time — the  rest  of  the  surface  remaining  closely  covered  until  the  firsf  section  is 
all  removed.  By  using  in  this  way,  the  remaining  contents  will  not  be  injured. 
The  door  should  extend  in  sections  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  so  that  an 
entrance  cari  always  be  had  on  a  level  with  the  silage.  Some  of  the  contents  will 
always  be  rotted  at  the  top,  and  if  the  top  is  covered  a  foot  deep  with  straw  or 
chaff  the  damage  Avill  be  confined  to  this,  and  all  the  green  food  will  be  pre- 
served. No  weighting  or  pressure  clown  with  screws  is  necessary  when  a  silo  is 
filled,  as  we  have  described,  nor  is  there  any  risk  of  loss  in  its  contents,  or  of  its 
becoming  sour,  weak  in  taste,  or  unsuited  for  a  fcdder  ration  for  any  kind  of 
animals  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  a  healthy  and  valuable  food. 

Many  farmers  report  filling  their  silos  at  a  cost  of  less  than  one  dollar  and 
fifty  cents  per  ton,  including  the  entire  cost  of  growing,  and  an  average  yield  of 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  tons  per  acre — with  twenty  on  extra  good  land.  The  silage 
is  ready  for  use  a  few  days  after  filling  the  silo,  and  it  may  thus  be  preserved 
during  the  entire  year  and  fed  the  next  summer.  It  is  a  cheap  and  successful 
method  to  soil  or  summer  stock  in  the  stables  in  summer. 


Major  R.  L.  Rahland. 


244) 


CHAPTER  X1IT. 


tTobncco 


BY    MAJOR    R.    L.    RAGLAND,    OF    HYCO,    VA. 


mation 


0  INDUSTRY  has  made  greater  progress  in  new  and 
improved  varieties,  implements,  fixtures,  methods  and  man- 
agement, than  tobacco-planting  during  the  past  decade; 
and  as  success  therein  so  greatly  depends  upon  starting 
right  and  pursuing  the  latest  improved  methods  and  prac- 
tices, the  publishers  sought  and  obtained  from  "the  most 
renowned  authority  on  tobacco  culture,  Major  R.  L.  Ragland, 
of  Hyco,  Va.,"  a  revision  of  his  celebrated  manual  on 
tobacco,  prepared  specially  for  us  at  our  request,  that  our 
readers  may  be  furnished  the  latest,  safest,  and  best  infor- 
acco  culture  extant. 

AS   A   MONEY    CROP. 


An  examination  of  the  quotations  of  prices  for  farm  products  in  our  prin- 
cipal markets,  taken  in  connection  with  the  cost  of  production,  satisfies  us  that 
no  crop,  of  which  the  soils  of  the  United  States  arc  capable  of  producing,  pays 
such  large  returns  as  tobacco  where  successfully  grown  and  of  fine  quality.  But 
it  is  only  the  best  grades  of  the  various  t3Tpes  which  pay  handsome  returns, 
demonstrating  the  importance  of  making  quality  rather  than  quantity  of  most 
consideration  in  its  production,  and,  therefore,  the  purpose  of  the  publishers  in 
this  publication  is  to  furnish  such  information  in  regard  to  the  growth  and  man- 
agement of  the  tobacco  crop,  as  will  insure  a  product  of  the  highest  quality  and 
price. 

THE   BEST   RESULTS    COME   FROM    ENLIGHTENED   PROGRESSIVE    EFFORTS 

"  This  is  emphatically  a  progressive  age,  and  he  who  fails  to  keep  full  abreast 
with  the  times  in  whatever  industry  he  is  engaged,  can  never  expect  or  realize 
the  full  measure  of  success  or  honor  that  follows  intelligent  industry." — Western 
Tobacco  Journal,  Cincinnati,  O. 

HOW  TO  GROW  AND  CURE  ALL  THE  TYPES. 

The  several  types  of  tobacco,  whether  for  chewing,  pipe-smoking,  or  cigars, 
require  different  soils  and  management  to  insure  a  product  that  will  command  an 
adequate  return  for  the  labor  and  means  expended  on  the  crop.  It  is,  therefore, 
of  the  highest  importance  that  the  planter  should  know  what  type  his  lands  are 

(245) 


246  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


capable  of  producing  in  the  greatest  perfection,  and  the  modes  and  management 
to  accomplish  the  best  results  from  such  choice. 

A  deep  rich  soil,  overlaying  a  red-clay  subsoil,  is  best  suited  for  dark,  heavy 
shipping  tobaccos. 

A  gravelly  or  sandy  soil,  with  a  red  or  brown  subsoil,  is  best  adapted  to  the 
production  of  sweet  fillers  and  stemming  tobaccos. 

Alluvials  and  rich  flats  produce  the  best  cisrar  stock. 

Experience  has  proved  that  a  gray,  sandy,  or  slaty  top-soil,  with  a  yellow 
porous  subsoil,  is  best  for  yellow  wrappers  and  smokers.  And  these  grades  are 
in  such  great  demand,  and  command  so  much  more  in  price  than  any  others,  that 
we  propose,  in  this  short  treatise,  to, devote  to  them  most  space;  for  in  the  pro- 
duction of  these,  the  author  has  had  most  experience  and  success;  and  while  the 
production  of  "brights"  requires  more  skill  and  careful  management,  they  seldom 
fail  to  make  ample  compensation  for  all  the  attention  bestowed  upon  them. 

But  unless  the  planter  makes  provision  by  building  or  arranging  suitable 
barns  provided  with  flues,  or  prepares  charcoal,  he  need  not  expect  to  succeed, 
and  had  better  aim  at  some  other  grade  requiring  less  preparation,  cost,  and  skill. 

Log  barns,  ranging  from  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  square,  are  the  sizes  mostly 
used.  These  should  be  built  about  twenty  feet  high  in  the  bod}-,  and  covered 
with  shingles  or  boards.  Large  logs  may  be  used  until  the  pen  is  built  about 
seven  feet  high  from  the  ground.  Then  if  the  size  is  twenty  feet,  lay  off  for  five 
rooms,  four  feet  apart,  and  place  tier  poles  across  to  form  the  lower  tier.  Raise 
two  logs  higher  all  around,  and  put  on  another  course  of  tier  poles  directly  over 
the  first.  Then,  using  smaller  logs  (cabin  size),  place  on  three  logs  higher  all 
around,  laying  on  tier  poles  as  before,  and  continue  to  elevate  the  body  of  the 
barn  until  you  have  five  tiers.  Then  place  two  more  logs  around  the  plates,  and 
the  pen  is  ready  to  be  roofed.  You  will  then  have  a  barn  with  five  rooms  and 
five  tiers  high.  Mark  you,  the  lower  tiers  are  not  firing  tiers,  but  placed  in  the 
barn  for  the  convenience  of  hoisting,  and  for  storing  cured  tobacco  when  neces- 
sary. By  this  arrangement,  the  tiers  are  about  three  feet  apart  vertically,  the 
body  '»f  the  barn  a  cube — as  high  as  it  is  wide  and  deep — and  the  whole  arrange- 
ment conformable  to  the  process  of  curing.  The  roof  is  so  constructed,  conform- 
ing to  the  plan  of  the  tiers  below,  as  to  contain  three  tiers  above  the  joist,  vary- 
ing in  length.  Such  a  barn  will  hold  about  six  hundred  and  fifty  to  seven  hun- 
dred sticks  of  medium  tobacco,  six  plants  to  the  stick.  To  prepare  for  curing 
brights,  it  must  be  chinked  and  daubed  close  inside  and  out. 

FLUES  ANO  FLUE-CURING. 

Flues  have  almost  entirely  superseded  charcoal  for  curing  yellow  tobacco,  as 
being  cheaper  and  better  every  way.  The  heat  is  more  readily  controlled  by 
the  use  of  flues — an  important  item  in  successful  curing — and  the  tobacco  cured 
therewith  is  cleaner,  brighter  and  sweeter  than  that  cured  with  charcoal.  The 
flue  is,  moreover,  the  best  mode  for  applying  beat  in  the  curing  process  for  any 
type  of  tobacco  requiring  the  application  of  artificial  heat,  and  may  be  used  to 
good  advantage  in  drying  out  and  seasoning  those  types  cured  mainly  by  the  sun 
and  air,  and  preserving  them  from  injury.  Its  use  is  fast  "superseding  the  open  , 
wood  fire  with  its  objectionable  smoke,"  as  predicted  bv  the  writer  years  as;o. 


TOBACCO. 


247 


The  following  cut  represents  the  "Furnace  and  Pipe"  flue,  more  extensively 
used  at  this  time  than  any  other,  and  is  not  patented.  It  is  cheap  and  reliable, 
easily  controlled,  safe,  and  may  be  relied  upon  to  work  well. 


Fluo  Curing. 

Cut  out  two  or  three  logs  from  the  end  of  the  barn  as  represented  by  the  brick 
work.  Then  first  construct  the  two  furnaces  with  brick  or  stone,  as  follows:  Let 
the  mouths  of  the  furnaces  project  fifteen  inches  outward  beyond  the  wall,  and 
extend  the  furnaces  about  five  and  a  half  to  six  feet.  The  outer  wall  of  the  fur- 
naces should  be  about  fifteen  inches  distant  from  the  logs  or  sills  of  the  barn. 
Build  the  walls  of  the  furnaces  eighteen  inches  apart  and  eighteen  inches  high, 
running  back  to  fourteen  inches  high,  and  let  the  bottom  of  the  flues  slope  upward 
from  four  to  five  inches.  The  furnaces  should  be  arched  with  brick  or  covered 
with  fire-proof  stone,  or  No.  1G  or  18  sheet  iron. 

Be  careful  to  see  that  the  furnaces  at  every  point  are  so  constructed  as  not  to 
come  in  near  contact  with  the  sides  or  walls  of  the  barn,  lateral  or  vertical,  and 
that  the  exits  of  the  pipe  are  protected  by  brick  or  stone,  as  seen  in  the  diagram. 

Insert  sheet-iron  pipes  on  cast-iron  eyes  made  for  the  purpose  and  placed 
into  the  ends  of  the  furnaces,  as'near  the  tops  thereof  as  possible.  The  eyes  are 
not  absolutely  necessary,  but  they  greatly  protect  the  pipe  from  burning,  and 
being  fixed  into  the  ends  of  the  furnaces,  the  pipe  is  more  readily  adjusted.  For 
a  20  by  20  feet  barn  use  pipe  eleven  or  twelve  inches  in  diameter;  for  barn  16  by 
16  feet  use  ten-inch  pipe.  Extend  the  pipe  all  around,  with  a  gradual  elevation 
of  one  foot  rise,  and  with  two  feet  elevation.  Cap  the  ends  of  the  pipes  with  an 
elbow. 

For  small  barns,  the  pipes  may  be  brought  together  midway,  by  a  V-shaped 
connection  into  one  twelve-inch  return  pipe,  through  the  middle  of  the  barn. 
This  flue  operates  well,  and  is  very  popular  with  the  planters  working  a  small 
force  and  using  only  small  barns,  which  are  better  for  them  than  large  ones,  and 
is  the  cheapest  good  flue  made. 

Any  tinner  can  make  the  pipe,  and  foundries  and  hardware  stores  furnish  the 

.eyes.     The  cost  of  pipe  varies  from  five  and   a  half  to  six  and  a  half  cents  per 

pound,  and  ten-inch  cast  eyes  cost  about  two  dollars  a  pair,  and  twelve-inch  eyes 


248 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


•about  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents.     The  cost  of  piping  for  a  small  barn  varies  from 
eight  to  ten  dollars,  or  less. 

Patented  flues  cost  more,  and  some  of  them  are  well  worth  the  difference  in 
the  cost  over  the  plain  flue.  The  "Regulator"  is  one  of  the  best,  and  costs  very 
little  more,  and  as  a  fuel-saver  alone  will  more  than  compensate  for  difference  in 
cost  in  one  season's  curing.  By  the  use  of  this  flue  the  heat  is  more  easily  under 
the  control  of  the  curer — the  temperature  being  regulated  at  will  by  throwing  the 
heat  into  or  out  of  the  barn.  The  "Regulator"  is  manufactured  at  South  Boston, 
Va.,  by  Jordan  &  Easley. 

SELECTION    OF    SEED. 

There  is  no  farm  crop  grown  as  a  staple  in  the  United  States  that  pays  better 
than  "good"  tobacco;  and  to  grow  good  tobacco  requires,  in  the  first  place,  good 
seed;  for  good  seed  is  at  the  foundation  of  all  successful  farming;  and  more  essen- 
tial, if  possible,  as  regards  tobacco,  than  in  any  other  crop.  For  in  this,  the  range 
of  types,  grades,  and  prices,  are  wider  than  in  any  other  crop,  while  the  seed  affect 


and  control  all  these  more  than  any  other  factor.  Soil,  climate,  and  management, 
next  to  variety,  operate  to  determine  the  character  of  the  product. 

The  variety  must  be  suited  to  the  type  which  the  planter  intends  to  raise, 
and  the  soil  must  be  adapted  to  the  type,  or  failure  is  certain.  Bright  yellow 
tobacco  cannot  be  produced  on  dark  rich  soil,  nor  rich  dark  "  shipping'-  on  poor 
gray  soil;  nor  will  the  rich,  coarse  varieties  produce  fine  silky  yellow  goods,  or  the 
thin  silky  varieties  make  heavy,  fat,  tough  export  tobaccos. 

There  has  been  a  wonderful  improvement  in  varieties  of  tobacco  during  the 
past  generation — improvement  by  selection  in  the  old  kinds  and  the  introduction 
of  new  varieties,  with  superior  qualities  and  characteristics  for  every  type  of 
tobacco.  None  but  an  old  fogy  will  continue  to  plant  the  old,  unimproved  varie- 
ties because  they  were  his  father's  or  grandfather's  favorites.  The  world  moves, 
seeds  are  improved,  and  industries  developed  and  advanced.     Our  ancestors  sue- 


TOBACCO.  240 


ceeded  with  the  varieties  of  tobacco  they  planted,  when  there  was  mainly  bul  one 
type — the  dark  shipping — but  taste  and  fashion  change,  now  types  arc  wanted 
and  new  varieties  suited  to  these  types,  and  planters  who  meet  the  demand  are 
thoso  who  make  tin*  most  money  by  tobacco  planting. 

Where  is  the  successful  fanner  who  now  sows  the  old  wheats  once  \i^~<\  by 
his  ancestors?  Look  at  the  improvement  in  varieties  in  vegetables,  fruits,  farm 
and  horticultural,  in  the  past  century.  Seeds,  like  animals,  are  greatly  improved 
by  propagation  of  selections  and  judicious  crossing;  and  especially  is  this  true  as 
regards  the  improvement  of  seeds,  when  carried  on  under  the  most  favoring  con- 
ditions of  development  as  to  soil,  climate,  and  cultivation.  Virginia  is  the  home 
of  the  tobacco  plant,  and  here  it  develops  to  the  highest  perfection,  and,  conse- 
quently, here  have  originated  the  best  and  finest  varieties.  She  grows  now  all 
the  types  used  in  plug  tobacco  and  for  pipes  and  cigarettes;  and  she  has  some 
sixteen  hundred  square  miles  of  soil  suited  to  another  type — cigar  tobacco — and 
these  soils  lie  mainly  in  the  Piedmont  country,  where  our  people  are  striving  to 
compete  with  the  West  in  growing  grain.  Here  is  an  opportunity  that  ought  to 
be  improved. 

It  is  a  recognized  fact  that  where  any  flora  develops  to  greatest  perfection, 
there  is  where  the  "  best"  seed  can  be  grown.  It  would  pay  planters  in  the  South 
and  West,  who  grow  the  yellow  and  dark  export  types,  to  get  their  seeds  every 
year  from  Virginia,  as  market  gardeners  get  seeds  from  localities  where  the  several 
varieties  develop  to  greatest  perfection,  rather  than  grow  their  supplies  at  lower 
cost,  but  under  less  favoring  conditions,  as  to  adaptability  of  soil,  climate,  &c. 
They  know  where  to  get  the  best,  and  are  aware  of  the  tendency  to  degeneration 
in  seeds  generally,  and  the  importance  of  "a  frequent  recurrence  to  first  princi- 
ples," to  promote  healthy  normal  growth  and  maturity. 

Planters  have  no  excuse  for  using  poor  seeds  when  pedigree  seeds  of  all  types 
may  be  so  cheaply  procured.  The  cost  of  tobacco  seed  per  acre  ranges  from  ten 
to  twenty  cents — the  cost  of  seed  of  no  other  farm  crop  is  so  little. 


VARIETIES    FOR    SPECIFIC    TYPES. 

Wc  will  premise  by  stating  that  only  an  approximate  guide  may  be  given  for 
the  selection  of  varieties  suited  to  the  several  types.  The  variation  in  soil  and 
climate  in  different  localities  greatly  modify  the  selection.  For  what  is  best  in 
some  localities  is  not  best  in  others;  and  trial,  at  last,  must  determine  what  is 
best  in  every  case.  When  this  is  found,  it  is  Avell  to  stick  to  it  and  plant  mainly 
of  this  variety,  and  sparingly  of  others  until  a  better  is  found,  if  possible. 

VARIETIES    SUITED    FOR    THE    VARIOUS    TYPES. 

For  dark,  rich  "shipping,"  nothing  has  been  found  superior  to  the  following: 
James  River  Blue  Pry  or,  Lacks  or  Beat-All  and  Medley  Pryor. 

For  sweet  fillers:  Sweet  Oronoko  and  Flanagan. 

For  stemming:  Long  Leaf  and  Broad  Leaf  Gooch,  Hester,  Tuckahoe,  Big 
Oronoko,  and  Lacks. 

For  mahogany  wrappers:  Tuckahoe,  Sweet  Oronoko,  Flanagan,  Primus, 
Long  Leaf  Gooch,  and  White  Stem. 

For  cutters:  Hyco,  White-stem  Oronoko,  Yellow  Oronoko,  Granville  Yellow, 
Sterling,  Lacks,  Yellow  Pryor,  and  Hester. 


250  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


For  yellow  wrappers  and  fillers:  Sterling,  Primus,  Granville  Yellow,  White- 
stem  Oronoko,  Tuckahoe,  Hester,  Long  Leaf  Gooch,  Yellow  Oronoko  and  Yellow 
Pry  or. 

Trial  will  determine  what  variety  is  best  for  any  locality,  as  no  one  variety  is 
best  for  all  locations.  To  plant  varieties  unsuited  to  the  type,  or  on  soils 
unadapted  thereto,  is  to  invite  failure  every  time. 

The  leading  cigar  varieties  are:  Connecticut  and  Pennsylvania  Seed  Leaf, 
Imported  and  American  Grown  Havana,  and  several  Spanish  Strains. 

In  localities  liable  to  early  frost  it  is  safest  to  plant  the  earliest  varieties  of 
the  several  types,  such  as  Sterling,  Primus,  Granville  Yellow,  Hyco,  Hester, 
Sweet  Oronoko  and  Bradley  for  the  manufacturing  types,  and  Havana,  Big 
Havana,  and  Persian  Rose  for  cigars1. 

White  Burley,  when  grown  on  rich  limestone  soil,  makes  a  mild  type  of 
tobacco  in  great  favor,  but  this  type  cannot  be  successfully  produced  on  silicious 
soils,  such  as  are  best  adapted  to  all  other  leaf  types;  and  for  this  reason,  it  has 
invariably  proved  a  failure  in  the  old  leaf  producing  States  east.  Southern  Ohio 
and  eastern  Kentucky  produce  the  best  grade  of  this  type. 

Sweet  Oronoko — the  Eastern  Burley — makes  mild,  sweet  substantial  chewing 
and  smoking  goods,  unexcelled  by  Burley  or  any  other  type,  when  properly 
grown  on  silicious  soils. 

Hyco  and  Lacks  cure  readily  and  more  certainly  of  colors  desired  in  types 
for  which  they  are  recommended. 

Hester  and  Long  Leaf  Gooch  possess  greater  adaptability  to  soils  than  any 
others,  and  therefore  succeed  where  others  fail. 

Sterling,  Yellow  Oronoko  and  Yellow  Pryor  are  unexcelled  for  producing  the 
finest  Lemon  Yellow  goods,  while  Long  Leaf  Gooch,  Tuckahoe  and  Hester  make 
the  finest  Orange  Yellow. 

Bradley  makes  fine  manufacturing  and  good  cigars. 

Big  Havana  is  the  best  Americanized  Havana,  and  Persian  Rose,  the  earliest 
cigar  leaf,  is  one  of  the  most  promising  foreign  varieties. 

HYBRIDIZING. 

New  and  superior  varieties  are  being  constantly  originated  through  hybridi- 
zation, and  that  planters  may  be  enabled  to  develop  and  test  them,  the  following 
instructions  are  given  to  aid  them  in  efforts  in  this  line: 

The  bloom  of  the  tobacco  plant  (see  Fig.  No.  2)  has  a  monopetalous  in 
fine  dibula-formed  corolla,  i.  e.,  the  petals  are  joined  as  one  in  a  funnel-formed 
corolla;  within  which  are  fine  stamens  (the  male  organs  of  the  flower)  adhering 
thereto  and  surrounding  the  pistil  (the  female  organ),  which  terminates  in  the 
ovary  below  the  nascent  capsule,  where  the  seeds  are  formed.  The  end  of  the 
stamens  are  capped  with  anthers  which  secrete  the  pollen  or  fecundating  dust, 
which  is  taken  up  by  the  stigma,  the  vascular  upper  end  of  the  pistil,  and  thus 
fecundation  is  effected. 


THE    MODUS    OPERANDI    OP    HYBRIDIZING    OR    CROSS-FERTILIZING    VARIETIES. 

If  the  pistils  of  the  Oronoko  variety  are  fecundated  with  pollen  from  stamens 
of  the  Pryor,  the  cross  is  a  hybrid-Pryor  on  Oronoko,  and  vice  versa  when  the 
pistils  of  the  Pryor  are  fecundated  with  pollen  from  the  Oronoko,  the  hybrid  is 
an  Oronoko  on  Pryor. 


TOBACCO. 


251 


To  accomplish  such  crosses  readily,  it  is  necessary  to  select  blooms  at  the 
stage  of  inflorescence  just  before  the  corallae  open;  then  carefully  open  the  tube, 
say  of  the  Oronoko,  with  a  small  sharp-pointed  pen  knife,  carefully  remove-  the 
stamens,  then  take  stamens  from  say  the  Pryor  bloom  just  before  it  opens  natu- 
rally, and  insert  these  Pryor  stamens  into  the  corolla  of  the  Oronoko  and  around 
the  stigma  thereof,  and  from  which  its  own  stamens  had  been  removed,  thus  fer- 
tilizing the  stigmas  of  the  Oronoko  with  pollen  dust  of  the  Pryor  stamens,  and 
thereby  producing  a  cross  or  hybrid  Oronoko  and  Pryor.  By  the  above-described 
mode,  crosses  of  any  varieties  of  the  species  nicotiana  tabacum  may  be  effected, 
and  by  any  planter  of  intelligence,  if  directions  are  followed. 

NATURAL  DEVELOPMENT  AN])  CAREFUL  PROPAGATION. 

Some  of  our  best  varieties  are  accidental  crosses  produced  by  insects  carry- 
ing the  pollen  from  the  bloom  of  one  variety  into  that  of  another.  Some  again 
are  developed  by  careful  selection  long  continued  with  reference  toward  increas- 
ing certain  desirable  qualities — perpetuating  and  increasing  the  good  points  and 
"breeding  out"  the  objectionable  ones — until  the  highly  developed  plants  became 
a  new  variety,  sui  generis,  as  are  some  of  our  most  popular  and  desirable  ones 
now  in  use. 

The  top  flowers  alone  ought  to  be  crossed  upon,  the  lower  or  sucker  branches 
being  removed  as  soon  as  the  plant  is  selected  for  a  seed  plant,  and  then  opening 
them  in  the  order  of  their  maturity,  or  just  as  they  show  signs  of  opening 
naturally.  If  the  flower  is  allowed  to  open  naturally  self-fertilization  is  apt  to 
take  place  before  the  stamens  can  be  extracted  artificially. 

The  following  cuts  represent  the  tobacco  flower  in  all  the  stages  of  its  growth 
from  the  green  bud  to  the  fully  ripened  seed  capsule. 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2.  Fig.  3.  Fig. -1. 

Fig.  1  represents  the  bud  of  the  tobacco  plant,  natural  size. 

Fig.  2  represents  the  flower  and  all  the  organs  male  and  female,  complete 
and  natural  size. 

Fig.  3  represents  the  flower  magnified,  with  all  the  organs  male  and  female, 
stamens  and  stigma,  complete. 

Fig.  4  represents  the  flower  magnified,  showing  the  male  organs  or  stamens 
complete,  and  the  stigma  or  female  organs  clipper!  off  by  tweezers. 


252 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Fig.  7.  Fig.  S. 

Fig.  5  represents  the  flower  magnified,  showing 
the  female  organs  or  stigma  only,  with  the  male  or- 
gans or  stamens  clipped  off  by  tweezers. 

Fig.  6  represents  the  seed  capsule,  natural  size,  in 
the  green  state,  just  as  it  reaches  the  maximum  of  its 
Fig- 5.  growth. 

Fig.  7  represents  the  seed  capsule  in  its  dry  or  cured  condition,  ready  for  cut- 
ting from  the  main  stem  of  the  plant,  to  be  hung  up  in  a  dry  room  for  preservation. 

Fig.  8  represents  the  capsule  broken  open  with  seed  exposed,  ready  for  the 
plant-bed. 

For  the  guidance  of  the  planter  we  give  the  definitions,  or  nomenclature  of 
the  essential  organs  of  the  tobacco  plant,  as  a  more  intelligent  guide  to  crossing 
varieties.  Stigma,  the  upper  extremity  of  the  pistil,  or  that  part  which  receives 
the  pollen;  pistil,  the  central  organ  of  the  flower,  consisting  of  the  ovary,  stylus 
and  stigma;  style  or  stylus,  the  stalk  or  elongation  of  the  ovarium  which 
supports  the  stigma;  ovary,  the  organ  containing  the  female  ova,  or  in  which, 
impregnation  is  performed,  the  hollow  case  enclosing  the  ovules  or  young  seed; 
stamen,  the  male  apparatus  or  fertilizing  organ  of  the  flower,  consisting  of  fila- 
ments, anther  and  pollen;  filaments,  the  fine  threads  of  which  the  nerves,  skin 
and  flesh  are  composed;  anther,  that  part  of  the  flower  containing  the  pollen  or 
fertilizing  dust  by  which  the  seed-vessel  is  fructified;  pollen,  the  powder  or  pul- 
verulent substance  contained  in  and  on  the  anther  of  the  flower;  capsule,  the 
woody  seed-vessel  of  the  plant. 

[Note. — The  publishers  take  pleasure  in  stating  that  the  tobacco  seed  raised 
by  Major  R.  L.  Ragland,  of  Hyco,  Va.,  have  won  a  deservedky  high  and  extensive 
reputation,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  as  the  best  for  all  the  distinctive  types  grown 
in  the  United  States.  They  are  grown  on  scientific  principles  and  by  the  latest 
improved  methods,  and  have  received  the  endorsation  and  recommendation  of 
the  Tobacco  Associations  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina.] 

Of  the  multitude  of  certificates  recommending  Major  Ragland's  seed  we 
select  only  one,  which  is  instructive,  and  covers  the  ground  completely: 

"We  assume  that  you  have  secured  seed  of  absolute  purity  and  with  as  much 
care  as  you  select  for  other  crops.  By  far  too  little  attention  has  been  paid  to 
this.  You  can  no  more  gather  grapes  from  thorns  or  figs  from  thistles  than  you 
can  get  good  tobacco  from  impure  or  imperfect  seed.  It  is  a  mistake  to  think  it 
economy  to  buy  or  borrow  from  your  neighbor  whatever  he  has,  simply  because 
it  is  called  tobacco  seed.  The  raising  of  seed  is  as  much  a  business  by  itself  as 
is    any  other  branch  of  agriculture.     The  proof  of  this  is  fouu  1   in  the  results 


TOBACCO.  253 


obtained  by  those  who  have  used  seeds  grown  for  market  at  such  places  as  the 
Ragland  Seed  Farm,  Hyco,  Va.  Due  regard  should  be  had  as  well  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil  as  to  the  type  of  tobacco  desired." — W.  H.  Snow.  High  Point,  N.  C. 

The  scope  of  this  work  docs  not  permit  us  to  cuter  further  into  this  subject, 
but  full  information  as  to  the  varieties  of  seeds  adapted  to  the  several  types  can 
be  obtained  from  Major  Ragland  as  above. 

PREPARATION    OF    PLANT   BEDS. 

There  are  two  modes  for  raising  plants — in  hot  bed  or  cold  frame,  or  in  the 
open  air;  one  or  the  other  of  which  has  preference  according  to  locality — the 
former  being  more  practiced  north  of  forty  degrees  latitude,  while  the  latter  is 
preferred  south  of  that  line.     We  will   here  give  both,  that  planters  may  choose. 

For  a  hot  bed,  select  a  southern  or  southeastern  exposure,  sheltered  on  the 
north,  dig  and  shovel  out  a  space  five  by  twelve  feet  or  any  required  length,  to 
the  depth  of  eighteen  inches.  Place  straw  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  inches  in 
the  bottom  of  this  trench,  and  cover  with  fresh  un rotted  manure  from  the  stable 
to  the  depth  of  six  or  eight  inches;  then  cover  the  manure  with  soil  (woods  mould 
is  best)  five  inches  deep.  How  to  cover  the  bed  with  canvas  will  be  presently 
described. 

Tobacco  seed  is  sown  on  the  bed  thus  prepared  at  the  rate  of  two  teaspoon- 
fuls  to  a  bed  five  by  twelve  feet.  To  sow  regularly,  mix  the  seed  with  a  fertilizer, 
ashes,  or  plaster,  and  sow  in  drills  three  inches  apart.  When  the  plants  have 
pretty  well  covered  the  surface  of  the  bed,  remove  the  canvas  during  the  day,  and 
only  replace  it  when  there  is  danger  of  frost,  or  to  keep  off  the  flea-bugs.  There 
is  the  advantage  of  having  earlier  plants  by  this  mode  and  perfect  security  against 
the  flea-bug,  which  will  repay  for  the  additional  cost  of  raising  at  least  a  portion 
of  the  plants  needed  for  the  crop  by  this  safe  mode. 

But  there  is  no  question  that  open  air  beds  are  cheapest.  And  where  this 
mode  of  raising  plants  is  practicable,  it  is  greatly  to  be  preferred  for  the  main 
supply  of  plants.  It  is  the  well-established  opinion  that  plants  raised  in  the 
open  air  stand  transplanting  better  and  usually  grow  off  quicker  than  plants 
raised  in  hot  bed  or  cold  iranie. 

On  the  selection  of  a  proper  locality  for  a  plant  bed,  and  its  preparation 
largely  depends  the  timely  supply  of  strong,  healthy  plants,  without  which  it 
is  impossible  to  raise  a  crop  of  fine  grade.  The  planter,  therefore,  cannot  be  too 
careful  in  choosing  a  sheltered  spot,  neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry,  as  rich  naturally 
as  can  be  found,  and  located  so  as  to  possess  different  degrees  of  moisture. 

Go  into  the  woods — original  forest,  if  possible — and  select  a  spot  near  a 
branch  or  stream  of  water,  embracing  both  hill-side  and  fiat,  and  having  a 
southern  or  southeastern  exposure,  protected  by  woods  on  the  north.  Burn  over 
the  plat  intended  for  plants,  either  by  the  old  or  new  method.  The  first  consist^ 
in  placing  down  a  bed  of  wood  on  small  skids  three  to  four  feet  apart  on  the 
ground  well  cleared  and  raked.  Then  fire  this  bed  of  wood  and  permit  it  to 
remain  burning  long  enough  to  cook  the  soil  brown  for  half  an  inch  deep.  With 
hooks,  or  old  hoes  fastened  to  long  poles,  pull  the  burning  mass  of  brands  a 
distance  of  four  and  one-half  or  five  feet,  throw  on  brush  and  wood,  and  continue 
burning  and  moving  the  fire  until  the  bed  is  burned  over.     Never  burn  when  the 


254 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


land  is  wet.     It  will  require  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  hours  to  cook  the  soil 
properly. 

Or,  better  still:  Rake  over  nicely  the  plat  to  be  burned,  then  place  down 
poles  from  two  to  four  inches  in  diameter,  three  and  one-half  to  four  feet  apart, 
over  the  entire  surface  to  be  burned.  Then  place  hrush  thickly  over  the  plat  and 
weight  down  with  wood,  over  which  throw  leaves,  trash  or  other  combustible 
material;  over  this  sprinkle  kerosene  oil,  and  set  the  whole  on  fire  and  burn  at 
one  operation. 

But  any  mode  of  burning  the  plat  will  suffice,  provided  that  it  is  effectually 
done.  After  the  plat  has  been  burned  and  has  cooled,  rake  off  the  large  coals 
and  brands,  but  let  the  ashes  remain,  as  they  are  essentially  a  first-class  manure. 
Then  coulter  over  the  plat  deeply,  or  break  with  grub-hoes,  and  make  fine  the 
soil  by  repeated  chopping  and  raking,  observing  not  to  bring  the  subsoil  to  the 
surface,  and  remove  all  roots  and  tufts.  Manure  from  the  stable,  hog-pen  or 
poultry  house,  or  some  reliable  commercial  fertilizer,  should  be  chopped  into  and 
thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil  while  preparing  the  bed  to  be  sown.  Expe- 
rience has  demonstrated  that  it  is  better  to  use  both. 

A  good  tobacco  fertilizer  mixed  with  equal  quantity  of  poultry-house  drop- 
pings and  thoroughly  incorporated,  makes  a  most  excellent  manure  for  plants, 
and  so  does  a  compost  made  with  selected  chemicals,  stable  manure  and  rich 
moist  earth.  The  latter  when  composted  in  time  is  the  best  and  surest.  But  beware 
of  using  manure  containing  grass  seed.  The  judgment  of  the  planter  must  guide 
him  in  the  amount  of  fertilizing  material  to  be  applied  at  this  stage;  but  it  is  well 
to  remind  him  that  the  tobacco  plant  rarely  responds  to  homeopathic  doses  of 
plant  food,  but  that  the  allopathic  usage  suits  it  best. 


This  plate  illustrates  the  sowing,  treading  and  trenching  of  a  plant-bed  in  the  forest — the  favorite 
location— where  there  is  less  danger  of  injury  to  the  plants  by  the  flea-beetle,  and  where  beds  hold  out 
longer  during  drought  and  furnish  a  larger  supply  of  plants.  The  treading  is  greatly  enjoyed  by  the 
young  of  the  colored  papulation,  who  sing  and  dance,  "cut  shines,'  as  they  prance  over  the  surface  to  firm 
the  soil  and  thereby  nasten  germination  of  the  seed.  Under  the  slave  regime  it  was  the  custom  to  strike 
up  a  jig  or  corn-husking  song  as  the  work  progressed,  the  old  joining  (he  young  in  both  song  and  dance  aa 
the  excitement  increased,  thereby  winding  up  the  job  in  a  regular  jollification. 

Sow  at  the  rate  of  a  tablespoonful  of  seed,  which  is  about  half  an  ounce,  on 
every  fifty  square  yards  at  first  sowing,  and  later  resow  with  a  heaping  teaspoon- 


TOBACCO. 


255 


ful  over  the  same  surface,  to  secure  a  good  stand.  Injury  by  frosts  or  hugs  may 
require  a  third  or  fourth  sowing.  Sow  a  little  thick  rather  than  too  thin  to  meet 
contingencies,  and  secure  a  good  stand  in  time. 

The  best  way  to  sow  the  seed  is  to  mix:  them  thoroughly  with  a  fertilizer  or 
dry  ashes,  and  sow  once  regularly  over  the  bed,  reserving  seed  enough  to  cross- 
sow  to  promote  regularity.  The  tobacco  seed  is  the  smallest  of  all  farm  seeds, 
and  consequently  requires  a  light  covering.  If  the  seed  arc  sown  before  the  20th 
of  February,  the  best  way  is  to  firm  the  surface  of  the  bed  by  treading  it  over 
closely,  but  if  sown  later,  sweep  lightly  over  with  a  brush  or  light  rake.  Then 
run  surface  drains  through  the  bed,  with  inclination  enough  to  pass  off  the  water. 
To  do  this  properly,  run  them  off  four  or  five  feet  apart  with  the  foot,  then  open 
with  a  narrow  grubbing-hoe  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  inches.  Then  trench 
deeply  around  the  outside  of  the  bed,  to  ward  off  surface  water  and  prevent  wash- 
ing- 

Mulching  ami  Covering. — Hog  hair  whipped  fine  and  scattered  over  the  bed 
attracts  and  retains  moisture,  protects  the  plants  from  frost,  and  acts  as  a  manure. 
There  is  no  better  covering  for  a  plant  bed,  but  unfortunately  it  is  rarely  ever  in 
full  supply.  Fine  brush  should  be  placed  thickly  over  the  bed,  or,  if  not  handy, 
cover  with  straw  or  chaff  free  from  grain  „  A  covering  of  some  such  material  is 
necessary,  or  the  young  plants  are  likely  to  be  killed  by  frost  or  suffer  from 
drought,  and  they  thrive  better  with  some  protection. 

Canvas  Covering  for  Plant  Beds. — A  covering  of  thin  cloth  has  been  found  to 
hasten  the  growth  of  plants  and  protect  them  from  freezing  and  injury  by  the 
flea-bugs.  This  makes  the  bed  warmer,  and  acts  as  a  cold-frame,  the  canvas  tak- 
ing the  place  of  glass. 


This  cut  is  intended  to  show  how  to  construct  &  canvas  covering  over  a  plant-bed, 

First,  boards  should  be  placed  all  around  the  bed  close,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
little  black  beetle,  or  flea,  from  creeping  through,  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  high 
on  the  upper  side  and  sloping  to  ten  or  twelve  inches  on  the  lower.  Then  prepare 
a  lot  of  small  stakes  (small  round  poles,  one  and  one  half  inches  in  diameter,  make 
good  ones),  sawed  into  lengths  graduated  from  two  feet  to  eighteen  inches  long, 
and  sharpened  at  one  end.  Drive  these  stakes  six  feet  apart,  in  rows,  through 
the  bed  for  the  laths,  two  inches  wide  and  one  inch  thick,  to  rest  upon.  The 
middle  lath  should  be  a  plank  one  inch  thick  and  six  inches  wide.     Then  drive 


25f>  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


ten-penny  nails,  eighteen  inches  apart,  all  around  the  outside  of  the  boarding, 
and  from  five  to  six  inches  from  the  top  edge.  Also  drive  nails  in  the  middle 
board,  eighteen  inches  apart.  Make  the  covering  in  two  pieces,  each  the  size  of 
half  the  bed — say  ten  by  ten  yards — and  sew  on  the  outer  edge,  all  around  each 
cover,  loops  of  cloth,  made  of  common  domestic,  eighteen  inches  apart,  to  receive 
a  cord  or  twine,  which  runs  through  loops  all  around  and  tie,  and  the  cover  is 
ready  to  be  placed  over  the  bed  and  fastened  by  pulling  the  twine  or  cord  over  the 
nails  all  around,  letting  the  two  covers  meet  in  the  middle  over  the  six-inch  board. 
By  this  arrangement  the  cover  is  kept  fast  over  the  bed  at  the  right  distance  above 
the  plants,  and  may  be  removed  and  placed  over  it  at  will  in  less  time  than  by 
any  other  known  contrivance. 

A  Standing  Plant-Bed. — Every  planter  ought  to  have  a  standing  plant-bed, 
which  may  be  secured  in  the  following  way:  Some  time  in  July  or  August  select 
one  of  the  best  of  the  old  plant-beds,  and  with  hoes  shave  down  the  green  plants 
over  its  entire  surface,  and  cover  over  thickly  with  straw  or  leaves,  then  place 
green  brush  thickly  over  the  bed  and  weight  down  with  wood.  When  the  whole 
is  dry,  some  time  in  the  late  fall  or  early  winter,  set  on  fire,  and  thus  rebumover 
the  bed.  Then  chop  and  rake  fine,  sow  and  trench  as  when  first  prepared. 
Repeat  the  same  operation  every  year,  and,  if  the  bed  is  manured  properly,  it  will 
improve  and  prove  a  stand-by  for  many  years. 

Unburned  Beds. — Plants  may  be  raised  by  going  into  the  forest,  selecting  a  moist 
rich  plat,  and  after  raking  off  the  leaves',  coultering  or  chopping  the  surface  fine, 
manuring  heavily,  and  sowing  the  seed.  But  such  beds  rarely  hold  out  well  if 
the  season  be  dry.  They  never  "repeat"  well  after  the  first  "  drawing"  like  burnt 
beds,  which  are  more  reliable  for  a  successive  supply  of  plants  as  the  season 
advances. 

Time  of  Sowinj  Seed. — The  time  for  sowing  varies  with  the  latitude,  variety, 
and  season.  Between  the  parallels  of  35  and  40  degrees  north  latitude,  compass- 
ing the  great  tobacco  belt,  beds  may  be  sown  any  time  between  the  1st  of  January 
and  20th  of  March,  and  the  sooner  the  better  for  bright  grades,  which  ought  to  be 
planted  early  to  mature,  ripen  and  yellow,  preparatory  to  being  cured  early  in  the 
fall,  when  the  most  successful  curings  are  usually  made.  Yellow  tobacco  ought 
to  be  planted  out  in  May,  but  June  plantings  usually  do  best  in  heavy  dark  grades. 
The  planter  will  consult  his  interest  by  sowing  at  a  proper  time  to  suit  the  grade 
he  desires  to  raise.  Plants  set  out  after  the  10th  of  July  rarely  pay  for  growing 
and  handling,  and  if  not  planted  by  that  time,  it  will  be  wise  to  plant  the  hills  in 
peas,  potatoes,  or  something  else. 

Hastening  the  Growth  of  Plants. — As  soon  as  the  plants  become  "square  " — i.e., 
have  four  leaves — you  may  begin  to  force  their  growth,  if  necessary.  Nothing  is 
better  at  this  stage  of  their  growth  than  to  apply  dry  stable  manure,  rubbed  fine, 
and  sowed  over  the  bed,  applying  at  the  rate  of  five  bushels  to  every  one  hundred 
square  yards.  Be  sure  to  have  it  dry  and  fine,  and  apply  when  the  plants  are  dry. 
This  is  a  favorable  time  to  apply  a  good  fertilizer,  and  the  best  time  to  apply  it  is 
during  a  shower,  or  when  it  is  apparent  that  one  is  impending.  Every  planter 
should  compost  in  time  stable  manure  free  from  grass  seeds  along  Avith  prepared 
chemicals  suited  to  tobacco,  using  just  enough  moist  rich  earth  to  promote  fer- 
mentation. Nothing  is  better  than  this  compost  for  a  top  dressing  on  plants  to 
promote  rapid,  vigorous,  stocky  growth,  defying  the  ravages  of  the  flea-beetle  and 
hastening  their  preparation  for  transplanting. 


TOBACCO  257 


Look  Out  for  the  "  Flea-Bug." — If  the  "  fly,"  as  it  is  called,  begins  to  devour  the 
young  plants,  apply  plaster,  in  which  rags  saturated  with  kerosene  oil  have  lain 
for  a  few  hours,  covering  the  plants  with  the  plaster,  if  necessary,  to  keep  the 
little  pests  from  devouring  them.  Repeat  the  application  after  every  rain  unless 
the  flies  have  left. 

A  covering  of  green  cedar  brush  has  driven  off  the  fly  when  other  remedies 
failed,  and  saved  the  plants.  If  the  flies  are  numerous,  the  planter  can  save  his 
plants  only  by  vigilant  and  constant  attention.  Hard  burning,  early  and  thick 
sowing,  liberal  and  frequent  applications  of  manure,  are  the  best  safeguards, 
which  rarely  fail  to  reward  the  planter  with  an  early  and  full  supply  of  stocky 
plants,  and  with  some  left  for  his  less  provident  neighbors.  Some  planters,  if 
such  they  may  be  called,  alwaj^s  fail — some  never.  Follow  the  latter,  and  you 
will  always  be  riejht. 

Canvas-covered  beds  are  the  surest  protection,  and  seem  the  best  every  way. 

IMPORTANT. 

At  the  risk  of  repetition,  but  to  make  plain  further  instruction  on  a  branch 
of  the  subject  about  which  beginners  are  less  informed  and  most  need  advice, 
the  author  adds  what  follows: 

PRESENT    STATUS     OF    THE    VARIOUS     LEAF    TYPES     IN    THE    MARKETS FUTURE     PROS- 
PECTS,   ETC. 

The  dark  export  type  is  dull,  and  excepting  the  best  grades,  is  selling  below 
the  cost  of  production,  and  consequently  offers  no  inducement  to  planters  to  raise 
the  type,  except  a  few  in  Southside  Virginia,  and  portions  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  where  soils  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  this  and  uttsuited  for  other  types. 
Planters  in  North  Carolina  and  Piedmont  Virginia  will  do  well  to  let  this  type 
severely  alone  and  grow  only  the  manufacturing  types — and  of  these  mainly  the 
bright  yellow,  for  which  their  lands  are  peculiarly  adapted.  Portions  of  the 
Piedmont  section  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  can  successfully  produce  a  rich 
mahogany,  which  is  always  in  demand  at  remunerative  prices. 

The  mahogany  type  is  usually  grown  on  soil  somewhat  too  rich  for  the  finest 
brights,  and  the  fact  that  the  leaves  grown  upon  rich  soil  possess  more  substance 
(cellular  tissue,  oil,  and  gum,)  is  the  main  reason  why  they  cannot  be  cured  with 
higher  color.  Where  the  soil  is  well  adapted  to  this  type,  it  is  profitable,  because 
it  usually  commands  a  high  price,  and  its  product  is  from  25  to  33  percent, 
more  than  bright  yellow. 

The  sweet  sun-cured  type  is  usually  produced  on  soils  similar  in  character- 
istics to  those  which  produce  the  mahogany  type,  and  when  there  is  a  failure  to 
catch  and  fix  the  mahogany  color  by  flues,  a  nice  red  color  similar  to  sun-cured 
is  obtained  by  running  slow  fires  in  the  flues,  and  thus  making  a  nice  sweet  filler 
almost  as  good  as  tobacco  cured  entirely  by  sun  and  air.  But  the  usual  mode 
now  practiced  by  the  most  successful  producers  of  the  sun-cured  type,  is  to  place 
the  tobacco  on  scaffolds,  so  soon  as  cut,  near  the  barn,  and  permit  the  leaves  to 
cure  by  sun  and  air,  if  the  weather  permits,  and  then  remove  the  tobacco  into 
the  barn  and  apply  slow  fires  in  the  flues  to  dry  out  thoroughly  stems  and  stalks. 

A  sweet  sun  and  air  cured  filler  is  always  in  demand  at  paying  prices,  and  a 
taste  once  acquired  for  this  type  will  usually  reject  all  others  as  inferior.     In  fine. 

17 


258  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


for  plug  and  fine-cut  chewing,  nothing  surpasses  the  "old  favorite."  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  thoroughly  ripe  tobacco  mellows  in  the  sun  and  under  a  low  artifi- 
cial heat  in  curing,  develops  sugar  in  the  leaves,  which  is  fixed  before  vinous  fer- 
mentation takes  place,  and  the  vegetable  oils  are  retained  to  improve  the  aroma 
and  taste. 

VARIETIES    SUITED    TO    TYPES. 

It  is  of  prime  consideration  to  select  varieties  adapted  to  the  type  sought  to 
be  produced.  Those  which  develop  with  a  coarse  thick  fibre  and  hold  the  largest 
percentage  of  gum  and  oil  are  the  kinds  which  make  the  heaviest  and  waxiest 
shipping.  Mahoganies  require  a  large  well-shaped  leaf,  closer  and  more  elastic 
fibre,  less  gum  but  more  oil.  Brights  must  grow  rapidly  and  ripen  early,  possess 
silky  fibre  and  less  gum  and  oil  than  the  aforementioned  types.  But  variety,  soil, 
manuring  and  cultivation  all  affect  more  or  less  the  staple  through  the  cellular 
tissues  of  the  leaves,  while  the  mode  of  curing  determines  the  color  and  to  some 
extent  the  quality,  which  governs  the  price. 

THE    BRIGHT   YELLOW   TYPE. 

Choose  a  gray  gneiss  soil,  sandy  or  slaty,  dry  and  overlaying  a  porous  sub 
soil — the  very  opposite  to  a  close,  soggy  wet  soil;  for  tobacco  will  not  flourish 
with  wet  feet,  nor  will  the  plants  yellow  as  they  ripen  on  a  cold  impervious  clay 
soil.  Discard  all  lands  unadapted  to  this  important  crop,  and  what  is  of  more 
consequence  still,  experiment  on  a  small  scale  in  testing  such  as  are  most  likely 
to  produce  this  type  of  the  finest  quality.  It  is  useless  to  test  a  spouty,  black 
gravelly  soil,  which  should  always  be  avoided,  or  one  which  is  known  to  cause 
"  frenching,"  wallowing,  or  other  abnormal  worthless  growth,  or  on  which  tobacco 
is  liable  to  fire,  spot,  or  develop  frog-eye,  for  it  very  rarely  ever  pays  to  plant  such 
soils  in  any  type.  An  experienced  planter  will  rarely  err  in  selection,  but  some- 
times nothing  short  of  trial  will  definitely  determine  adaptation  of  soil  or  variety 
for  the  several  types. 

The  most  prolific  cause  of  failure  results  from  inexperience  in  not  knowing 
how  to  prepare  for  raising  tobacco,  in  constructing  suitable  barns,  and  in  the  lack 
of  skill  in  curing.  Next  to  these  come  improper  selection  of  land  and  varieties 
unsuited  to  soil  or  type  aimed  to  be  produced;  the  variety  must  be  adapted  to  soil 
and  type,  or  full  success  is  impossible. 

It  is  nevertheless  true  that  during  some  seasons  a  pretty  fair  quality  of 
tobacco  is  produced  on  soils  not  adapted  to  tobacco,  and  by  the  use  of  varieties 
unsuited  for  the  type  raised,  but  such  are  exceptional  cases,  for  never  can  extra  fine 
crops  result  from  such  mismanagement.  It  will  alwa}'S  pay  planters  to  select 
with  reference  to  the  adaptation  of  both  soil  to  type  and  the  right  variety  for  both. 
Improper  and  defective  cultivation  also  operates  against  successful  tobacco  plant- 
ing, but  the  latter  is  often  the  secondary  consideration  in  comparison  with  other 
mismanagement  alluded  to  above. 

Possibly  the  most  discouraging  of  all  the  failures  results  from  the  want  of 
skill  in  curing,  which  comes  mainly  through  practice.  It  will  pay  any  unskilled 
planter  to  have  his  fine  yellow  tobacco  cured  by  an  expert;  for  it  is  a  pity  to  spoil 
a  barn  of  tobacco  by  curing  it  up  green  or  black,  when  it  might  so  easily  have 
been  cured  of  the  desired  color  by  one  who  understands  the  effects  of  heat  in 
fixing  the  color,  and  how  to  so  regulate  the  same  as  Jo  procure  the  desired  end. 


TOBACCO.  259 


OTHER    IMPORTANT   CONSIDERATIONS. 


Some  varieties  are  far  more  easily  cured  yellow  than  others,  but  no  fixed  rule 
can  be  given  for  regulating  the  degrees  of  temperature  to  fix  the  color,  during 
the  curing  process,  in  consequence  of  the  variable  condition  of  the  material 
operated  upon,  which  variations  are  caused  by  differences  in  soil,  climate,  variety, 
weather,  and  season.  Therefore,  the  curer  must  at  last  rely  mainly  upon  his  judg- 
ment in  regulating  the  temperature  so  as  to  niak©  a  successful  cure.  During 
some  years  (such  as  1889  proved  to  be  up  to  9th  of  September)  all  tobacco  planted 
on  gray  lands  well  drained  and  in  some  one  or  other  of  the  reliable  yellow  varie- 
ties cured  yellow  readily  when  heat  was  applied.  In  fact,  it  was  almost  impossi- 
ble for  any  one,  with  even  a  modicum  of  experience  and  common  sense,  to  fail 
in  curing  the  desired  color.  But  that  portion  of  the  crop  ripening  after  the  10th 
September  required  far  more  skill  to  yellow  and  cure  successfully,  and  the  reason 
for  the  change  was  in  the  changed  condition  of  the  tobacco. 

It  would  extend  this  branch  of  the  subject  much  beyond  prescribed  limits  to 
explain  the  rationale  of  a  super-abundance  or  lack  of  sap  in  the  leaves,  more  or 
less  oil  and  gum,  and  how  these  affect  the  color  under  the  application  of  hot,  dry 
or  moist  air  during  the  critical  process  of  curing.  But  it  is  becoming  plain  to 
most  planters  with  more  or  less  experience,  that  success  in  curing  is  oftenest 
obtained  for  ripe  plants  of  the  earliest  plantings  grown  from  the  earliest  varie- 
ties. 

It  is  notorious  that  gveen  plants  will  not  yellow  properly,  nor  will  the  utmost 
skill  in  curing  fix  and  retain  the  desired  color  in  immature  tobacco.  Warm,  calm 
weather  greatly  aids  in  curing  successfully.  Therefore,  it  is  important  to  plant 
such  kinds  as  possess  fine  texture,  grow  rapidly  and  mature  early,  when  the 
weather  conditions  are  most  favorable  to  curing  the  finest  and  brightest  goods. 

GENERAL   INSTRUCTIONS   WHICH   APPLY   TO   ALL   THE   TYPES. 

The  foregoing,  in  relation  to  raising  plants  and  what  follows,  under  the  head- 
ings, Preparation  of  the  Soil,  Manuring.  Planting,  Cultivating,  Pruning  (called 
"Priming"),  Topping,  Worming,  and  Suckering,  apply  substantially  to  all  the 
types  up  to  the  stage  of  harvesting  when  different  methods  become  necessary, 
which  are  specified  under  each  type. 

SELECTION   OF   SOIL,    PREPARATION   AND   MANURING. 

The  tobacco  plant  thrives  best  in  a  deep,  mellow,  loamy  soil,  rich  or  made  so 
with  fertilizers.  The  subsoil  ought  to  be  sufficiently  porous  to  permit  the  water 
falling  on  the  surface  to  pass  downward  readily,  and  not  to  accumulate  to  drown 
and  stagnate. 

If  old  land  is  selected,  it  ought  to  be  fallowed  deep  in  the  fall  or  early  winter, 
that  the  frosts  may  pulverize  it.  Turn  under,  if  possible,  some  coarse  farm 
manure,  for  its  decay  will  greatly  help  to  loosen  the  soil,  while  furnishing  food 
for  the  crop.  ,  As  a  coarse  manure  for  yellow  tobacco,  nothing  is  better  than  wheat 
straw  turned  under  in  the  fall  and  winter.  The  plants  rarely  fail  to  ripen  yellow 
in  color  on  land  thus  treated. 


260  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


In  the  early  spring  more  manure  may  be  applied,  but  it  is  better  that  this 
should  come  from  the  compost  heap.  Follow  the  application  of  the  compost  with 
one-horse  turning  plows,  crossing  the  previous  ploughing,  turning  not  exceeding 
four  or  five  inches  deep — about  half  the  depth  of  the  first  ploughing.  Then,  just 
before  it  is  time  to  plant,  run  double-shovel  ploughs  over  the  lot,  crossing  the 
previous  furrows,  and  follow  with  harrow  or  drag,  crossing  again  to  thoroughly 
make  fine.  These  repeated  ploughings,  crossing  each  time  every  previous  one, 
never  fail,  if  the  work  is  done  when  the  land  is  in  proper  condition,  to  put  it  in 
proper  tilth. 

Let  the  planter  remember  that  "a  good  preparation  is  half  cultivation,"  and 
not  stop  until  the  land  is  in  proper  condition. 

In  preparing  land  for  tobacco,  be  sure  you  don't  plant  varieties  unsuited  to 
the  soil  or  type,  else  failure  is  inevitable.  The  cause  of  so  much  mean,  nonde- 
script goods  on  the  markets  every  year  is  mainly  attributable  to  failure  in  plant- 
ing the  proper  varieties  on  the  right  kind  of  soil,  and  planters  should  carefully 
note  this  and  sow  seed  suited  both  to  soil  and  type. 

If  any  one  knows  of  a  better  way,  then  let  him  pursue  it — the  writer  knows 
of  none  better.  And  just  here  it  may  be  well  to  state  that  perfection  is  not 
claimed  for  any  mode  or  practice  recommended  in  this  book,  but  only  the  best 
methods  known  to  the  author  are  given,  for  guidance  to  the  xminitiated.  We 
live  and  learn,  but  life  is  too  short  to  learn  every  good  thing  by  experience 
unaided.  Every  man  owes  something  to  those  who  are  to  come  after  him;  to 
freely  give  as  he  has  freely  received. 

But  the  author  is  not  writing  for  those  who  know  more  than  he  does — and 
doubtless  there  are  very  many — but  for  beginners,  and  those  having  but  little 
experience  in  tobacco  culture.  He  gives  no  advice  which  he  has  not  followed  in 
his  own  work,  and  recommends  nothing  which  experience  has  not  commended 
as  the  best  in  theory  tested  by  practice.  Those  who  possess  a  better  knowledge 
of  the  subject,  and  whose  practice  is  verified  by  results,  ought  by  all  means  to 
give  the  public  the  benefit  of  their  knowledge  and  experience.  Planters  will  gladly 
welcome  their  teaching,  and  honor  them  for  their  service. 

But,  to  return,  having  put  the  land  in  nice  "order,"  lay  off  the  rows  with  a 
shovel  plough,  three  feet  three  inches  apart,  and  follow,  drilling  along  the  furrow 
a  good  fertilizer  at  the  rate  of  some  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  four  hundred  pounds 
per  acre,  according  to  the  natural  strength  of  the  soil  and  the  quantity  of  manure 
previously  applied;  then  follow  with  one-horse  turning  plows,  lapping  four  furrows 
on  the  fertilized  trench,  and  when  finished  in  this  manner  your  lot  is  ready  to  be 
planted,  when  the  beds  have  been  "patted"  with  hoes,  with  "pats"  two  feet  ten 
inches  apart,  to  mark  points  for  setting  the  plants.  In  the  older  portions  of  the 
fine  yellow  tobacco  country  the  applications  are  becoming  heavier  from  year  to 
year,  some  planters  using  as  much  as  six  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre. 

New  ground,  or  old  field  that  has  grown  up  and  been  cut  down,  will  require 
different  preparation  from  old  smooth  land.  But  on  the  former  our  best  brights 
are  raised.  Any  preparation  that  will  put  the  soil  in  fine  condition,  clear  of  roots, 
tufts  and  trash,  is  all  that  is  required.  Experience  teaches  that  if  land  is  cut 
down  two  or  three  years  previous  to  its  being  prepared  for  tobacco,  it  greatly 
facilitates  the  preparation  and  helps  its  fertility.  Much  of  the  vegetable  material, 
both  in  and  upon  the  soil  rots,  the  roots  break  easily,  and  the  soil  is  altogether 
lighter  and  finer. 


TOBACCO.  261 


While  it  is  economy  to  dispense  with  the  hand-hoe  in  making  hills  on  old 
land — the  plow  doing  all  the  work,  as  it  ought,  when  it  can  be  well  done — yet  on 
Stumpy,  rooty,  and  rough  land  the  hoe  is  indispensable  in  the  preparation  of  a 
hill,  as  it  should  he  made  to  receive  the  plant.  But  before  the  hills  are  made,  it 
may  he  well,  unless  the  soil  is  naturally  rich — and  such  is  not  often  the  case  with 
soils  best  adapted  to  yellow  tobacco — to  apply  some  fertilizing  material  to  hasten 
forward  the  plants,  and  mature  them  properly  and  early.  Here  commercial  fer- 
tilizers have  done,  and  are  doing,  their  best  work.  Bulky,  coarse  manures  often 
do  more  harm  than  good  on  new  and  puffy  soils.  The  smaller  the  bulk,  and  the 
more  concentrated  the  fertilizing  elements,  the  more  readily  they  are  appropriated 
and  assimilated  by  the  plants,  if  of  tho  right  material,  and  in  the  most  available 
form.  Nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  lime,  and  soda  are  most  necessary  for 
the  tobacco  plant;  and  a  fertilizer  which  supplies  the  relative  quantity  of  each, 
and  from  the  proper  sources,  will  never  fail  to  show  good  effects  therefrom  if  the 
rainfall  is  sufficient  to  quicken  their  action. 

Most  of  the  soils  best  adapted  to  the  finest  types  of  tobacco,  especially  bright 
and  sweet  fillers,  are  thin  and  poor,  and  need  plant  food  to  push  the  plants  for- 
ward, and  rapidly,  in  growth  and  maturity,  so  that  the  product  may  be  ripened 
and  mellowed  of  yellow  color,  preparatory  to  being  housed  and  cured. 

FERTILIZERS    FOR    TOBACCO. 

"While  chemical  analysis  defines  the  composition  of  plants,  it  does  not  define 
proper  feeding,  either  in  the  proportions  or  forms  best  suited  to  the  crop." 
Tobacco  is  grown  for  its  leaf  crop;  not  the  largest  product,  however,  that  can  be 
grown  on  the  soil,  but  such  as  possess  fine  elastic  texture,  color,  and  other  desirable 
qualities,  according  to  type. 

In  a  crop  like  tobacco,  where  the  commercial  value  is  largely  influenced  by 
artificial  conditions  of  development,  the  plant  food  ought  to  be  abundant,  solvent, 
and  furnished  in  form  and  proportion,  which  practice  has  demonstrated  as  pro- 
motive of  the  best  results.  "It  is  a  problem  of  practice,  enlightened  by  science, 
and  not  to  be  figured  out  by  science."  And,  moreover,  one  which  each  planter, 
to  some  extent,  must  determine  for  his  soil  and  the  type  for  which  it  is  best 
adapted.  There  is  no  tobacco  fertilizer  made  suited  to  all  the  types  and  varied 
soils.  The  "  universal  cure-all  pill "  is  as  inapplicable  to  the  varied  forms  of 
disease  as  the  universal  tobacco  manure  for  all  the  types  and  soils. 

CHLORIDES    OBJECTIONABLE. 

Tobacco  grown  for  its  leaf  product  indicates  that  potash  is  applicable  as  a 
manure,  but  certain  forms  or  combinations  of  potash  are  not  suited  therefor,  since 
it  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  that  chloride  of  potassium  ("  muriate  of  potash  ") 
is  really  objectionable.-  For  Stoner  says:  "The  objection  to  chloride  of  potassium 
as  a  manure  for  tobacco  depends  upon  the  fact  that  leaves  of  this  plant  which 
have  been  grown  upon  land  rich  in  chlorides  will  not  burn  readily  when  dry, 
apparently  because  the  chlorides  tend  to  prevent  a  certain  swelling  or  puffing  up 
of  the  ashes  in  the  half-burned  tobacco,  which  is  favorable  to  bringing  the  parti- 
cles of  carbon  into  intimate  contact  Avith  the  air.  Numerous  experiments  in 
proof  of  this  peculiarity  of  the  chlorides  have  been  recorded." 


262  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Experiments  by  Nessler  and  Schloesing  were  conclusive  as  regards  the 
capacity  of  cigars  once  well  lighted  to  hold  fire,  being  in  inverse  ratio  to  the 
chlorides  employed  in  growing  the  tobacco  of  which  the  cigars  were  made.  The 
variations  running  from  "absolute  incombustibility"  of  tobacco  grown  with  chloride 
of  calcium,  to  one  which  held  fire  for  three  minutes  grown  with  sulphate  of  potash. 
Boussingault  obtained  practically  similar  results. 

The  above  objection  applies  mainly  to  cigar  tobacco,  but  chlorides  also  act 
injuriously  on  the  texture  and  flavor  of  the  leaf  manufacturing  types,  and  there- 
fore planters  should  scrupulously  avoid  using  fertilizers  containing  chlorides  in 
any  form;  for  it  stands  to  reason,  aside  from  experience,  that  a  manure  which 
"hinders  beet  sugar  from  crystalizing  and  tends  to  make  potatoes  waxy  rather 
than  mealy,"  as  chlorine  does,  can  scarcely  be  expected  to  improve  the  texture 
and  flavor  of  the  tobacco  leaf. 

But  the  sulphate  and  nitrate  of  potash  can  be  used  most  advantageously  in 
manuring  for  any  type  of  tobacco,  and  particularly  on  soils  deficient  in  potash. 
A  superabundance  of  potash  tends  to  keep  the  tobacco  plants  green  even  while 
ripening,  and  for  the  yellow  type  thus  interferes  with  curing  the  desired  color. 

It  would  serve  a  good  purpose  to  require  analyses  made  of  all  tobacco  fertil- 
izers to  state  the  percentage  of  chlorine  along  with  the  other  materials  contained 
therein  for  the  guidance  of  planters.  Analyses  may  indicate,  but  do  not  deter- 
mine, the  real  value  of  a  fertilizer.  The  estimated  commercial  value  of  any  fer- 
tilizer is  based  on  the  available  percentages  of  phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen  and 
potash  contained  therein;  but  analysis  does  not  determine  its  true  value,  because 
it  fails  to  specify  the  forms  and  quality  of  these  constituents. 

The  experiment  stations  in  the  several  States  are  engaged  in  a  most  com- 
mendable work  in  testing  fertilizers  on  various  crops  to  find  out  in  what  forms,1 
proportions,  and  combinations  fertilizing  materials  produce  the  best  results. 

"The  continued  use  of  any  one  manipulated  fertilizer  is  injurious  and  disap- 
pointing." 

It  has  been  plainly  demonstrated  that  the  same  fertilizer  used  year  after  year 
under  the  same  crop,  as  is  done  in  some  portions  of  the  tobacco  bolt,  ultimately 
fails  to  give  satisfactory  returns.  The  product  not  only  grows  less  in  yield,  but 
inferior  in  quality,  while  the  land  seemingly  gets  poorer  every  year.  This  is 
because  of  the  failure  to  furnish  elements  needed  by  both  crop  and  soil,  and  of 
which  they  have  been  deprived,  while  others  have  been  accumulating  to  the  extent 
of  such  over-supply  as  to  injuriously  affect  the  crop.  The  soil  therein"  "thrown 
out  of  balance"  may  need  possibly  only  one  or  two  elements  furnished  to  produce 
large  crops  of  fine  quality.  A  change  of  brands  sometimes  works  wonders  in  one 
season,  while  a  continued  use  of  the  same  afterward  leads  to  disappointment  as 
before.  Of  the  causes  injuriously  affecting  the  yield  and  quality  of  the  tobacco 
crops  during  the  past  decade,  aside  from  the  injudicious  selection  of  soil  and  vari- 
eties, none  have  been  more  potent  than  the  wrong  selection  and  inappropriate 
application  of  so-called  tobacco  fertilizers. 

Extensive  areas  of  poor  gray  silicious  soils  in  the  yellow  belt  are  rendered 
capable  of  producing  good  crops  of  fine  yellow  tobacco,  by  the  aid  of  commer- 
cial fertilizers  alone,  when  of  composition  suited  thereto. 

Mode  of  Applying  Fertilizers. — Planters  differ  in  the  manner  of  applying 
fertilizers,  whether  in  the  hill,  drill  or  broadcast.     That  the  same  quantity  will  go 


TOBACCO. 


263 


further  and  produce  larger  results  the  first  year,  for  the  quantity  used  when 
applied  in  the  hill  or  drill,  is  generally  conceded.  But  advocates  of  broadcasting 
claim  that  when  the  crop,  to  which  the  fertilizer  is  applied,  is  to  be  followed  by 
another  in  quick  succession — to  be  sown  in  wheat  as  soon  as  the  tobacco  is 
removed — then  broadcasting  is  the  best,  for  reasons  which  seem  too  apparent  to 
need  explanation. 

Having  prepared  the  land  for  hilling,  apply  the  fertilizer  by  whichever  mode 
the  planter  prefers,  and  in  such  quantity  as  the  natural  strength  of  the  soil  indi- 
cates, laying  off  the  rows  three  feet  three  inches  apart,  and  make  the  hills  about 
two  feet  ten  inches  distant  from  centre  to  centre.  Mark  the  measure  on  the  hoe- 
handle  and  require  the  hillers  to  apply  it  frequently  as  a  guide.  The  rows  should 
be  wider  apart  than  the  hills,  to  afford  proper  cultivation  without  breaking  and 
bruising  the  plants  at  the  final  plowing — a  matter  of  no  small  importance,  as 
the  least  blemish  on  a  fine  leaf  nearly  destroys  its  value  as  a  wrapper. 


This  plate  illustrates  the  work  of  hilling.  It  is  becoming  common  to  plant  on  the  drills  instead  of 
in  hills,  where  thorough  preparation  has  been  made  on  clean  soil.  But  it  is  well  to  chop  line  that  portion 
of  the  drill  where  the  plant  is  intended  to  be  set,  and  then  pat  it  firm  with  the  hoe  to  facilitate  planting 
and  cause  the  plants  to  loot  better. 

Planting. — Having  prepared  the  hills,  you  are  read}7  to  plant  any  time  after 
the  1st  of  May.  Planting  is  often  most  effectually  done  when  the  hills  are  being- 
made  in  May,  and  the  land  is  moist  with  the  winter's  sap,  by  planting  in  the 
afternoon  the  hills  made  the  same  day.  If  properly  planted,  very  few  of  the 
plants  will  fail  to  live.  Observe  to  draw  the  plants  one  by  one  from  the  bed,  and 
handle  so  as  not  to  bruise  them.  It  is  a  waste  of  time  and  plants  to  set  out  very 
small  plants,  but  wait  until  they  are  proper  size — the  largest  leaves  about  two  and 
one-half  to  three  inches  wide.  Put  a  basket  of  plants  in  the  hands  of  a  boy  or 
girl,  who  drops  a  plant  on  each  hill,  dropping  in  one  or  two  rows,  according  to 
age  or  expertness.  The  men  follow,  with  each  a  planting  peg  made  of  hard  wood, 
six  inches  long,  one  and  a  quarter  inch  in  diameter  at  large  end,  and  tapering  to 
a  point.  Each  planter  takes  a  "hand  plant"  to  start  with  (unless  the  dropper 
has  learned  to  drop  two  plants  on  the  first  hill),  and  pushing  his  planting  peg 
some  two  inches  into  the  hill,  withdraws  the  peg,  inserts  the  plant,  and  by  a 
dexterous  movement  of  the  peg  and  the  knuckles  of  the  left  hand,  closes  the  dirt 


264 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


gently  but  compactly  around  the  roots.  He  then  picks  up  the  piant  on  the  hill 
as  he  moves  forward,  and  by  the  time  he  reaches  the  next  hill  has  adjusted  the 
plant  in  his  hand  to  insert  into  the  hole  in  the  next  hill.  Thus  the  "hand  plant" 
facilitates  the  work.  Try  it  and  you  will  be  convinced.  There  is  art  in  planting 
properly,  as  is  shown  in  the  increased  number  of  living  monuments  that  attest 
superior  work.  But  why  enter  into  such  minute  details?  say  some.  That  you 
may  start  right,  shun  the  errors  of  inexperience,  and  practice  at  the  start  the  best 
methods,  as  demonstrated  by  successful  practice. 

If  the  soil  is  dry  when  the  hills  are  made,  then  it  will  recpiire  a  "season"  for 
planting.  The  best  come  with  showers.  It  is  not  well  to  plant  soon  after  a 
soaking  rain,  but  wait  until  the  land  settles.  If  the  plants  are  good,  seasons 
favorable,  and  the  planting  well  done,,  very  few  will  die  if  transplanted  before  the 
10th  of  July.  After  that  time  all  is  uncertainty.  Hence  the  importance  of  getting 
a  stand  before  that  time. 

After  planting  is  over,  it  will  he  necessary  to  replant  from  time  to  time  as 
seasons  occur,  embracing  every  opportunity  to  fill  up  the  missing  hills.  If  cut- 
worms are  troublesome,  hunt  for  and  destroy  every  one  as  far  as  possible;  for  it 
is  useless  to  put  a  plant  in  a  hill  where  one  of  these  pests  has  taken  up  quarters, 
and  expect  it  to  live  and  grow. 


One  woman  dropping  the  plants  from  a  basket  on  the  hills  for  two  men  to  follow  planting  them. 

Cultivating. — It  is  important  to  commence  cultivation  soon  after  planting,  to 
loosen  the  soil  and  start  the  plants  growing.  Just  at  this  point  many  planters 
fail  to  do  their  duty,  which  no  subsequent  work  can  atone  for.  Early,  rapid,  and 
thorough  cultivation  is  necessary  to  produce  first-class  tobacco.  If  the  prepara- 
tion has  been  thorough,  thrice  plowing,  followed  each  time  with  a  hand-hoe,  will 
suffice  for  the  crop. 

For  the  first  plowing,  no  implement  is  better  than  the  wing  coulter,  the  next 
best  the  cultivator  or  double-shovel  with  the  coulter  points.  The  second  plowing 
maybe  effectually  done  with  the  turning  plow  or  cultivator;  if  grassy  use  the 
first.  The  last  plowing  is  most  effectually  done  with  three  furrows  with  the  single 
shovel — a  furrow  on  each  side,  then  splitting  the  middle  with  the  third  ancl  last 
fur  row. 


TOBACCO. 


'265 


Never  "scrape  down  "  tobacco  with  the  hoe  without  putting  back  on  tbe  hill 
or  bed  as  much  dirt  as  is  scraped  down.  Tins  will  prevent  baking,  and  save 
many  plants  should  a  dry  spell  follow  the  hand-hoe  working. 

Any  process  which  stirs  tbe  soil  effectually  and  often, 
and  keeps  tbe  plants  free   from  grass  and  weeds,  will  con- 
stitute good  cultivation,  no  matter  how    and    with   what 
implement  done.     Old  land  will  require  more  work  in  cul- 
tivation than    new,  and    dark  grades  more  than 
bright.     Short  singletrees  should  be  used  after  the 
plants    are  half   grown,   to   prevent   tearing  and 
breaking  tbe  leaves. 

Tbe  yellow  grades  should  be  cleared  of  grass I 
and  weeds  before  tbe  first  of  August, 
.and  not  plowed  thereafter;  but  tbe  hoes 
may  be  used  at  any  time  to  clear  out 
tbe  crop  till  tbe  leaves  commence 
graining.  The  longer  tobacco  is  plowed 
tbe  later  tbe  plants  will  be  in 
ripening;  therefore,  the  impor- 
tance of  giving  early  and 
thorough  cultivation. 
Any  one  who  can  raise, 
good  cabbages  ought  to 
know  how  to  cultivate 
tobacco,  as  tbe  cul- 
tivation is  very  similar 
Sometimes  it  becomes 
necessary  to  push  the  plants  forward,  where  previous  manuring  has  proved  inad- 
equate, to  hasten  ripening,  so  as  to  escape  frost  and  to  cure  well.  I  would  advise 
the  use  of  some  good  standard  fertilizer,  applied  around  the  plants,  in  quantity 
about  150  pounds  per  acre,  and  earth  scraped  upon  the  fertilizer  around  the  tops 
of  the  hills  as  applied. 

PRUNING   AND    TOPPING. 


Bennla    Tobacco  Transplanter 


Under  this  head  there  is  wide  difference  of  opinion.  Breaking  off  the  small 
&nd  inferior  leaves  of  the  plant  near  the  ground  is  called  "priming,"  or  pruning 
proper,  which  operation  is  done  along  with  the  "topping,"  if  done  at  all.  There 
.are  advantages  for  and  against  priming,  but  all  resort  to  topping — plucking  out 
the  seed  bud  and  adjacent  small  leaves  with  the  thumb  and  finger.  Some  contend 
that  pulling  off  the  lower  leaves  saps  the  plants  and  retards  the  growth  if  the 
weather  is  dry.  That  permitting  the  lower  leaves  to  remain  on  the  stalk  protects 
the  upper  ones  from  sand  and  grit,  makes  them  cleaner,  and  therefore  more  sal- 
able. Sand  and  grit  are  the  terror  of  the  tobacco  buyer.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  contended  by  some  that  by  pulling  off  the  lower  leaves,  which  are  generally 
useless,  the  remaining  leaves  receive  more  nutriment  and  contain  more  wax,  oil, 
and  gum,  and  that  the  lower  leaves  harbor  worms  and  make  the  worming  proccoi: 
more  tedious. 


266 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


,  It  is  best  to  wait  until  a  considerable  number  of  plants  begin  to  button  for 
seed  before  commencing  to  top.  Topping  should  be  the  work  of  experienced 
and  trusty  hands — men  Avho  can  top,  leaving  any  required  number  of  leaves  on 
a  plant  without  counting.  The  secret  of  this — no  longer  a  secret  to  the  initi- 
ated— is,  that  the  topper  soon  learns  to  know  that  counting  the  bottom  leaf  and 
the  leaf  that  hangs  over  it  in  the  third  tier  going  upward,  make  nine  leaves, 
including  both  top  and  bottom  leaves.  Fixing  this  in  his  mind,  the  topper  has 
only  to  add  to  or  deduct  from  this  index  leaf  marking  nine,  to  leave  any  desired 
number  of  leaves  on  each  plant  with  certainty  and  without  counting.  Young- 
man,  if  3'ou  don't  know  how,  get  some  old  negro  to  show  you.  Topping,  you  Avill 
find,  is  a  slow  business  if  you  have  to  count  the  leaves  on  all  the  plants  topped. 
If  the  plants  are  not  "primed,"  then  the  "bottom  leaf"  must  be  fixed  by  the  eye, 
looking  upward  for  the  leaf  in  the  third  tier,  which  hangs  over  it,  to  catch  the 
cue  as  before.  If  priming  is  done,  don't  err  in  pulling  off  too  many  leaves.  No 
regular  rule  can  be  given,  so  the  planter  must  judge  for  himself.  The  reason 
given  for  waiting  until  many  plants  are  ready  to  be  topped  is  mainly  that  more 
plants  may  ripen  together,  and  be  ready  for  the  knife  at  the  same  time.  This  is 
an  advantage  that  applies  with  strong  force  to  all  tobacco  intended  for  flue  curing. 
The  number  of  leaves  to  be  left  on  each  plant  varies  according  to  the  time 
the  work  is  done,  early  or  late,  the  appearance  and  prospective  development  of 
the  plant,  the  season,  whether  propitious  or  unfavorable,  strength  of  the  soil,  and 
amount  of  fertilizing  material  applied.  On  medium  soils,  in  ordinary  seasons, 
the  first  topping  should  be  from  ten  to  thirteen  leaves — rarely  more — for  brights. 
For  sweet  fillers  from  nine  to  ten,  and  for  dark,  rich  shipping,  from  eight  to  nine 
leaves  are  enough.  As  the  season  advances  reduce  the  number  of  leaves  accord- 
ingly, remembering  that  quality,  more  than  quantity,  regulates  returns. 


Thia  illustrates  a  field  of  tobacco  undergoing  the  laying-by  process,  the  final  work  of  "scraping  up,"" 
and  topping,  as  this  latter  work  was  formerly  done  when  both  operations  weie  performed  together  and  by 
the  same  "  hands,"  i.  e.,  laborers.  Now  the  "hoe-hands''  only  perform  the  hoe  work,  and  topping  is  done 
by  the  most  expert  on  the  farm  in  executing  this  important  work.  The  toppers  now  never  carry  a  hoe  in 
(heir  hands,  but  go  right  along  the  rows,  carrying  two  at  a  time,  pinching  out  the  buds  in  the  process  or 
topping  with  both  hands. 

Many  devices  have  been  resorted  to  in  order  to  lessen  the  number  and  miti- 
gate the  ravages  of  the  horn-worm,  but  the  lack  of  general  and  continued  efforts- 


TOBACCO.  267 


from  year  to  year  has  brought  only  partial  relief.  Some  years  they  come  in  great 
numbers,  and,  despite  the  best  efforts  of  the  planter,  seriously  damage  his  crop. 
Perhaps  the  next  year  they  are  few,  and  give  him  no  trouble.  Tfc  is  the  nature  of 
this  insect  to  raise  at  least  two  broods  during  the  year.  The  hawk-moth  or 
tobacco-fly  usually  makes  bis  appearance  in  Virginia  in  the  month  of  May.  The 
eggs  deposited  by  the  first  moths  hatch  out  in  from  Jive  to  seven  days  larva:  or 
worms.  The  worm  sheds  its  outer  skin  twice  before  it  gets  its  growth.  The  grow- 
ing stage  of  the  worm  lasts  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  days,  and  after  it  has 
attained  its  growth  it  gorges  itself  a  few  days  longer,  and  then  crawls  or  burrows 
into  the  ground,  where  it  soon  passes  into  the  pupa  state;  and  after  some  twenty- 
three  or  twenty-five  days  from  the  time  of  its  crawling  into  the  ground  the  pupa 
sends  forth  a  moth  to  lay  more  eggs  and  hatch  out  more  worms.  Each  moth  is 
capable  of  laying  on  an  average  two  hundred  eggs.  So  that  for  every  moth  in 
May  we  may  reasonably  expect  at  least  one  hundred  worms  of  the  first  brood;  and 
if  none  of  these  are  destroyed,  but  all  allowed  to  change  to  moths,  and  these  latter  to 
raise  a  horde  of  worms,  what  wonder  that  the  second  brood  sometimes  appears  in 
;uch  countless  numbers  as  to  defy  all  efforts  to  destroy  them  befoi-e  they  have 
ruined  the  crop.  Every  moth  ought  to  be  destroyed  as  they  appear,  and  this  may 
be  done  to  great  extent  by  injecting  a  few  drops  of  sweetened  Cobalt  (which  is  a 
poison)  into  the  flowers  of  the  Petunia,  Honeysuckle,  or  Jamestown  (Jimpson) 
weed,  which  will  give  them  their  final  quietus.  But  this  hunt  for  the  moth  is  not 
general,  and  if  it  were  some  would  escape.  But  if  every  planter  would  wage  a 
war  of  extermination  on  the  first  brood  of  worms — unfortunately  a  thing  rarely 
done — they  would  never  appear  in  such  unconquerable  hordes  later  in  the  season. 
The  suckers  should  be  pulled  off  every  week  as  they  appear,  and  ought  never  to 
be  permitted  to  get  over  two  inches  long;  for,  if  permitted  to  grow  large  they 
abstract  much  that  would  otherwise  go  to  perfect  a  rich,  silky  leaf.  No  planter 
need  expect  a  crop  of  fine  grade  Avho  does  not  pull  off  the  suckers  while  small, 
and  prevent  the  horn-worms  from  riddling  the  leaves. 


RIPENING. 

The  leaf  type,  as  contra-distinguished  from  cigar  tobacco,  is  known  to  be 
ripe  when  its  color  changes  from  green  to  a  greenish  yellow,  thickens,  so  that 
when  the  leaf  is  folded  over — the  under  surface  being  outward — and  pressed 
between  the  thumb  and  finger  it  cracks  open.  The  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  is 
roughened,  for  reasons  stated  under  Science  of  Curing  Yellow  Tobacco,  and  gene- 
rally of  a  mottled  yellow  and  green  color.  Ripening  of  this  type  usually  takes 
place  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  in  about  five  to  six  weeks  after  the  plants 
have  been  topped,  sometimes  longer  when  growth  has  been  retarded  by  drought. 
The  cigar  type  ripens  about  two  weeks  sooner  after  topping. 

[Note. — Mr.  S.  P.  Carr,  of  the  tobacco  commission  firm  of  Carr  &  Dickin- 
sons, Richmond,  Virginia,  and  by  the  way  one  of  the  best-posted  tobacco  men 
engaged  in  the  tobacco  industry,  writing  to  the  "Western  Tobacco  Journal,"  gives 
the  following  advice  and  information  in  regard  to  the  best  stage  in  which  to  har- 
vest tobacco :] 

Just  as  granulation  reaches  its  maximum,  if  the  weather  continues  open  and 
cool,  as  is  most  likely  at  cutting  time,  the  stalk  ceases  to  pump  nourishing  plant 


268 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


food  from  the  soil  into  the  leaf,  since  the  leaf  is  full  beyond  its  capacity  to  take  more. 
Slow  decadence  of  the  stalk's  vitality  now  sets  in,  and,  following  the  economic  law 
of  nature,  it  begins  at  once  to  return  to  the  soil,  by  capillary  absorption,  the 
surplus  elements  not  needed  to  mature  seed  for  the  perpetuation  of  its  kind.  If 
there  are  no  seeds  to  fill,  as  in  topped  tobacco,  it  sends  up  the  requisite  nourish- 
ment through  its  instincts  for  that  purpose,  and  then  begins  to  slowly  absorb  the 
filling  of  the  leaf,  and  belting  the  main  stem  and  laterals  as  described  above. 

The  same  rule  applies  to  the  cutting  of  tobacco  that  applies  to  the  cutting  of 
clover,  hay  and  timothy,  or  any  other  kind  of  provender.  If  tbe  grasses  are  cut 
over-ripe,  or  after  reabsorption  has  returned  the  oils  and  albuminoids  to  mother 
earth,  they  cure  up  woody  and  lifeless,  and  are  rejected  by  stock  of  all  kinds.  If 
cut  while  in  the  flower,  when  all  the  plant  cells  are  surcharged  with  saccharine  and 
other  constituents  belonging  to  their  nature,  they  are  fixed  by  curing,  and  are 
soft,  waxy,  flavory,  and  sweet,  making  foods  of  th<j  highest  standard  of  their 
kind.  Wheat,  oats,  corn,  and  other  grains  suffer  deterioration  from  over-ripeness 
or  remaining  too  long  unharvested,  as  every  farmer  knows. 


CUT-WORMS  AND  BUD-WORMS. 

The  cut-worms  are  troublesome  only  during  the  early  stages  of  plant-growth, 
wnen  they  crawl  from  the  ground  during  the  night  and  cut  off  or  devour  the 
small  plants.  Clover  lands  and  such  as  have  borne  a  heavy  crop  of  weeds  the 
year  previous  are  the  favorite  haunts  of  the  cut-worm.  On  such,  it  is  sometimes 
almost  impossible  to  get  a  stand  owing  to  the  extensive  depredations  from  this 
nocturnal  insect.  No  remedy  has  been  found,  except  to  hunt  diligently  for  every 
marauder  and  kill  him  on  the  spot. 

The  bud-worm,  so  called  from  its  habit  of  selecting  the  buds  of  the  plants  to 
feast  upon,  while  scarcely  so  numerous  as  the  species  heretofore  described,  inflicts 
for  their  numbers  more  damage  than  the  horn-worm,  because  they  eat  the  small 
tender  leaves  full  of  holes  and  utterly  ruin  them — a  small  worm  destroying  often 
more  than  half  the  leaves  on  the  plant.  Like  the  cut-worm,  the  bud-worm  must 
be  searched  for  and  killed — being  easier  found,  as  his  lurking  jdace  is  always  in 
the  bud. 


A  field  whore  worming  and  suckering  are  going  on  ;  turkeys  are  seen  assisting  in  the  former  process, 
for  they  are  expert  worm-catchers. 


TOBACCO  269 


CUTTING    AND   HOUSING. 


Do  not  be  in  a  hurry  to  begin  cutting  your  tobacco  until  it  is  ripe,  and  enough 
fully  and  uniformly  ripe  to  fill  a  barn.  A  thin  butcher  or  shoe-knife,  well- 
sharpened,  and  wrapped  with  a  soft  cloth  around  the  handle  and  extending  an 
inch  along  the  blade,  will  do  the  work  effectually  and  be  easy  to  the  hand.  Try  it. 
Put  knives  into  the  hands  of  experienced  cutters  only,  men  who  know  ripe 
tobacco,  and  will  select  plants  uniform  in  color  and  texture,  and  will  cut  no  other. 
Have  your  sticks  already  in  the  field,  and  placed  in  piles  convenient — sticking  a 
stick  vertically  in  the  ground  over  each  pile  that  they  may  be  more  easily  found 
when  wanted.  Pino  sticks,  rived  three-fourths  of  an  inch  by  one  and  one-fourth 
inches,  and  four  and  one-half  feet  long,  drawn  smooth,  are  best. 


Cutting  and  sticking,  as  once  the  almost  invariable  practice  in  the  Southern  Tobacco  States,  but  now 
only  to  be  seen  where  the  dark  export  type  is  raised.  The  bright  yellow  and  sweet  filler  types  are  now 
usually  hung  as  above  described  and  not  permitted  to  touch  the  ground. 

Start  together  two  cutters  and  one  stick-holder — the  cutters  carrying  two 
rows,  and  the  stick-holder  walking  between  them.  The  cutter  takes  hold  of  the 
plant  with  his  left  hand  at  the  top  near  where  the  knife  enters  the  stalk;  with  his 
right  he  splits  the  stalk  down  the  centre  (observing  to  guide  the  knife  so  as  not 
to  sever  the  leaves)  to  within  three  inches  of  the  point  he  intends  to  sever  the 
stalk  from  the  hill;  and  as  the  knife  descends  his  left  hand  follows  the  slit  or 
opening,  and  when  the  plant  is  severed  from  the  hill,  by  a  dexterous  movement 
of  the  left  hand  the  plant  is  straddled  across  tho  stick  in  the  hands  of  the  holder. 
When  the  stick  has  received  about  six  medium  plants,  if  intended  for  brights,  it 
is  ready  to  go  to  the  barn,  either  carried  by  hand  if  near,  or  hauled  on  a  wagon 
if  distant.  If  it  is  nccessaiy  to  use  the  wagon,  prepare  a  bed  sixteen  feet  long 
to  hold  three  coops  on  piles,  on  which  place  tobacco  as  cut,  and  after  placing 
twenty-five  or  thirty  sticks  of  cut  tobacco  on  each  coop,  drive  to  the  barn  to  be 
unloaded. 

Tobacco  suitable  for  brights  is  best  handled  in  this  way  as  it  is  bruised  less 
than  if  handled  by  any  other  mode.  Try  it,  planters,  and  know  for  yourselves. 
Very  heavy  tobacco  will  break  less  if,  after  being  cut  by  the  above  mode,  the 


270  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


sticks  are  placed  gently  on  the  ground  and  the  plants  allowed  to  wilt  before  being 
removed  to  the  barn.  But  tobacco  of  medium  size  bruises  less  to  handle  it 
without  wilting.  Cutting  and  housing  by  this  mode  you  never  have  any  sun- 
burned tobacco.  For  brights,  it  has  been  found  best  to  commence  curing  at  once, 
as  soon  as  the  barn  can  be  filled 

SUN-CURED    TOBACCO. 

Just  here  it  may  be  well  to  give  our  practice  in  sun-curing.  If  the  crop  is 
too  rich  and  coarse  for  brights,  then  it  may  be  good  policy  to  cure  it  sweet.  To 
do  this  properly,  erect  scaffolds  at  or  near  the  barns,  on  which  place  the  tobacco 
as  soon  as  cut.  But  some,  in  order  to  obviate  the  hauling  of  heavy  green  tobacco, 
place  the  scaffolds  in  or  near  the  tobacco  field.  But  it  is  never  safe  to  scaffold 
tobacco  away  from  the  barn;  for  after  the  leaf  is  partially  dry  it  ought  never  to 
be  caught  out  in  the  rain;  which  may  happen  if  tobacco  is  placed  on  scaffolds 
away  from  the  barn.  When  rain  threatens,  that  on  scaffolds  near  the  barn  may 
very  soon  be  placed  out  of  danger,  but  not  so  that  on  scaffolds  afar  off 

CURING    SWEET    FILLERS    WITH    FLUES. 

To  cure  fillers  with  flues,  when  the  tobacco  is  placed  in  the  barn  as  soon  as 
cut,  raise  the  heat  in  the  barn  to  eighty-five  or  ninety  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and 
then  go  about  other  business.  Kindle  fires  in  the  flues  every  morning,  raising 
the  heat  to  ninety  degrees,  and  then  leave  as  before,  and  continue  to  do  this  for 
four  or  five  days  until  the  tobacco  is  thoroughly  yellowed.  If  the  tobacco  has 
much  sap,  it  may  be  necessary  to  continue  the  yellowing  process  from  five  to 
seven  days  to  yellow  properly.  After  this  very  little  flue  heat  will  be  necessary 
to  dry  out  the  tobacco.  If  rains  occur  before  the  tobacco  is  thoroughly  cured, 
raise  fires  in  the  flues  and  dry  the  leaf,  as  often  as  may  be  necessary. 

TO    CURE    MAHOGANY    COLOR. 

After  the  tobacco  has  yellowed  sufficiently  on  scaffolds  or  under  flues,  and 
when  the  leaves  have  assumed  a  mottled,  piebald  appearance,  run  the  heat  to  one 
hundred  degrees  and  let  it  remain  at  that  point  for  three  or  four  hours.  Then 
raise  the  heat  two  and  a  half  degrees  an  hour  until  one  hundred  and  thirty 
is  reached.  Keep  the  heat  at  this  point  until  the  leaf  is  cured,  and  then  move 
up  gradually  to  one  hundred  and  sixty  or  one  hundred  and  seventy,  and  thus  cure 
stalk  and  stem.  If  cured  properly  there  will  be  much  of  the  leaf  mahogany, 
while  the  remainder  will  run  from  a  bright  dapple  to  a  cherry  red. 


SHIPPING   TOBACCO. 

Dark  heavy  shipping — and  nothing  which  does  not  possess  size  and  sub- 
stance is  fit  for  this  grade — may  be  cured  with  flues  better  than  in  any  other  way. 
Smoke  from  the  open  wood  fire  is  objectionable,  and  with  the  flue  you  get  the 
heat,  which  is  all  that  is  wanted,  without  the  smoke.  Curing  With  open  wood 
fires  belongs  to  the  past,  and  none  but  the  old  Bourbons  will  continue  the  old  prac- 
tice, because  they  know  no  better.  Taste  and  fashion  are  against  smoke,  and 
nothing  else  is  needed  to  banish  the  old  and  recommend  the  new  mode.     If  a 


TOBACCO. 


271 


dark  color  is  desired,  which  is  not  so'fnshionable  as  formerly,  it  can  be  secured 
as  easily  over  Hues  as  over  wood  fires.  But  the  world  wants  colory  tobacco,  and 
this  can  be  produced  certainly  better  with  the  flue  than  in  any  other  way.  Besides 
by  the  flue  the  leaf  is  cured  sweet  and  free  from  smoke  or  soot. 

A  skillful  curer  can  produce  the  colors  most  in  demand,  and  by  the  flue  bet- 
ter and  with  more  certainty  than  in  any  other  way.  The  main  object  of  the 
author  is  to  induce  planters,  who  have  never  used  flues,  to  try  them  for  all 
grades. 


Housing  the  dark  shipping  type  to  be  cured  by  open  wood  fires ;  the  practice  of  generations  until  the 
development  of  other  types  and  newer  and  better  methods. 

CURING    BRIGHT   YELLOW   TOBACCO. 


There  are  two  modes  for  curing  yellow  tobacco — one  with  charcoal  and  the 
other  with  flues.  The  first  is  the  primitive  mode,  but  is  fast  giving  place  to  the 
latter,  which  is  cheaper  and  more  efficient,  and  is  being  adopted  by  most  of  our 
best  planters.  The  chief  agent  in  either  mode  is  heat — a  dry,  curing  heat — to 
expel  the  sap  from  the  leaves,  stems,  and  stalks  of  the  plants,  and  catch  the  color, 
yellow,  next  to  nature's  color,  green,  and  to  fix  it  indelibly.  This  is  the  science 
of  curing  yellow  tobacco.  There  are  seven  prismatic  colors — that  of  green  tobacco 
occupying  the  middle  of  the  prism.  By  the  process  of  nature,  leaves  in  drying 
descend  in  color  from  green,  first  to  yellow,  then  orange,  then  red,  and  finally  lose 
all  color  as  they  go  to  decay.  Now,  a  quick  dry  heat,  so  regulated  as  to  dry  out 
the  leaf  and  catch  the  yellow,  and  fix  it,  is  the  modus  operandi  of  curing  fancy 
bright  tobacco. 

A  barn  containing  seven  hundred  sticks  of  green  tobacco,  six  medium  plants 
on  each  stick,  holds  along  with  the  tobacco  four  thousand  five  hundred  to  five 
thousand  pounds  of  Avater,  which  must  be  expelled  in  from  eighty-five  to  one  hun- 
dred hours. 

Charcoal  produces  an  open,  dry  heat,  well  suited  for  the  purpose;  but  its  prep- 
aration is  costly,  its  use  tedious,  dirty  and  laborious,  and  it  deposits  a  black  dust 
on  the  leaf  that  is  objectionable.     With  flues  (see  diagrams)  constructed  with 


272  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


furnace  and  pipes,  the  wood  is  burned  as"  cut  in  the  forest  or  old  field,  and  the 
whole  process  of  curing  is  less  costly  and  less  laborious,  and  the  tobacco  cured 
therewith  free  from  dust,  and  has  a  sweeter  flavor.  The  flue  process  possesses  so 
many  advantages  over  all  other  modes  of  curing  tobacco,  is  so  safe,  if  properly 
constructed,  and  free  from  smoke,  that  when  its  merits  become  better  known  it 
will  come  into  general  use  and  supersede  all  other  modes. 

The  first  step  in  curing  is  called  the  steaming  or  yellowing  process.  Medium 
tobacco  will  require  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  hours'  steaming  at  about  ninety 
degrees  to  yellow  sufficiently ;  but  tobacco  with  more  or  less  sap,  larger  or  smaller, 
will  require  a  longer  or  shorter  time  to  yellow.  Here  the  judgment  of  the  curer 
must  be  his  guide.  Inexperienced  planters  would  do  well  to  procure  the  services 
of  an  expert  curer,  if  they  have  tobacco  suitable  for  fine  yellow.  The  planter 
saves  in  enhanced  value  of  his  crop  many  times  the  money  paid  to  the  curer,  and. 
besides,  by  close  attention,  he  may  learn  in  one  season  to  cure  well  himself. 
Theory  alone,  however  good,  and  directions,  however  minute,  will  not  do  here, 
but  it  is  practice  that  must  qualify  one  to  cure  well. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  no  two  plants  are  exactly  alike,  no  two  barns 
precisely  similar  in  every  particular,  and  that  the  weather  may  change  every  hour, 
is  it  reasonable  that  a  fixed  programme  can  be  followed  for  every  curing  with  any 
certain  hope  of  success?  The  experienced  know  better.  On  work  so  variable, 
only  general  directions  can  be  given.     The  planter  here  mustuse  his  head  as  well. 

The  next  step  is  called  fixing  the  color.  When  the  tobacco  is  sufficiently 
yellowed,  best  leaves  of  a  uniform  yellow,  and  the  greener  ones  of  a  light  pea- 
green  color,  it  is  time  to  advance  the  heat  to  one  hundred  degrees;  observing  the 
leaves  closely  to  detect  sweating,  which  will  soon  redden  and  spoil  the  color,  unless 
driven  off.  To  do  this,  open  the  door  and  let  it  stand  open,  and  if  after  an  houi 
or  more  the  sweat  has  not  disappeared,  open  a  space  between  the  logs  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  barn  to  let  in  more  air,  and  permit  it  to  remain  open  until  the 
tobacco  has  dried  off  all  appearance  of  the  sweat.  To  dry  off  the  sweat  speedily, 
sprinkle  dry  straw  or  hay  over  the  floor  and  set  fire  thereto,  using  just  enough 
straw  to  accomplish  the  desired  result.  Right  at  this  point  more  curings  are 
spoiled  than  at  any  other  stage  of  the  process.  It  may  be  well  to  remember  what 
is  a  fact,  that  at  least  five  curings  are  spoiled  by  proceeding  too  fast,  to  one  failure 
from  going  too  slow.     Now  stick  a  pin  here. 

But  to  go  back  to  the  barn,  where  Ave  have  just  dried  the  leaf,  and  where  the 
thermometer  indicates  a  fall  of  five  or  ten  degrees — but  this  need  not  concern  tlie 
curer  to  put  him  out  of  hope,  for  a  little  cooling  under  the  circumstances  was 
necessary — we  close  up  the  opening  and  raise  the  heat  to  one  hundred  degrees. 
But  a  skillful  curer  detects  the  first  indications  of  sweat,  and  prevents  it  by  regu- 
lating the  heat  and  ventilation. 

Keep  the  heat  at  one  hundred  degrees  for  four  hours,  and  then  advance  two 
and  a  half  degrees  every  two  hours,  until  one  hundred  and  ten  degrees  are  reached. 
Here  you  have  reached  the  most  critical  point  in  the  difficult  process  of  curing 
bright  tobacco.  The  condition  and  appearance  of  the  tobacco  must  now  be 
the-curer's  guide.  No  one  can  successfully  cure  tobacco  until  he  can  distinguish 
the  effects  of  too  much  or  too  little  heat  in  the  appearance  of  the  leaf.  Too 
little  heat,  in  fixing  the  color,  operates  to  stain  the  face  side  of  the  leaf  a 
dull  brown  color,  and  is  called  "sponging,"  and  may  be  known  to  the  novice  by 


TOBACCO.  273 


its  appearance  only  on  the  face  side  of  the  loaf.  Too  much  heat  reddens 
the  leaf,  first  around  the  edge  and  then  in  spots,  which  are  visible  on  both 
sides.  Now,  to  prevent  sponging  on  the  ono  hand  and  spotting  on  the 
other,  is  the  aim  of  the  experienced  curer.  No  definite  time  can  be  laid 
down  to  run  from  ono  hundred  and  ten  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  degrees. 
Sometimes  four  hours  will  suffice,  then  again  eight  hours  is  fast  enough.  "While 
it  is  usual  at  this  stage  to  advance  about  fivo  degrees  every  two  hours  for  medium 
tobacco,  the  condition  of  the  tobacco  often  indicates,  to  the  practiced  eye,  the 
necessity  for  slower  or  faster  movement.  But  it  is  safe  not  to  advance  above  ono 
hundred  and  ten  degrees  until  the  tails  begin  to  curl  up  at  the  ends.  Arrived  at 
one  hundred  and  twenty  or  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  degrees,  this  is  the  cur- 
ing process.  The  heat  should  remain  at  or  near  these  figures  until  the  leaf  is 
cured,  which  will  require  from  six  to  eight  hours,  according  to  the  amount  of  sap 
in  the  leaf  to  be  expelled.  When  the  leaf  appears  to  be  cured,  advance  five 
degrees  every  hour  up  to  one  hundred  and  seventy  degrees  and  remain  until  stalk 
and  stem  are  thoroughly  cured.  To  run  above  one  hundred  and  eighty  degrees 
is  to  endanger  scorching  the  tobacco,  and  perhaps  burning  both  barn  and  tobacco. 

To  recapitulate — 
First.  Yellowing  process,  90  degrees  from  24  to  30  hours. 
Second.  Fixing  color,  100  degrees,  4  hours. 

"       100  to  110,  2h  degrees  every  2  hours. 
"      110  to  120,  4  to  8  hours. 
Third.  Curing  the  leaf,  120  to  125,  6  to  8  hours. 
Fourth.  Curing  stalk  and  stem,  125  to  170,  5  degrees  an  hour. 

And  continue  at  one  hundred  and  seventy  degrees  until  stalk  and  stem  are 
thoroughly  killed  and  dry,  which  usually  requires  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hours. 

THE   NEW   METHOD   OF    CURING. 

The  curing  process  for  yellow  tobacco,  as  heretofore  laid  down,  was  first  pub- 
lished in  the  year  1871,  and  was  the  first  systematic  treatise  given  to  the  public 
on  the  difficult  art  of  curing  yellow  tobacco;  and  it  has  remained  substantially 
unaltered  through  six  editions  of  the  pamphlet,  aggregating  largely  over  100,000 
copies.  Thousands  in  several  States  have  taken  it  for  their  guide,  and  been  ena- 
bled to  learn  to  cure  successfully,  without  any  other  assistance.  But  the  yellow 
tobacco  industry  has  greatly  progressed  and  extended  during  the  past  decade,  and 
new  light  has  come  through  experience  to  further  perfect  the  art  of  curing. 

The  following  is  given  as  the  latest  improvements  in  curing  tobacco: 

House  the  tobacco  as  soon  as  cut,  and  after  warming  up  the  barn  for  two  or 
three  hours  at  a  temperature  of  about  90  degrees,  advance  the  heat  rapidly  up  to 
125  degrees,  or  as  high  as  it  will  bear  without  scalding  the  tobacco,  letting  the 
heat  remain  at  125  degrees  only  a  few  minutes,  and  then,  by  drawing  the  fires 
and  turning  the  dampers,  cut  off  the  heat  and  let  the  temperature  of  the  barn 
descend  to  90  degrees. 

This  is  generally  called  "  sapping."  The  rationale  of  the  process  is  this. 
The  heat  by  expansion,  opens  the  sap  cells  and  starts  the  water  to  the  surface, 
facilitates  evaporation  and  hastens  the  yellowing  process. 

18 


274 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


This  "  limbering  up"  process,  of  high  heat  at  the  start,  must  be  of  short  dura- 
tion, or  else  great  injury  will  be  done  to  the  tobacco. 

Following  this  mode  the  yellowing  process  is  greatly  shortened,  requiring 
from  four  to  eight  hours  less  to  yellow  sufficiently,  and  also  hastens  the  second 
stage  of  curing,  fixing  the  color. 

It  is  well  to  state  that  there  is  so  great  a  difference  in  the  character  of  tobacco 
grown  in  different  localities  that  no  rule  can  be  given  for  the  yellowing  process 
applicable  to  all.  The  tobacco  of  Middle  and  Western  North  Carolina  will  yellow 
in  much  less  time  than  that  grown  in  Middle  Virginia.  Then,  again,  tobacco  will 
bear  higher  temperature  in  the  yellowing  process  during  some  years  than  in 
others.  Notably,  the  season  of  1884  was  so  dry,  and  tobacco  held  so  little  sap 
when  ripe,  that  many  commenced  yellowing  at  100  degrees,  and  had  the  leaf  cured 
in  fifty  hours.  But  this  is  exceptional,  and  for  general  practice  would  spoil  both 
color  and  tobacco. 

The  season,  therefore,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  greatly  determines  the 
amount  of  heat  the  tobacco  will  require  to  be  yellowed  and  cured. 

Some  of  the  patented  flues  are  so  con- 
structed that  the  heat  is  easily  controlled, 
and  the  tobacco  smoked  or  steamed,  or 
both,  as  may  be  necessary  in  the  yellowing 
stage.  Some  tobacco  will  require  neither 
to  yellow  right,  while  some  other  will 
dry  up  green  or  red  without  yellowing, 
if  smoke  or  steam  be  not  used  to  assist 
the  yellowing  process.  Smoke  or  steam 
will  facilitate  the  yellowing  of  thin  poor 
tobacco  holding  very  little  sap.  Wetting 
the  barn  floor  from  time  to  time  will 
assist  in  yellowing  tobacco.  Then  there 
is  an  occasional  barn  of  tobacco  that 
defies  all  the  known  modes  and  appliances 
to  yellow  or  cure  bright. 
But  for  all  practical  purposes,  whenever  the  curer  has  mastered  a  knowledge 
of  the  effects  of  too  much  or  too  little  heat,  as  evidenced  in  the  color  of  the 
tobacco,  clearly  described  heretofore,  he  possesses  a  key  to  solve  the  difficult 
problem  in  the  science  of  curing  tobacco.  By  close  observation  this  lesson  may 
soon  be  learned,  and  then  success  is  easy. 

After  curing,  as  soon  as  the  tobacco  is  sufficiently  soft  to  move,  you  may  run 
it  up  in  the  roof  of  the  barn  and  crowd  it  close,  or  if  the  barn  is  needed  for  other 
curings,  the  tobacco  may  be  carried  to  the  storage  barn  or  bulked  doAvn  in  any 
dry  house  on  the  premises.  But  be  sure  that  nothing  is  bulked  with  green  stalks 
or  swelled  stems,  for  if  such  are  placed  down  in  bulk  it  will  be  sure  to  heat  and 
utterly  ruin. 


Common  Sense  Barn. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  CURING  YELLOW  TOBACCO. 


The  first  step  in  explaining  the  process  is  to  give  in  outline  the  chemical  con- 
stituents of  green  tobacco. 


TOBACCO.  975 


Besides  its  inorganic  (mineral)  elements — lime,  potash,  soda,  magneria, 
alumina,  ferric  oxide,  phosphorous,  sulphur,  chlorine,  and  silica — it  contains  the 
following  organic  substances:  starch,  glucose,  albuminoids,  resinous  and  fatty 
compounds  and  the  vegetable  acids,  pectic,  citric,  malic,  oxalic,  and  acetic.  And 
of  the  combinations  of  organic  elements  there  are  found  in  tobacco  nicotine, 
micotianine,  celluloid,  and  chlorophyl. 

RIPENING    OF   TOBACCO. 

After  the  plant  has  attained  its  full  growth,  the  leaves  cease  to  expand  and 
"granulation,  due  to  the  distention  of  the  individual  cells  of  the  leaf  through 
accumulation  of  inter-cellular  substance  begins,"  which  in  North  Carolina  and 
Virginia  usually  takes  place  from  five  to  six  weeks  after  topping,  hastened  or 
retarded,  according  to  season,  soil,  and  time  of  planting.  Then,  if  the  weather 
is  dry  and  favorable  for  a  few  days  longer,  the  color  changes  rapidly  from  green 
to  a  pale  yellowish  green,  as  the  plants  get  ready  for  the  knife.  The  main  cause 
of  the  change  in  the  color  of  the  leaves  is  due  to  the  chlorophyl — the  coloring 
matter  in  leaves — being  changed  to  xanthrophyl. 

CHANGES    IN    TOBACCO    INDUCED    BY    FLUE    CUEING. 

The  temperature  of  90  to  100°  Fahr.  continued  for  30  to  36  hours  under  the 
tobacco,  induces  slight  fermentation,  expands  the  leaf  cells  and  starts  the  sap  to 
the  surface,  when  evaporation  commences  in  earnest.  The  vegetable  acids,  act- 
ting  on  the  starch,  glucose  and  albuminoids,  produce  at  first  slight  fermentation 
— somewhat  after  the  ripening  of  an  apple  or  pear,  and  causes  a  change  of  color 
in  the  leaf,  superinduced  by  the  same  reasons  or  agencies  which  induce  change 
in  the  color  of  a  ripening  apple  or  pear. 

In  the  chemical  changes  produced  in  the  incipient  curing  stages — the  yellow- 
ing of  the  leaves — sugar  is  formed,  ammonia  evolved  and  chlorophyl  changed  into 
xanthyne.  Now,  if  the  temperature  is  raised  slowly  at  this  stage  of  the  drying 
process,  so  as  not  to  oxidize  the  organic  properties  in  the  leaf,  the  color  is  pre- 
served till  the  leaf  is  dried.  But  a  too  rapidly  advancing  temperature  causes 
oxidation  and  discoloring,  or  rather  reddening  of  the  leaf,  sometimes  to  the  extent 
of  scalding — virtually  cooking  it.  And  so,  if  the  heat  is  not  properly  advanced  and 
adjusted  and  fermentation  too  long  continued,  the  yellow  color  fades  into  brown. 
To  so  regulate  the  color  by  heat  as  to  catch  and  fix  it  in  the  leaf  while  sap  is 
being  expelled  and  the  leaf  dried,  is  the  science  of  curing  yellow  tobacco. 

What  is  termed  "  sweating  "  during  the  curing  process  is  the  accumulation  of 
sap,  driven  by  the  heat  to  the  surface  of  the  leaves  more  rapidly  than  the  ventila- 
tion will  enable  the  hot  dry  air  to  absorb.  And  whenever  this  condition  occurs,  the 
experienced  curer  knows  it  results  from  inadequate  or  imperfect  ventilation.  For, 
whenever  the  ventilation  is  properly  adjusted,  there  will  be  no  sweating — the 
current  of  warm  or  hot  dry  air  induced  by  the  draft  will  take  up — absorb — the 
moisture  thrown  to  the  surface  as  fast  as  it  is  evolved.  "  Sponging"  is  produced 
by  oxidation  caused  by  fermentation  too  long  continued,  and  indicates  the  inci- 
pient stage  of  what  is  called  "house-burn,"  "pole-sweat,"  or  "barn-rot."  Proper 
ventilation  as  well  as  heat,  is  necessary  to  so  dry  the  leaf  without  sweating  or 


276 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


sponging,  as  to  catch  and  fix  the  }Tellow  color.  Tobacco  cured  with  a  slight  green 
color,  which  disappears  before  it  is  sent  to  market,  is  the  fashionable  color  for 
fancy  stock. 

STRIPPING   AND    ASSORTING. 

Tobacco  should  never  be  stripped  from  the  stalks  except  in  pliable  order, 
and  the  leaves  on  every  plant  should  be  carefully  assorted,  and  every  grade  tied 
up  separately.  Usually  there  will  be  three  grades  of  leaf,  assorted  with  reference 
to  color  and  size,  and  two  of  lugs.  Of  leaf  tie  six  to  eight  leaves  in  a  bundle,  and 
of  lugs  eight  to  ten.  As  fast  as  you  strip,  either  hang  the  "hands"  on  sticks — 
twenty-five  to  each  stick  and  hang  up  or  bulk  down  in  two  layers,  the  heads  of 
bands  or  bundles  facing  outward.  The  latter  mode  is  best,  if  you  intend  to  sell 
in  winter  order  loose,  on  the  warehouse  floors.  If  bulked  down  watch  frequently 
to  see  that  it  does  not  heat.  If  the  bulk  becomes  warm  it  must  be  broken  up, 
aired  and  rebulked,  or  hung  up  if  too  soft.  It  is  safer  always  to  hang  up  as  soon 
as  stripped,  unless  you  design  to  sell  soon,  and  strike  down  in  "  safe-keeping 
order"  in  spring  or  summer.  It  is  considered  in  "safe  order"  when  the  leaf  ia 
pliable,  and  the  stem  will  crack  half  way  down  the  tie. 


This  Illustrates  the  antiquated  mode  of  stripping  and  tying  tobacco,  where  the  "  head-man  "  assorted* 
anil  women  and  children  performed  the  work  of  tying  the  leaves  in  bundles  or  bands,  out  of  doors.  This 
work  is  now  much  more  carefully  and  nicely  done  indoors — usually  in  a  stripping-room  specially  con- 
structed for  the  purpose,  with  glass  windows  to  afford  sufficient  light  to  execute  the  work  properly. 

don't  spoil,  tobacco  after  it  is  cured. 


If  the  temperature  is  raised  above  160  degrees — and  for  some  tobacco  above 
150 — much  of  the  vegetable  oil  is  expelled,  and  therefore  the  "  life  "  of  the  tobacco 
killed  and  thereby  seriously  damaged  in  other  respects — evolving  and  fixing  in 
tl»e  leaves  ammonia  and  acids  which  bite  the  tongue  and  injure  the  flavor. 

The  unscientific  planter  may  know  nothing  of  the  chemical  constituents  of 
tobacco,  or  the  rationale  of  the  effects  of  heat  in  inducing  a  pale  green  color  in 
the  leaf,  or  why  heat  and  evaporation  properly  adjusted  prevent  oxidizing  and 


TOBACCO. 


277 


reddening  thereof,  or  that  induces  sweating  and  sponging  and  wherefore;  but 
every  one  who  reads  this  short  monograph  will  the  better  understand  why  the 
changes  and  metamorphoses  do  occur  and  tho  reasons  therefor. 

ORDERING. 

If,  after  the  tobacco  is  cured,  the  weather  remains  dry  and  it  fails  to  get  soft 
readily,  so  that  it  can  be  moved,  it  may  be  brought  in  order  in  the  following  way: 
Place  green  bushes  with  the  leaves  on  over  the  floor  and  sprinkle  water  over  them 
copiously;  if  the  tobacco  is  very  dry  and  the  atmosphere  contains  but  little 
moisture,  and  if  the  weather  is  cool,  a  little  fire  kindled  in  the  flues  will  assist  in 
making  the  tobacco  soft.  Straw,  wet  or  made  so,  will  answer  the  same  purpose. 
If  the  weather  is  damp,  there  will  be  no  necessity  to  use  either  straw,  brush  or 
water.  But  when  it  is  necessary  to  use  any  means  to  order  tobacco,  it  is  best  to 
apply  them  in  the  afternoon,  that  the  tobacco  may  be  removed  the  next  morning. 

If  the  weather  continues  warm  and  damp  or  rainy,  tobacco  that  remains 
hanging  will  be  apt  to  change  color,  unless  dried  out  by  flues  or  charcoal.  When 
this  becomes  necessary,  build  small  fires  at  first,  and  raise  the  heat  gradually. 


PACKING. 

If  you  sell  loose,  deliver  in  large  uniform  piles — such  will  cost  less,  and  your 
tobacco  bring  more  in  price.  But  to  sell  in  a  distant  market,  pack  in  tierces — 
half  hogsheads  make  the  best  and  cheapest — to  weigh  about  four  hundred  pounds 
net,  taking  care  not  to  press  the  tobacco  so  as  to  bruise  it,  or  pack  it  too  closely 
together.  The  best  leaf"  is  wanted  for  wrappers,  and  it  must  open  easily  when 
shaken  in  the  hand.  Pack  one  grade  only  in  each  tierce,  uniform  in  color  and 
length;  but  if  it  becomes  necessary  to  put  more  than  one  grade  in  a  tierce,  place 
strips  of  paper  or  straw  between  to  mark  and  separate  them.  Pack  honestly,  for 
honesty  is  always  the  best  policy.  The  man  who  "nests  "  his  tobacco  will  certainlj 
go  on  the  "Black  List,"  and  buyers  have  good  memories. 


This  cut  illustrates  the  work  of  packing  and  prizing  into  hogsheads  for  market,  except  there  ia  want- 
tog  in  the  picture  a  girl  or  boy  extra  to  each  packer,  to  handle  the  tobacco  as  it  goes  into  the  packer's  hands. 
The  manufacturing  types  are  largely  sold  loose  in  piles  on  the  warehouse  floors,  where  the  tobacco  is  deliv- 
ered in  planter's  wagons.     If  sent  by  rail,  it  is  loosely  packed  and  prized  lightly,  if  at  all. 


278 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


If  your  tobacco  is  fine,  sound  and  nicely  handled,  you  will  have  the  satisfac- 
tion of  getting,  at  the  least,  a  remunerative  price  for  it,  although  poor  and  nonde- 
script stock  may  be  selling  for  less  than  the  cost  of  production.  The  world 
outside  of  this  country  makes,  as  a  rule,  low  grades  plenty,  and  at  a  cost  to  raise 
much  less  than  we  can  compass.  We  must  plant  less  surface,  fertilize  heavier, 
and  cultivate  and  manage  better,  if  we  would  get  the  best  prices. 


A  NEW   METHOD   OF   HARVESTING  THE   LEAVES  BY  STRIPPING  THEM  FROM   THE    STALKS. 

During  the  past  few  years  quite  a  change  has 
been  going  on  in  harvesting  tobacco.  Instead  of 
cutting  and  housing  the  entire  plants,  the  practice 
of  a  century  or  more,  the  leaves  are  pruned 
("primed")  off  as  they  ripen,  strung  on  wires, 
twine,  or  other  material,  placed  in  the  common 
log-barns  over  flues  or  in  framed  barns  after  the 
manner  of  the  modern  tobacco  barn  invented  by 
Capt.  W.  H.  Snovv,  of  High  Point,  North  Carolina, 
where  they  are  cured  with  less  fuel  and  in  less 
time  than  by  the  old  method. 

The  following,  copied  from  the  circular  of  the 
Modern  Tobacco  Barn  Company,  states  the  advan- 
tages of  the  system  and  its  claims  for  adoption : 

snow's  modern  tobacco  barn  and  stick 
for  log  barn. 

The  "Modern  Tobacco  Barn"  and  the  "Stick" 
for  log  barns  are,  as  is  universally  known,  the 
inventions  of  Capt.  W.  H.  Snow,  of  High  Point, 
North  Carolina. 

The  object  of  the  inventor  was: 
First. — To  avoid  the  necessity  of  cutting  the 
tobacco  stalk,  carting  it  to  the  barn,  and  using  it  as  a  handle  on  which  to  cure 
the  leaves,  for  this  was  all  the  use  to  which  it  was  put.  In  this  connection  we 
are  aware  that  it  was  claimed  that  there  was  some  virtue  in  the  stalk  which  in  the 
process  of  curing  was  transferred  to  the  leaf,  but  this  theory,  so  contrary  to  every 
law  of  nature,  has  been  so  far  abandoned  that  we  only  refer  to  it. 

Second. — To  cure  all  of  the  leaves,  and  not  a  part  only,  which  was  impossible 
under  the  old  method. 

Third. — To  save  the  time,  trouble,  barn  space,  and  cost  of  fuel,  expended  in 
handling  and  curing  the  stalk,  which  was  worth  nothing  after  it  was  cured. 

Fourth. — To  greatly  improve  the  quality  while  adding  to  the  quantity  of 
tobacco  cured. 

Fifth. — To  provide  for  the  farmer,  ready  to  hand,  a  fertilizer  for  his  soil,  by 
leaving  the  useless  stalks  in  the  field,  and,  by  plowing  them  under,  returning  to 
the  ground  much  of  what  had  been  taken  from  it  in  the  process  of  growth, 
thereby  giving  back  nature's  own  fertilizer  without  any  expense  whatever. 


Keady  for  Harvesting. 


TOBACCO. 


279 


That  the  above  purpose  has  been  fully  accomplished,  is  proven  by  the  hun- 
dreds of  barns  and  thousands  of  sticks  in  Virginia  and  the  two  Carolinas. 

It  has  been  fully  demonstrated  that  the  net  profits  of  the  crop  have  been  and 
can  be  increased  100  per  cent,  over  tho  best  results  obtained  from  the  old  log 
barn  and  stalk  cure. 

The  plan  has  been  before  the  public  for  three  years,  and  there  has  been  a 
steady  growth  of  friendly  comment  by  all  parties  who  have  used  the  modern 
barn  or  sticks,  or  handled  the  tobacco  so  cured. 

The  inventor  has  not,  at  any  time,  desired  to  unreasonably  demand  the 
attention  of  the  farmer,  but  he  has  sought  rather  to  demonstrate  the  eminent 
practicability  of  the  system,  and  to  let  every  one  convince  himself  that  he  cannot 
afford  to  grow  and  cure  tobacco  in  the  old  way.  The  modern  barn  is  the  first 
attempt  ever  made,  so  far  as  we 
know,  to  distribute  tobacco  leaves  f 
in  the  curing  barn  so  that  each  / 
leaf  shall  get  its  equal  share  of 
heat  and  air,  and  cannot  be 
crowded  by  the  adjoining  leaves 
by  the  carelessness  of  operators 
— it  thus  insures  a  uniform  cure. 
This  is  the  secret  of  its  success. 
Each  of  the  100,000  leaves  in  the 
curing  barn  occupies  just  the 
space  required  and  no  more. 
The  mechanic  has  done  the  dis- 
tribution ;  the  operator  has  noth- 
ing to  do  with  it,  nor  can  he 
crowd  it  if  he  tries.  The  method 
•f  placing  tobacco  in  the  barn  by 
means. of  racks  or  traveling  tier- 
poles  is  so  easy  that  a  twelve-year 
•Id  boy  will  place  as  much  tobacco 
in  leaves  in  the  curing  barn,  in 
twelve  hours,  as  four  men  can  do 
in  the  same  time  on  the  stalk  in 
the  log  barn. 

The  leaves  are  brought  to  the  curing  barn  in  baskets  made  for 
three  feet  long,  eighteen  inches  wide,  nine  inches  deep.  The  leaves 
when  ripe,  and  carried  in  the  basket  any  desired  distance  without  injury 

The  gathering  is  done  for  less  money  than  it  can  be  done  on  the  stalk  the 
old  way;  women  and  children  can  do  the  sticking  on  the  wires. 

The  placing  of  the  sticks  with  the  leaves  hanging  from  the  wires  on  the  racks 
in  the  barn  is  easily  and  cheaply  accomplished. 

The  modern  barn,  when  complete,  gives  the  skillful  curer  complete  control 
of  his  conditions;  he  is  master  of  the  situation,  and  if  his  tobacco  commences  to 
ripen  early  in  the  season  he  is  prepared  to  cure  it.  Not  a  leaf  need  be  lost  in  the 
crop.  If  the  tobacco  is  not  topped  "low,"  leaves  will  grow  instead  of  suckers.  If 
the  growing  plant  is  treated  properly  the  leaves  will  be  of  a  normal  growth, 


Snow's  Moileni  Tobacco  Burn 


the  purpose, 
are  gathered 


280  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


shapely  and  smooth,  with  small  stems  and  fibers.  Curing  tobacco  stalks  has  not 
been  a  paying  business.  If  the  tobacco  planters  will  come  to  that  conclusion,  the 
day  of  their  deliverance  draweth  nigh.  Losing  eight  leaves  on  each  plant  is  not 
economy;  the  eight  leaves  wasted  are  as  valuable  as  the  eight  that  are  saved. 
Why  not  save  the  sixteen  leaves?  Why  burn  eight  cords  of  wood  to  cure  2,000 
pounds  of  tobacco,  when  one-half  cord  will  cure  it  better?  Why  build  six  barns 
for  curing  when  one  will  do  the  work  better  in  less  than  half  the  time  required 
by  any  other  method? 


Snow's  Patent  ^lick. 


Why  injure  the  flavor  of  your  tobacco  by  curing  it  with  the  stalk,  when  it 
can  be  cured  without  it  and  the  flavor  improved?  Why  not  grow  and  cure  mild 
sweet  tobacco  when  the  trade  demands  it,  and  you  have  in  what  you  have  been 
throwing  away  millions  of  pounds? 

These  questions  almost  answer  themselves.  Every  reader  will  say  that  there 
i3  no  reason  why  any  of  these  losses  should  be  sustained  and  costs  incurred  if 
they  can  be  avoided.  To  the  question,  can  they?  the  answer  is  ready.  It  is  found 
in  the  modern  barn  or  in  the  stick  for  log-barn  process. 

The  modern  barn  complete  is  the  best  plan  in  the  world  to  cure  and  handle 
tobacco.     The  next  best  thing  is  the  modern  barn  stick,  on  tiers,  in  the  log  barn. 

While  we  recommend  the  complete  barn,  it  is  not  necessary  to  procure  it  to 
avail  yourself  of  some  of  its  advantages.  If  you  prefer,  for  any  reason,  to  still 
use  your  log  barn,  we  will  furnish  you  with  a  complete  set  of  our  wired  sticks 
adapted  to  such  use,  and  guarantee  results,  where  our  directions  are  followed,  far 
in  advance  of  any  possible  method  of  curing  without  them.  We  do  this  with 
greater  confidence  because  we  know  that  a  trial  in  your  log  barn  will  make  you 
want  a  new  one,  even  at  a  supposed  sacrifice. 

The  sticks  and  baskets  together  furnish  a  complete  outfit  to  save  all  the  leaves 
grown  in  the  field,  and.  to  make  them  marketable  at  prices  higher  than  stalk- 
cured  leaves. 

The  tobacco  cured  by  our  process  is  far  superior  to  any  that  can  be  cured  on 
the  stalk.  This  is  true  both  for  chewing  and  smoking  tobacco.  The  reason  for 
this  is  found  in  the  facts  that  it  is  cured  at  the  proper  temperature,  as  we  do  not 
use  the  heat  necessary  to  "kill  out"  the  stalk,  and  in  doing  so  kill  the  leaf;  that 
the  bitter,  pungent,  and  biting  properties  of  the  stalk  are  left  out,  and  only  what 
la  wanted  is  preserved. 

Our  mode  of  bulking  without  either  stalk  or  stick — bulking  close,  so  that  the 
air  cannot  penetrate  the  bulks — insures  a  decided  improvement  in  every  leaf 
bulked  down  in  the  proper  condition.  There  is  no  running  red  in  damp  weather, 
and  no  fear  of  "May  sweat."  That  has  taken  place  soon  after  you  have  bulked 
in  a  close,  compact  body.  The  aroma  is  perfect,  and  you  can  class  and  hand  up 
when  you  choose  without  regard  to  the  weather. 


TOBACCO. 


281 


The  economy  of  tho  modern  barn  process  is  so  great  that  wo  have  always 
been,  and  are  now,  willing  to  divide  equally  with  tho  farmer  the  cost  of  cultivating 
and  curing  his  crop,  and  take  for  our  share  of  tho  profits  what  is  practically 
wasted  by  the  old  process.  That  we  would  bo  largo  gainers  by  this  will  appear 
from  the  following  statement  of  facts: 

Tho  rule  among  planters  is  to  plant  5,000  plants  to  the  acre ;  they  top  at 
fourteen  leaves  and  prime  off  tho  four  bottom  leaves,  leaving  ten  to  mature  on 
each  plant.  The  topping  and  priming  usually  takes  place  the  last  days  in  July, 
after  the  bottom  leaves  have  become  full  size  and  nearly  ripe,  and  when  a  few 
days  more  would  render  them  fit  for  curing.  They  have  taken  nearly  all  the  sus- 
tenance from  the  plant  they  require. 

In  nearly  all  crops 
two  of  the  ten  leaves 
left  to  mature  ripen 
prematurely  and  are 
lost,  leaving  the  plan- 


ter eight  leaves  to  har- 
vest; two  of  these  re- 
maining eight  leaves 
are  marketed  as  trash 
lugs,  and  average  the 
farmer  about  five  cents 
per  pound;  they  barely 
pay  the  price  of  hand- 
lin 


and    carrying  to 
market.     If  these  are 
taken  off  the  stalk  and 
plant  superior  to  them. 


Snow's  Tobacco  Basket. 

cured  at  the  right  time  there  are  no  two  leaves  on  tho 
If  cured  the  last  days  of  August  or  the  first  of  September 
they  make  the  silkiest  wrappers  or  the  finest  long  Avhite  cutters,  and  will  average 
higher  prices  than  any  other  part  of  the  crop,  and  we  never  saw  a  market  where 
they  were  not  in  brisk  demand. 

Next  come  the  two  leaves  that  are  always  allowed  to  waste  on  the  plant,  the 
lugs  that  the  cutter  finds  dead  and  dry  on  the  bottom  of  each  stalk  when  he  is 
cutting  his  crop  for  the  curing  barn. 

These  two  leaves,  if  taken  from  the  plant  at  the  proper  time,  bring  from 
thirty  to  forty  cents  per  pound,  and  have  been  sold  on  the  Henderson  market  for 
ninety-five  cents  per  pound  by  TV.  A.  Elam,  of  Swepson,  Virginia.  If  you  doubt 
it,  ask  him. 

If  the  primings  had  been  left  to  mature  and  cured  the  last  of  July,  when 
they  can  always  be  cured  bright,  they  make  the  best  smokers  that  can  be  found 
on  the  plant.  And  yet  they  have  been  (by  the  old  method)  taken  off  and  thrown 
away  to  promoto  the  growth  of  the  tips,  which  three  times  out  of  five  are  not  as 
good  as  the  lost  primings. 

We  take  these  eight  leaves — four  primings,  two  bottom  leaves  and  two  trash 
lugs — which  bring  no  profit  to  the  farmer,  and  relinquish  the  remaining  or  ripe 
upper  leaves  to  our  partner.  TVe  will  remove  our  leaves  just  as  they  change  from 
a  dark  green  to  pale  green  and  cure  them.  Our  partner  may  cure  his  part  as  he 
«hooses;  he  may  wrestle  with  Jack  Frost  and  with  the  autumn  storms,  the  worms 


282 


PROFITABLE  FARMING 


and  the  frog-eye,  and  have  the  full  benefit  of  the  heavy  dews  to  thicken  his  leaf. 
Our  part  of  the  crop  is  housed  by  the  first  week  in  September,  and,  one  season 
with  another,  we  will  have  as  much  money  as  our  partner,  and  have  it  in  our 
pocket  by  the  first  of  November,  if  we  choose. 

Another  very  essential  point  of  the  economy  lies  in  the  fact  that  20  per  cent. 
is  added  to  the  weight  of  every  leaf  of  tobacco  when  removed  from  the  stalk 
before  curing,  over  the  weight  of  the  same  leaves  when  cured  on  the  stalk. 

We  call  your  attention  to  another  feature  of  extravagant  waste  necessitated 
by  the  stalk  cure:  You  build  a  barn  for  every  three  or  fo,r  acres  you  plant  in 
tobacco,  wherein  you  cure  about  eight  leaves  per  sulk,  when  one  barn  is  suffi- 
cient to  cure  fourteen  leaves  from  each  plant 
on  twenty  acres.  Another  item  of  waste: 
You  consume  about  two  cords  of  wood  te 
cure  about  five  hundred  pounds  of  tobacco 
on  the  stalk,  when  one-half  of  one  cord  will 
cure  two  thousand  pounds  in  the  leaf  with- 
out the  stalk;  over  seven  cords  of  wood  saved 
in  two  thousand  pounds  of  tobacco. 

The  large  two-story  packing  houses  whick 
we  see  with  many  large  tobacco  planters  are 
useless.  A  building  30x20  feet,  one  story 
high,  with  tight  floors,  ceiled  up  and  lined 
with  paper,  will  store  and  keep  in  a  supe- 
rior manner  any  crop  of  tobacco  we  ever 
saw  raised  in  Virginia  or  North  Carolina. 

A  strictly  first-class  modern  barn  will 
cost  $325.  It  will  cure  twenty  acres  in  one 
season.  But  this  is  too  costly,  says  the 
planter.  If  so,  then  we  reply,  you  can't  af- 
ford to  grow  tobacco  without  one;  at  the  end 
of  the  season  it  will  be  found  the  cheapest 
barn  ever  built.  The  barn  will  save  abou 
eight  leaves  that  are  usually  wasted  ox.  each 
plant.  The  primings  when  cured  in  the  modern  barn  are  worth  double  the  price 
of  fillers.  The  lugs  are  made  the  best  tobacco  on  the  plant  and  bring  the  highest 
price  as  cutters  and  wrappers;  no  trash  lugs  in  the  crop;  the  top  leaves  ripen 
earlier  and  better  when  the  lower  leaves  are  removed  as  fast  as  they  mature.  If 
a  farmer  plants  twenty  acres  of  tobacco  it  will  pay  the  cost  of  construction  and 
fifty  per  cent,  interest  on  his  outlay  the  first  year. 

The  following,  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  J.  B.  Smith,  of  Milton,  North  Carolina, 
will  be  read  with  interest  and  profit.  It  was  originally  published  in  the  "Southern 
Tobacco  Journal:" 

As  I  have  had,  perhaps,  more  experience  in  the  process  of  stripping  leaves 
from  the  stalk  in  the  field  than  any  other  planter,  I  have  been  requested  to  pre- 
pare an  article  for  the  benefit  of  our  farmers  in  the  Golden  Belt  of  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina.  I  will  say,  by  way  of  beginning,  that  if  the  object  of  the  tobacco 
grower  be  simply  to  house  his  crop  in  the  most  expeditious  manner,  regardless  of 
color  and  texture,  lot  him  adhere  to  the  old  process  of  cutting  the  plant.     But  if 


Housing  in  Snow's  New  Tobacco  Bam. 


TOBACCO. 


283 


the  object  of  the  planter  be  to  realize  the  greatest  profit  from  an  acre  of  land  at 
the  least  expense,  then  I  unhesitatingly  advise  him  to  adopt  the  "new  process" 
and  strip  off  every  leaf  of  his  tobacco,  as  he  will  not  only  secure  better  color  and 
texture,  put  also  superior  flavor  and  greater  weight.  Now,  right  here,  Mr.  Editor, 
while  conceding  the  superiority  as  to  the  color,  ninety-nine  out  of  a  hundred 
farmers  who  have  never  tried  the  new  process  will  declare  that  is  not  true  about 
the  increase  of  weight.  And  yet  I  am  confident  that  I  could  convince  the  most 
incredulous  and  ignorant  farmer  in  either  State  of  the  truth  of  the  assertion,  if 
I  could  have  him  come  and  see  with  his  own  eyes  and  feel  with  his  own  fingers. 
I  can  Bhow  him  tobacco  grown  on  new  ground,  without  the  use  of  a  pound  of 


fertilizer,  one  stick  of  which,  with  only  thirty-two  leaves,  just  as  cured,  will  weigh 
one  pound  six  ounces.  Now  this  is  equivalent  to  over  a  pound  to  four  plants, 
while  from  a  whole  barn  taken  from  the  same  land  and  cured  on  the  stalk  I 
challenge  any  one  to  find  five  stalks,  the  leaves  from  which  will  weigh  as  much — 
or  better  still,  to  pick  fifty  leaves  out  of  that  barn  that  will  weigh  as  much.  And 
the  color  and  texture  c  f  the  barn  cured  on  the  stalk  does  not  compare  with  the 
one  pulled  off,  although  it  was  the  picked  barn  of  my  crop  and  cured  by  a  man 
hired  at  a  big  price  in  order  to  make  a  fair  test,  who  upon  looking  at  the  tobacco 
was  confident  he  could  equal  my  barn  of  leaves,  but  upon  finishing  the  curing, 


284  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


declared  that  no  living  man  could  cure  that  tobacco  as  well  on  the  stalk  as  if  the 
leaves  were  pulled  oft',  and  further  said  he  never  intended  to  cut  another  plant  of 
tobacco  for  himself.  But  apart  from  ocular  demonstrations,  I  think  I  can  con- 
vince every  intelligent  person  that  tobacco  cured  off  the  stalk  is  heavier.  Every 
farmer  knows  that  fodder  pulled  off  and  cured  is  heavier  and  more  nutritious 
than  when  the  stalk  is  cut  and  the  blades  permitted  to  cure  on  it.  Because  it  is 
one  of  the  laws  of  nature  that  applies  to  all  animal  as  well  as  plant  existence, 
"  for  the  body,  in  the  last  struggle  for  existence,  to  draw  sustenance  from  its 
extremities."  And  the  tobacco  plant  is  no  exception  to  this  rule.  As  soon  as 
the  stalk  is  severed  this  struggle  begins;  the  stalk  drawing  sustenance  from  the 
leaves,  or  as  the  tobacco  curer  expresses  it,  "the  sap  is  driven  in  the  process  of 
curing  from  the  tip  of  the  leaf  upwards  through  the  fibres  and  stem  into  the  stalk.; 
By  the  process  of  stripping  the  leaves,  all  of  this  drainage  is  prevented,  for  in 
less  than  five  minutes  after  a  leaf  is  broken  off,  a  gum  exudes  from  the  stem  and 
hermetically  seals  the  pores  in  the  butt-end  of  the  stem,  and  in  the  curing  process' 
all  of  the  oils  are  retained  in  the  leaf,  which  increases  its  weight  and  elasticity. 
I  also  find  the  stem  and  fibres  are  very  much  smaller.  And  the  leaf  when  cured, 
instead  of  possessing  a  glued  appearance,  has  a  soft,  spongy  look,  and  feels  like 
kid-skin. 

I  will  now  briefly  enumerate  some  of  the  most  important  advantages  the  new 
process  has  over  the  old. 

1st.  The  planter  can  begin  to  house  his  crop  from  two  to  four  weeks  earlier. 

2d.  Everything  is  saved  and  there  is  no  loss  by  "firing  on  the  hill." 

3d.  As  the  lower  leaves  are  pulled  off,  those  left  on  the  stalk  ripen  up  and 
yellow  more  rapidly,  which  enables  the  planter  to  get  in  his  crop  earlier  in  the 
season. 

4th.  Tobaccco  can  be  cured  a  more  uniform  color. 

5th.  Less  fuel  will  be  required. 

6th.  The  risk  of  setting  fire  to  the  barn  will  be  greatly  lessened. 

7th.  The  tobacco  can  be  stored  in  a  much  smaller  space,  and  with  no  danger 
©f  losing  color,  or  of  mould. 

8th.  By  this  process  enough  leaves,  which  are  lost  by  the  old  process,  will 
be  saved  to  pay  for  the  fertilizer  necessary  to  grow  the  crop,  also  to  pay  for  all 
extra  labor  needed  in  housing  the  same. 

9th.  It  will  help  to  solve  the  problem  of  over-proouction,  by  grading  up  the 
tobacco  in  our  section  so  as  to  place  us  above  the  competition  of  those  sections 
which  grow  low  grades  of  tobacco,  which  in  the  past  lew  years  has  proved  so 
detrimental  to  our  pockets. 

COMMENT 

The  author  of  the  tobacco  department  of"  The  Progressive  Farmers'  Book,"  has 
been  practicing  for  more  than  a  decade  the  method  of  stripping  the  leaves  from 
the  stalks  as  they  ripen,  and  curing  on  devices  of  his  own  and  inventions  of 
others,  and  recommends  the  method  as  a  great  saving  of  material  usually  lost  or 
thrown  away,  as  also  economizing  fuel;  for  the  leaves  cured  stripped  from  the 
stalks  require  far  less  fuel  to  dry  than  when  cured  on  and  with  the  stalks.  His 
practice  has  been  to  follow  the  mixed  method,  i.  e.,  to  commence  harvesting 


TOBACCO.  285 


the  lower  leaves  as  they  get  in  the  best  condition,  by  making  one  or  moro  prun- 
ings,  and  afterward  cutting  tha  remainder  on  the  stalk  and  housing  and  curing 
by  the  old  method.  Tho  varying  conditions  of  tho  weather,  season,  and  maturity 
of  the  crop  will  indicate  what  mode  commends  itself  to  the  planter,  as  likely  to 
givo  the  best  results. 

It  is  just  to  the  reader  to  :ay,  however,  that  there  is  difference  of  opinion  as 
regards  the  increased  weight  of  tho  crop  claimed  for  that  cured  off  the  stalk  over 
and  above  that  cured  hanging  thereon;  but  it  is  reasonable  that  tho  aroma  and 
flavor  of  the  first  must  be  superior  to  tho  latter,  while  the  increased  product, 
resulting  from  saving  the  lower  leaves  of  the  plants  in  their  best  condition,  is  an 
indisputable  advantage,  which  is  too  apparent  to  need  further  demonstration 

HISTORY   OF   BURLEY   TOBACCO,    BY   S.    P.    CARR,   RICHMOND,   VIRGINIA. 

As  this  new  variety  has  commanded  a  prominence  in  the  markets  of  the 
world  never  approached  by  any  other  single  variety  since  the  introduction  of 
tobacco  into  civilised  tastes  and  habits,  a  brief  notice  of  its  origin  and  general 
characteristics  will  not  be  out  of  place.  We  extract  the  story  of  its  origin  from 
an  editorial  appearing  in  a  Western  tobacco  journal  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  some 
years  past.     It  reads  as  follows: 

"White  Burley  tobacco  was  first  observed  in  Brown  county,  Ohio,  near  the 
banks  of  the  Ohio  river  in  1864.  A  gentleman  named  Webb  in  that  year  planted 
a  lot  of  Little  Burley  seed,  procured  across  the  river  in  Kentucky.  When  the 
plants  were  ready  for  transplanting,  he  found  an  occasional  one  showing  a  white 
or  light  yellow  color  and  supposed  them  diseased  plants.  He  pulled  them  up 
and  threw  them  away.  The  next  year  seed  grown  produced  the  same  kind  of 
plants.  Mr.  Webb  and  his  neighbors  had  their  curiosity  excited  and  decided  to 
transplant  a  small  number  of  the  plants.  They  grew  well,  and  when  matured 
showed  a  light  cream  color,  and  excited  wide-spread  interest.  The  tobacco  cured 
Well,  but  it  had  a  somewhat  bitter  taste,  and  this  prevented  the  planters  from 
p  „tting  out  much  of  a  crop  of  it.  In  1866  about  20,000  pounds  was  produced 
and  two  hogsheads  were  shipped  to  Cincinnati  and  sold  at  high  prices,  and  after- 
wards sent  to  the  St.  Louis  Fair  of  1867,  where  it  was  aAvarded  first  and  second 
premiums  for  cutting  leaf,  and  sold  for  fifty-eight  dollars  per  hundred  pounds. 
The  Ellis  Brothers,  of  Higginsport,  Ohio,  bought  up  the  balance  of  the  crop  and 
offered  it  at  the  Cincinnati  Fair  in  1867,  where  it  obtained  the  premium  as  the 
best  ten  hogsheads  of  any  class,  and  sold  at  an  average  of  thirty-four  dollars  per 
hundred  pounds;  and  it  was  one  of  these  same  Ellis  Brothers  that  gave  the  name 
to  this  now  famous  type  of  tobacco  called  White  Burley." 

Since  1867  its  culture  has  partially  merged  into  the  light  and  light  red  filler, 
and  has  extended  into  all  parts  of  the  West  and  South  where  the  older  varieties 
were  previously  grown;  and  many  parts  of  the  East  have  attempted  its  culture 
Avith  varied  success,  it  being  discovered,  as  the  boundaries  of  its  culture  were 
extended,  that  a  strictly  limestone  soil  was  only  a  contingency,  and  not  a  neces- 
sary condition,  for  the  best  White  Burley  lands,  and  as  all  fertile  soils  contain  the 
greatest  abundance  of  lime  for  the  needs  of  the  most  exacting  lime-feeding 
plants,  it  is  apparent  that  the  quantity  necessary  to  perfect  the  ideal  Burley  leaf 
is  in  ample  abundance  in  soils  of  good  strength.    Burley,  like  all  mild  tobaccos, 


(28G) 


The  First  Smoke. 


TOBACCO.  287 

must  have  a  warm,  porous  soil  to  reach  its  highest  excellence,  and  as  the  pres- 
nce  of  lime  rock  is  generally  a  guarantee  of  high  fertility,  porosity  and  perfect 
catacomb,  or  subterranean  drainage,  those  lands  when  having  a  yellow  clay  sub- 
soil, with  from  six  to  eight  inches  of  vegetable  loam,  are  the  best  conditions  f  r 
the  growth  of  Burley  tobacco.  Yellow  or  ocher  clay  has  greater  capillary  power 
than  any  other  clay,  and  on  this  account  draws  moisture  from  the  depths  when 
the  surface  moisture  is  inadequate  to  the  wants  of  the  plants,  and  absorbs  the 
excess  through  capillarity  when  the  surface  is  supersaturated  in  rainy  seasons 
beyond  the  healthy  requirements  of  the  plants. 

What  is  known  as  the  Mason  and  Blue  Grass  district  of  Kentucky  possesses 
this  ideal  soil  with  few  local  exceptions,  and  hence  the  popular  idea  that  the  under- 
lying beds  of  limestone  were  essential  to  the  growth  of  the  genuine  White  Burley. 
Freestone  soils  in  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  Tennessee,  Ohio, 
<fcc,  when  favored  by  rich,  warm,  porous  soils  of  good  sun  exposure,  groAV  tobacco 
of  the  same  excellence  as  the  most  famous  spots  of  the  old  Burley  districts;  yet 
those  sections  of  freestone  soil  that  come  up  to  the  requirements  of  this  voracious 
plant,  we  are  sorry  to  say,  are  not  very  abundant  in  the  country  at  large,  as  free- 
stone soils  are  not  generally  strong  enough  for  its  profitable  cultivation  without 
the  aid  of  fertilizers  or  farm  compost.  Burley  tobacco  is  a  very  high  liver — has 
been  from  its  origin  (twenty-six  years  ago)  accustomed  to  the  most  abundant  and 
easily  assimilated  plant  food ;  hence,  its  instincts  call  for  a  similar  diet  when  trans- 
planted out  of  its  native  locality.  If  the  soil  elements  are  the  least  refractory 
there  is  no  use  attempting  its  profitable  cultivation — just  as  well  attempt  the  per- 
fection of  a  Blue  Grass  race-horse  on  a  diet  of  sage  brush  or  cactus.  Level  lands, 
prairie  lands,  and  flat  river  low  grounds  are  unsuited  to  White  Burley;  at  least 
there  are  so  many  chances  against  possible  success  we  discourage  the  cultivation 
of  this  variety,  since  it  proves  a  nondescript  four  years  out  of  five,  and  is  of  little 
value.  Undulating  and  south  hill  side  lands,  with  a  porous  subsoil  of  yellow 
clay,  sand  or  pebbles,  freestone  or  limestone,  are  the  conditions  all  over  the  West 
and  East,  when  fortified  with  high  fertility,  that  furnish  our  best  Burley  lands, 
and,  in  fact,  all  classes  of  mild  filler,  wrappers,  cutters,  and  smokers  of  the  old 
varieties.  Twenty  to  twenty-five  degrees  angle  of  sun  exposure  being  the  very 
best  in  all  cases.  Freshly  cleared  and  second  years'  land  of  sugar-tree,  beech, 
tulip-tree,  hackberry  and  white  walnut,  represent  the  best  soils  in  various  locali- 
ties in  'the  Blue  Grass  sections  for  fine,  clear,  yellow  Burley  cutters,  color  and 
quality  combined.  White,  red,  black  and  chestnut  oak,  hickory,  dogwood,  black 
walnut,  beech,  ash  and  sugar  maple  are  all  first-class  indications  of  fine  Burley 
lands,  since  they  are  only  found  indigenously  in  well  drained  and  porous  soils, 
and  are  generally  well  elevated.  A  number  of  these  growths  grouped  is  a  guar- 
antee both  of  suitability  of  soil  and  high  fertility,  and  produce  the  finest  yellow 
and  cherry-red  Burley  for  cutting  and  plug  work,  according  to  mode  of  culture. 
Old  lands  originally  clothed  with  the  above  timber  growth,  in  whole  or  part,  and 
rested  in  sod,  or  otherwise  kept  in  good  life,  will  produce  the  rich,  tough,  waxy 
plug  filler  and  wrapper  so  much  sought  by  the  Western  and  Eastern  plug  men  of 
to-day,  and  is  no  doubt  as  remunerative  in  years  when  the  seasons  favor  high 
color  as  the  golden  yellow  that  is  commonly  produced  on  fresh  and  second  year's 
land.  But  as  the  culture  of  old  lands  is  yearly  increasing  over  the  new,  it  is  a 
rare  thing  to  find  yellow  predominating  over  the  richer  kinds,  and  hence  the  fresh 


288  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


land's  product  will  always  hold  first  rank  as  the  best  money  crop  on  account  of 
its  scarcity  in  the  annual  productions  of  the  country.  The  motto  is  cultivate  for 
high  color  (clear  yellow).  If  you  succeed  you  are  handsomely  remunerated;  if 
you  don't  succeed  you  will  secure  either  a  light-red  or  a  cherry-red,  the  three 
fashionable  colors  denoting  high  excellence — three  chances  to  one  against  the 
planter  who  cultivates  strictly  for  red,  richness  and  gum;  for  if  he  fails  through 
an  unfavorable  season,  he  reaps  a  failure,  a  nondescript  brown  or  greenish  dark 
not  suited  to  the  trade;  such  is  the  result  of  seasons  unfavorable  to  color.  The 
yellow,  when  manufactured  into  plug,  deepens  through  the  sweetening  used  in  its 
manipulation  to  a  rich  golden  broAvn;  the  light  red  tones  down  to  a  lively  bronze, 
and  the  cherry-red  to  a  rich  bronze  or  brown,  all  three  indicating  to  the  consumer 
through  their  appearance  fillers  of  the  best  quality.  But  when  the  brown  and 
dark  leaf  is  worked  into  plug,  with  the  necessary  amount  of  sauces,  it  deepens  to 
a  tarry  black,  suggesting  to  the  chewer  a  low  quality  filler;  as  all  common  and 
over-sweated  tobaccos  are  black,  or  are  made  so  by  the  manufacturer  to  cover 
defects,  the  consumer  naturally  discards  that  color  of  Burley  filler  as  too  common 
to  chew,  and  hence  the  cause  of  manufacturers  objecting  so  often  to  dark  Burleys 
of  fair  chewing  qualities  solely  on  that  account.  In  the  infancy  of  Burley  cutters, 
1867  to  1873,  the  general  custom  was  to  plant  close  one  way  and  wide  the  other, 
and  top  high — say  eighteen  to  twenty  leaves  to  the  plant—to  secure  flimsiness 
and  a  pale  yellow  color,  free  from  gum,  the  kind  then  wanted  by  cutter  manufac- 
turers of  the  West.  The  crop  of  1875  to  1876,  owing  to  a  particularly  favorable 
season  for  gum  and  body,  and  unfavorable  to  the  lighter  sorts,  tempted  the  cutter 
men  of  the  country  to  mix  some  of  the  heavier  with  the  light  in  the  proportion 
of  one  of  the  former  to  two  of  the  latter.  It  worked  a  complete  revolution  in  the 
market  value  of  this  hitherto  unmarketable  tobacco,  for  if  it  was  not  a  cutter  it 
was  nothing — a  nondescript,  as  cutter  men  classed  it.  It  was  known,  of  course, 
to  Eastern  manufacturers,  but  only  as  a  flimsy,  tasteless,  unsightly  stuff,  that  their 
prejudices  debarred  them  from  testing.  The  rapidly-increasing  trade  of  the  Burley 
cutter  men  of  the  West,  who  were  now  using  more  of  the  rich  red  and  less  of  the 
light  leaf,  and  the  failure  of  the  1874  crop  in  the  East  forced  a  reluctant  test  of 
plug  qualities  of  this  hitherto  neglected  part  of  the  Burley  crop.  A  few  hogs- 
heads were  first  ordered  by  Petersburg.  Richmond  and  New  York  manufacturers; 
they  gave  satisfaction;  the  orders  were  increased,  and  so  on  by  rapid  strides  to 
this  writing.  This  unexpected  outlet  for  the  red  filler  gave  the  Kentucky  and 
Ohio  planter  more  substantial  encouragement  than  he  had  ever  received  in  past 
life.  He  saAV  a  rapidly-increasing  demand  for  the  products  of  his  old  sod  land; 
he  got  more  pounds  per  acre  by  better  cultivation  and  lower  topping;  he  no  longer 
shaped  the  products  of  his  field  to  the  whims  of  the  light  cutter  men,  for  he  saw 
the  world  as  an  outlet;  and  how  well  he  has  supplied  the  wants  of  this  country 
and  Europe  Ave  all  stand  living  witnesses.  It  proved  by  actual  test  to  possess  a 
wider  range  of  adaptability  to  the  average  wants  of  the  consuming  public  than 
any  cultivated  variety;  it  covered  all  the  requirements  of  the  most  exacting  plug 
men  and  cut  plug  men  for  chewing  and  smoking  combined.  It  was  sightly,  with 
unimpaired  quality,  for  high  color  (yellow)  and  chewing  qualities  are  seldom 
blended.  It  was  wieldy  without  coarseness  or  rankness,  mild,  yet  possessing  good 
body  and  strength;  free  from  sand  or  grit;  tough  and  waxy,  and  at  the  same  time 
having  the  capacity  of  absorbing  40  per  cent,  of  its  own  weight  in  sauces,  without 
shoAving  excessive  saturation.     Its  percentage  of  nicotine  was  less  than  any  other 


-      "  ••>.-•..  .  "'.'  -  ." ' 


Down  in  the  Meadow. 


(289) 


200  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


known  plug  filler;  its  percentage  of  chlorine  as  low  as  any  smoking  or  cigar  stock 
in  the  world.  It  analyzed  a  higher  percentage  of  fatty  and  resinous  substances 
than  any  domestic  tobacco  except  North  Carolina,  Granville  county  yellow  and 
Louisiana  perique.  It  equals  the  Connecticut  and  Sumatra  cigar  wrapper  in 
crude  fiber  or  cellulose,  which,  including  its  lack  of  chlorine,  gives  it  a  combusti- 
bility not  excelled  by  any  smoking  tobacco  in  the  country.  We  find  it  without  a 
rival  as  a  chew  and  smoke  combined,  called  cut  plug,  and  manufactured  from  the 
golden  yellow  leaf  commonly  called  cutters.  The  light  red  and  cherry  wax  red 
leaf  is  worked  into  strictly  chewing  plug,  called  navy,  and  has  no  rival  for  general 
adaptability  to  the  average  taste  of  the  chewing  public  the  world  over.  A  few 
localities  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  produce  a  plug  filler,  when  sun-cured 
or  by  light,  130  degrees  flue  heat,  that  to  a  line  of  customers  long  accustomed  to 
its  peculiar  fruity  taste  and  flavor  would  not  be  exchanged  for  any  other  chew; 
but  these  sorts,  owing  to  the  great  popularity  of  the  fancy  cutters  and  smokers  of 
those  States  for  cigarette  and  pipe  smoking  stock  are  less  cultivated  than  fermerly, 
and  hence  cannot  be  considered  as  rivals  of  what  Ave  might  deem  the  national 
filler.  North  Carolina,  Virginia  and  West  Virginia  alone  wear  the  triple  crown 
for  the  finest  straight  smoking  and  cigarette  stock  known  to  the  trade,  and  the 
only  kinds  of  the  old  varieties  left  unharmed  by  Burley  competition.  We  repro- 
duce two  articles  on  culture  and  curing  of  Burley  tobacco  by  prominent  Ken- 
tucky and  Ohio  planters  that  will  apply  to  Burley  lands  East  and  West. 

HOW  TO  Crr/I'IVATE  and  grow  white  burley  tobacco,  by  j.  t.  boggess,  of  OHIO. 

i 

I'LAXT-BEDS. 

To  be  successful  in  raising  a  crop  of  tobacco  depends  entirely  upon  the  first 
step  taken  in  that  direction.  Secure  plenty  of  plants  and  have  them  early. 
Select  for  plant-beds  a  fine  soil  (south  or  southwestern  exposure,  new  and  slightly 
elevated),  a  ground  holding  sufficient  moisture  as  not  to  dry  out  during  the  day. 
Burn  your  beds  sufficiently  to  kill  all  the  seeds  of  grass  or  weeds.  Then  you  are 
ready  to  dig  up  your  bed.  Dig  in  the  ashes  well;  then  rake  and  pulverize  every 
clod.  Be  sure  and  take  out  all  the  roots,  rocks  and  whatever  other  obstructions 
may  be  found  in  the  bed.  Sow  your  seed  any  time  from  the  first  of  February 
until  the  last  of  March.  Sow  a  bed  for  every  acre  you  intend  planting  is  a  good 
rule  to  go  by.  Sow  about  two  large  tablespoonsful  to  the  hundred  square  feet. 
Then  one  of  the  most  important  parts  is  securing  the  plants,  and  do  not  fail  to 
do  it  by  brushing  your  beds  heavily  with  green  brush.  The  seed  should  be  mixed 
with  ashes  or  corn-meal  before  sowing,  so  as  to  prevent  getting  them  tno  thick. 

SOIL,    ETC. 

The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  White  Burley  tobacco  is  generally  agreed  to  be  of 
a  limestone  nature.  The  best  and  finest  tobacco  that  comes  from  the  cutting 
district  is  grown  on  new  land;  first  and  second  crops,  and  in  some  cases  a  good 
crop  is  raised  the  third  year,  but  that  is  running  the  ground  too  hard.  All  our 
fancy  cutting  tobacco  is  raised  on  such  land,  and  as  a  general  thing  it  is  under- 
laid with  limestone,  although  we  raise  a  really  nice  article  on  old  land,  by  plowing 
under  a  crop  of  red  clover  and  using  plenty  of  stable-manure.     If  you  do  not 


TOBACCO.  291 


possess  good  rich  land  you  had  hotter  let  tobacco  growing  alone,  unless  you  have 
plenty  of  manure  or  other  fertilizer. 

It  should  bo  the  aim  of  every  tobacco  grower  to  go  for  quality  and  not  for 
quantity.  If  they  were  all  to  adopt  that  plan  for  a  few  years  wo  would  soon  get 
our  markets  rid  of  a  great  burden.  Cultivate  less  ground  and  make  a  famy 
article. 

PLOWING   AND    CULTIVATING. 

Land  intended  for  tobacco  should  be  plowed  in  the  winter  if  possible  and 
plowed  deep,  if  you  expect  a  crop.  In  the  spring  the  ground  should  bo  turned 
with  a  double-shovel  plow,  and  harrowed  and  rolled  if  rough  and  cloddy.  The 
more  you  cultivate  your  land  before  you  get  your  crop  out  the  less  work  it  will 
take  to  tend  it  after  it  is  set.  After  you  have  it  planted  keep  the  plow  and  hoe 
going  constantly,  and  plow  just  as  deep  as  possible.  The  best  plow  for  that  pur- 
pose is  a  double-shovel  plow,  shovels  not  wider  than  three  inches  and  full  ten 
inches  long.  The  more  work  you  give  your  tobacco  the  better  body  it  will  have. 
Tobacco  should  be  set  both  ways  on  bottom  or  level  land,  three  and  one-half  feet 
by  twenty-eight  inches;  on  hill-land  it  will  have  to  be  set  wider,  to  give  room  to 
tend  it — full  four  feet  between  the  rows. 

TOPPING,    SUCKERING   AND    CUTTING. 

Now  comes  another  important  point  in  the  growth  of  the  crop,  and  that  is 
topping.  Don't  top  to  more  than  twelve  to  fourteen  leaves  at  the  furthest;  you 
will  make  more  pounds  at  that  height  than  at  sixteen  or  twenty.  Your  top  leaves 
will  all  fill  out  and  mature  and  be  as  large  as  any  on  the  stock.  As  to  cutting, 
do  not  cut  until  ripe,  just  about  four  weeks  after  topping.  Keep  all  suckers  off 
and  concentrate  the  strength  of  the  plant  in  the  leaves.  Suckering  tobacco  is 
very  tiresome,  and  is  tho  most  laborious  work  that  is  connected  with  the  crop. 
Worms  and  suckers  at  this  period  of  tho  crop  demand  the  planters  entire  atten- 
tion until  it  is  matured  and  ready  for  the  knife.  Cutting  is  now  to  begin.  A 
good  hand  will  cut  from  500  to  800  sticks  a  day,  and  some  extra  hands  1,000  to 
1,200.  Place  from  four  to  six  stalks  on  a  stick;  you  will  have  to  be  governed  by 
the  size  of  the  plants — if  large  four  to  six  is  plenty  on  a  four-foot  stick. 

HANGING  AND   STRIPPING. 

In  hanging  in  the  barn  the  sticks  may  be  hung  about  eight  inches  apart,  if 
dry  and  well  wilted.  Never  take  tobacco  in  the  barn  if  wet  with  dew  or  rain,  as 
you  are  likely  to  have  it  house-burned.  Never  use  fire  in  curing  White  Burley 
tobacco,  as  the  smoke  renders  it  useless  for  cutting  purposes;  but  keep  the  barn 
open  so  that  the  air  can  circulate  freely. 

When  your  tobacco  is  sufficiently  cured  to  strip  you  should  be  careful  in 
keeping  each  sort  by  itself.  First  keep  all  the  chaffy,  trash  leaves  together;  then 
your  bright  trash  or  lugs;  next  comes  the  bright  leaf,  which  is  about  the  centre 
of  the  stock,  and  sometimes  all  on  the  stock  is  bright  after  the  lugs  are  off.  Be 
sure  and  keep  each  color  and  each  length  together  by  itself. 

BULKING. 

Having  your  crop  all  stripped  it  is  now  ready  for  bulking.  Great  care  should 
be  exercised  in  having  the  cases  all  right,  as  too  much  casing  will  cause  your 


292 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


tobacco  to  funk.  Heavy  bodied  tobacco  will  stand  more  casing  than  a  fancy  arti- 
cle will.  To  get  in  proper  condition  for  bulking  it  should  dry  out  thoroughly 
after  stripping,  and  then  as  the  leaf  cures  in  cases  before  the  stem,  it  should  be  just 
moist  enough  so  as  not  to  break  under  your  knees  as  you  bulk  it.  The  stems 
may  be  dry  enough  to  break,  but  that  will  not  damage  the  tobacco  if  the  leaf  has 
sufficient  moisture  to  keep  it  from  breaking. 

PACKING   AND    PRIZING. 


Next  comes  the  prize  in  hogsheads  preparatory  to  shipping.  This  is  not  a 
very  great  task,  but  a  great  many  make  it  so.  Thei'e  is  but  one  way  in  which 
tobacco  should  be  put  in  hogsheads,  and  that  is,  every  kind  should  be  packed  in 
a  hogshead  by  itself.     Do  not  mix  different  kinds  together.     If  you  do  you  are 


At  the  Club. 


sure  to  get  the  worst  on  the  draw  and  your  tobacco  will  sell  for  what  the  lowest 
grade  in  your  sample  is  worth;  therefore  you  lose  all  j'our  good  tobacco,  simply 
because  a  few  handsful  of  trash  or  some  other  worthless  article  is  in  your  sample. 

Mr.  Ben.  K.  Davis,  of  Owen  county,  Kentucky,  says:  Having  been  requested 
to  give  my  views  on  the  culture  and  growth  of  White  Burley  tobacco,  I  now  pro- 
ceed to  comply  with  the  request. 

Preparation  of  Land. — Lay  two  parallel  poles,  say  four  inches  in  diameter, 
eight  feet  apart.     Cut  logs  twelve  feet  long;  put  as  many  as  six  of  these  logs  oil 


TOBACCO.  293 


the  poles;  then  start  your  fire  and  let  it  hum  about  forty  minutes.  Then  roll 
your  logs  on  the  same  poles  about  the  samo  distance  again,  and  continue  the 
same  operation,  making  your  plant-bed  any  length  desired. 

Souring  of  Seed. — I  would  suggest  the  first  dry  weather  in  February  or  March; 
I  have  had  good  success  the  first  light  moon  in  March.  Would  prefer  the  soil  to 
be  a  gradual  southern  slope. 

Digging  and  Sowing. — Take  a  common  weeding  hoe  and  dig  about  two  and  a 
half  to  three  inches  deep.  Then  take  a  hand  rake  and  pulverize  and  rake  oif  all 
the  little  clods.  After  this  take  the  back  of  the  rake  and  level  the  earth  down 
smooth.  With  the  handle  of  the  same  separata  the  bed  into  three  parts  of  equal 
width  and  put  a  tablespoon,  level  full,  of  seed  on  ten  feet  scpiare.  In  sowing  the 
seed  take  a  half  gallon  of  ashes  to  every  tablespoonful  of  seed,  mix  well  and  sow 
twice  and  tramp  until  perfectly  solid  and  level.  Cut  straight  green  brush  and 
lay  on  these  beds  all  one  way.  Be  careful  and  raise  the  brush,  if  in  the  woods, 
by  the  last  of  March,  in  order  to  remove  the  leaves  that  have  accumulated,  and 
then  place  the  brush  back  as  before. 

Preparing  of  Land  for  Planting. — If  sod  land  break  s  early  as  February, 
let  it  remain  until  the  middle  of  May;  then  put  on  a  heavy  harrow  and  harrow 
the  same  until  thoroughly  pulverized,  but  never  rebrake.  If  land  was  in  cultiva- 
tion the  year  previous,  break  the  first  of  May  and  let  it  lay  ton  or  fifteen  days, 
and  then  take  a  heavy  log  and  roll  the  same  twice;  next  take  a  small  plow  and 
lay  off  rows  four  feet  wide.  Set  your  plants  two  feet  and  a  half  apart  on  the  side 
of  the  furrow.  Within  four  or  five  days,  if  your  plants  have  lived,  commence  to 
hoe  them.  Ten  days  after  this  take  a  small  plow  and  run  two  furrows  to  the  row 
Do  this  every  week  for  three  weeks,  and  then  follow  with  a  hoe,  drawing  dirt  to 
the  plant.  By  this  time  the  plant  has  grown  too  large  for  any  more  work  with 
the  hoe  or  plow. 

Worming. — The  worming  must  be  attended  to  once  or  twice  a  week. 

Topping. — In  topping,  top  from  fourteen  to  twenty  leaves,  according  to  the 
healthy  appearance  of  the  plant.  Two  or  three  weeks  from  topping,  you  will  com- 
mence suckering;  this  must  be  continued  until  you  take  off  two  suckers  to  each 
leaf.  When  this  is  done  your  tobacco  is  getting  ready  for  cutting.  When  the 
leaf  begins  to  curl  or  cup,  you  may  then  begin  to  cut. 

Gutting. — Now  comes  the  important  part.  As  soon  as  the  tobacco  is  half 
wilted,  have  the  team  take  the  same  to  the  barn  for  scaffolding.  Never  pile  in 
the  patch. 

Construction  of  Scaffold. — The  proper  mode  of  constructing  the  scaffold  is  to 
set  a  row  of  heavy  forks,  fifteen  feet  apart,  another  row  parallel,  the  space  between 
the  two  rows  to  be  twelve  feet;  lay  heavy  poles  in  the  forks;  then  la}r  a  pole  twelve 
feet  long  every  four  feet.  When  finished  it  must  be  at  least  six  feet  from  the 
ground.  Though  the  scaffolds  must  be  close  to  your  tobacco  barn,  the  same  must 
not  be  loaded  after  scaffolding,  neither  must  it  remain  on  the  scaffold  longer  than 
three  or  five  days  in  warm  weather.  As  the  season  advances,  longer  time  on  the 
scaffold  would  not  be  amiss.  Never,  under  any  circumstances,  house  it  while 
wet;  and  I  would  also  say,  never  put  fire  about  the  tobacco  with  the  hope  of  bet- 
tering the  same,  as  the  result  would  be  the  reverse,  for  open  fire  destroys  its  value 
by  smoking  it. 


294 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Housing. — In  housing,  put  your  tiers  three  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  your  sticks 
six  or  ten  inches  apart  in  the  tiers.     Be  governed  according  to  size  of  the  tobacco. 

Stripping. — Another  important  part  is  stripping.  I  will  say  that  there  are 
five  different  grades  on  any  fine  plant — trash,  lugs,  first  fine,  second  fine,  and  top 
leaf — all  separate  and  distinct  classes,  which  are  very  necessary  to  he  separated. 
Hang  those  classes  fifteen  hands  on  a  stick  in  your  tiers,  according  to  grade,  after 
being  stripped — trash  in  bottom  tier,  and  lugs  next  tier  above,  and  so  on  in  grades, 
placing  your  finest  in  the  top  tier,  so  as  to  enable  you  to  bulk  your  low  grade  first. 

Bulking. — As  to  the  time  of  bulking,  first  let  your  tobaccco  get  thoroughly 
dry.  I  prefer  the  March  winds.  To  make  a  certainty  in  keeping  order,  never 
bulk  until  the  frost  has  quit  falling  and  you  are  sure  all  is  out  of  the  ground — 
say  last  of  April  or  first  of  May.  Have  the  leaf  in  moist  case,  so  as  not  to  break 
with  pressure.  The  stem  must  break  a  little.  Would  advise  four  layers  wide  in 
the  bulk,  and  remember  not  to  take  the  stick  out  when  bulking. 

Prizing  or  Pressing. — Never  commence  less  than  three  weeks  after  bulking, 
but  I  would  prefer  six  weeks.  The  size  of  hogshead  necessary  is  four  feet  nine 
inches  long,  and  the  head  four  feet  in  diameter.  Pack  from  one  thousand  to 
twelve  hundred  pounds  in  a  hogshead.  I  prefer  pressing  tobacco  quite  lightly. 
I  never  lost  anything  by  having  light  weight  in  fine  tobacco. 


The  above  plate  represents  a  curing-shed  24  feet  wide  and  of  any  length 
desired.     Some  have  been  erected  200  and  300  feet  long,  the  length  being  regulated 


TOBACCO. 


295 


by  the  size  of  the  crop.  A  shed  24  feet  wide,  30  feet  long,  throe  tiers  high,  or  24 
wide  by  24  foot  long,  four  tiers  high,  will  hold  one  acre  of  tobacco  of  whole  plants 
cut  and  hung  upon  laths.  The  distance  vertically  between  girders  for  whole 
plants  should  be  about  3^  to  4  feet;  for  leaves  pulled  from  the  stalks,  from  2£  to 
3  feet  apart.  The  posts  should  rest  upon  low  rocks  or  pillars  of  bricks  in  place  of 
sills  and  braced  as  shown  in  the  cut.  The  bents — girders — should  bo  from  10  to 
15  feet  apart,  and  on  these  the  tier  poles  should  rest  about  4  feet  apart,  on  which 
the  laths  strung  with  tobacco  should  hang. 


_  This  cut  illustrates  a  barn  more  substantially  built,  32  feet  wide,  60  feet  long,  and  27  feet  high,  with 
Tentilators  in  the  sides  and  ends,  so  constructed  that  they  may  be  opened  or  closed  at  will  to  admit  or 
exclude  air,  as  the  condition  of  the  tobacco  and  weather  demand. 

A  barn  thus  constructed  should  be  closed  in  very  dry  or  windy  weather, 
closely  or  partially,  and  give  plenty  of  air  during  the  proper  curing  stage,  closing 
the  ventilators  during  the  day  and  opening  them  at  night,  so  that  the  tobacco  may 
receive  moisture  to  give  it  a  uniform  good  color,  or  closing  day  and  night  during 
warm  wet  weather  to  prevent  mould. 

Here  the  furnace  and  flue  may  be  advantageously  used  to  aid  the  curing  pro- 
cess and  preserve  the  tobacco  sound  and  prevent  the  evil  effects  of  excessive 
moisture  in  curing  this  type.  The  flue,  once  used  as  an  adjunct  to  nature  during 
the  curing  process  of  cigar  tobacco,  will  rarely  be  dispensed  with  after  the  advan- 
tages resulting  from  its  use  have  once  been  tested. 

CIGAR   TOBACCO. 

To  grow  this  type  successfully  it  is  i  ml  ispensable  that  both  variety  and  soil 
be  adapted  thereto.  Alluvials  and  sedimentary  soils  produce  the  largest  crops 
and  of  the  highest  quality  generally,  but  cigar  tobacco  is  grown  successfully  on 
both  silicious  and  limestone  soils,  both  fresh  and  old,  provided  there  is  a  suffi- 


29fi  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


ciency  of  humus  in  the  latter.     Liberal  applications?  of  stable  manure  have  been 
found  to  be  the  best  manure  for  this  type. 

The  smoking  habit  growing  faster  than  that  of  chewing  necessitates  increased 
production  of  the  smoking  types,  and  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  Avhen  cigar 
tobacco  will  be  much  more  extensively  grown  in  States  heretofore  growing  what 
is  known  as  the  commercial  leaf  tj^pes  exclusively,  and  for  which  in  some  types 
there  is  already  a  perceptible  decrease  in  demand — notably  the  dark  heavy  export 
type.  And  this  change  is  made  more  certain  since  it  has  been  demonstrated  that 
large  areas  South  and  West  in  the  old  tobacco  belt  are  admirably  adapted  to  the 
production  of  fine  cigar  tobacco. 

CUTTING  AND  CURING  CIGAR  TOBACCO. 

it. 

Plants  of  this  type  are  in  the  best  condition  for  harvesting  when  the  process 
of  expansion  ceases — that  is,  when  they  have  ceased  to  grow  and  granulation  is 
going  on — and  not  when  the  leaves  are  full  ripe,  as  for  some  other  classes  of 
tobacco.  Cigar  tobacco  may  be  harvested  by  ending  the  leaves  as  they  ripen,  or 
by  cutting  or  spearing  the  plants  and  hanging  on  laths. 

The  curing  is  done  in  sheds  or  barns  constructed  for  the  purpose,  so  arranged 
as  to  freely  admit  currents  of  air  through  the  housed  tobacco,  for,  be  it  remem- 
bered, cigar  tobacco  is  cured  without  artificial  heat,  being  mainly  air-dried. 

PACKING   AND    SWEATING. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  over-estimate  the  importance  of  having  tobacco  in 
right  case — i.  e.,  in  a  proper  degree  of  pliability  when  it  is  packed;  for  if  too  dry, 
it  is  broken  and  damaged  to  a  very  great  extent,  and  if  too  limp  and  it  holds 
excessive  humidity,  fermentation  is  so  rapid  and  extensive  as  to  destroy  the 
vitality  of  the  tobacco,  induce  mould  or  rot,  and  spoil  its  flavor.  The  stems — 
midribs — should  be  fully  cured  and  dry  enough  to  break  on  pressure  several  inches 
down  from  the  butt  ends,  while  the  tissues  of  the  leaves  should  be  just  soft  and 
pliant  enough  not  to  break  in  handling. 

The  tobacco  should  be  packed  in  dry  sound  boxes  2-|  feet  square  at  the  ends 
and  about  3g  feet  long,  observing  to  make  the  contents  as  uniform  as  possible  in 
length,  color,  and  quality,  and  by  pressure  placing  from  350  to  425  pounds  in  each 
box,  placing  the  heads  of  the  "hands"  or  bundles  to  the  ends  of  the  boxes. 

After  being  packed  in  proper  condition,  the  boxes  are  piled  on  one  another, 
usually  on  the  sides,  and  under  cover  where  the  rays  of  the  sun  cannot  reach 
them.  There  is  difference  of  opinion  about  whether  it  is  best  to  sweat  in  a  base- 
ment or  upper  room;  in  any  case,  however,  the  room  should  be  dry. 

"  The  process  of  sweating  is  to  tobacco  what  fermentation  is  to  wine.  It  ripens 
it  and  prepares  it  for  use.  It  perfects  it  in  color,  improves  the  flavor,  subdues  the 
acid  or  pungent  taste,  increases  its  burning  qualities,  and  gives  it  a  shining  oily 
surface,  which  is  called  'satin  face.'  All  tobacco,  however,  docs  not  go  through 
this  process  well,  as  all  wines  do  not  ferment  well.  Some  of  it  comes  out  with  a 
lifeless  appearance.  Whether  this  is  due  to  the  want  of  essential  oils,  or  arises 
from  improper  condition  in  which  it  is  packed,  isaquestion  not  fully  determined. 
Tobacco,  like  wine,  will  often  go  through  a  second  fermentation  the  ensuing  year, 
with  an  improvement  in  quality." 


TOBACCO.  297 


Tobacco  loses  in  weight  in  passing  through  the  sweating  process  from  ten  to 
fifteen  per  cent.,  and  takes  from  three  to  four  months  to  prepare  it  for  beinj* 
worked  into  cigars. 

There  is  a  process  of  artificial  sweating  by  steam  practiced  by  manufacturers, 
which  need  not  be  described  here. 

TOBACCO — HISTORICAL    AND    COMMERCIAL. 

A  Brief  Notice  of  the  Principal  Commercial  Types. 

After  the  cereals,  hay  and  cotton,  tobacco  occupies  the  next  place  in  the  value 
of  its  product  in  the  United  States,  and  as  a  money  crop  stands  next  to  cotton; 
for,  next  to  that  staple,  tobacco  constitutes  the  largest  item  in  our  export  list. 

A    CHANGE    IN   TYPES. 

For  nearly  a  century  the  dark  rich  type  produced  on  the  richest  and  most 
heavily  manured  lots  and  cured  over  open  wood-fires,  heavily  smoked,  was  the 
only  type  in  demand  for  export.  But  as  other  types  were  developed,  milder  in 
flavor  and  more  pleasant  to  the  taste,  the  demand  for  the  old  smoked  type  com- 
menced to  diminish,  and  has  continued  until  this  type  is  now  grown  only  in 
limited  quantities  over  circumscribed  areas  where  it  has  been  found  the  best  grades 
thereof  are  produced. 

THE    SWEET    SUN-CURED    TYPE. 

The  demand  for  a  milder  type  developed  about  sixty  years  ago,  and  to  meet 
it,  gray  uplands  were  planted  in  Sweet  Oronoko,  and  the  product  cured  mainly  by 
sun  and  air  and  without  the  objectionable  smoky  flavor  of  the  heavily  fired 
export  type.  The  sun-cured  proved  a  popular  type,  and  the  demand  therefor 
would  have  greatly  increased  but  for  the  development  of 

THE   BRIGHT   YELLOW   TYPE, 

which  has  grown  faster  in  favor  and  production  than  the  sun-cured  type,  brights 
being  adapted  to  more  forms  of  manufactured  work  and  more  popular  than  all 
other  types  grown  in  the  old  tobacco-growing  district.  Besides,  the  prices  paid 
for  this  type  operated  to  greatly  extend  its  production,  until  now  it  is  the  princi- 
pal type  grown  in  upper  Virginia  and  nearly  throughout  North  Carolina;  and  is 
yearly  extending  southward  through  South  Carolina  and  into  upper  Georgia. 
The  bright  yellow  type  commands  the  highest  prices  of  all  the  types  grown,  and 
-where  soil  and  climate  are  adapted  to  the  production  of  the  finest  grades  of  thi3 
type,  no  crop  which  the  land  is  capable  of  producing  can  equal  or  compare  with 
it  in  profitable  returns. 

THE    WHITE    BURLEY   TYPE. 

This  popular  type  originated  in  Ohio  about  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  and 
has  proved  so  profitable,  and  the  demand  therefor  so  great,  that  it  is  now  the 
principal  type  grown  in  southern  Ohio  and  over  large  areas  in  Kentucky  and  por- 
tions of  Tennessee  and  Missouri.  Burley,  like  the  Virginia  air-cured  and  cigar 
tobacco,  is  cured  without  artificial  heat,  and  is,  therefore,  entirelv  free  from  the 


298 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


creosotic  taste  and  rank  flavor  of  the  old  export  type  which  it  supplanted;  has 
won  its  way  to  favor,  and  has  come  to  stay.  Burley  makes  most  excellent  chew- 
ing and  smoking  tobacco,  and  promises  to  contest  with  seed  leaf  for  superiority 
in  cigar  manufacture. 

THE    CIGAR   TYPE. 

"  The  culture  of  tobacco  in  the  Connecticut  Valley  was  almost  coeval  with 
its  first,  settlement,"  and  the  tobacco  grown  there  being  found  to  be  well  adapted 

Mm 


My  First  Pipe. 

for  making  cigars,  it  was  the  first  of  the  tobacco  product  of  the  United  States 
utilized  for  that  purpose.  From  thence  the  cigar  typo  extended  to  Massachusetts. 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Wisconsin,  which  States  now  produce  the 
bulk  of  the  cigar  tobacco  grown  in  the  United  States. 

The  product  of  tobacco  in  New  England  ran  from  a  few  thousand  pounds  in 
1740  to  over  500,000  pounds  in  18.30.     Since  then  the  product  ran  up  in  1879  to 


TOBACCO.  209 


over  20,000,000  pounds.  It  is  proper  to  say,  however,  that  legal  restrictions  were 
placed  upon  its  production  in  New  England  during  the  first  century  of  its  pro- 
duction there. 

Florida  is  developing  into  a  profitable  field  for  the  production  of  cigar- 
tobacco,  its  product  is  said  to  almost  rival  the  Cuban;  and  why  not?  when  grown 
on  a  soil  and  in  a  climate  with  like  conditions  as  are  to  be  found  in  the  famed 
Queen  of  the  Antilles. 

THE    WONDERFUL    ADAPTABILITY    '  V    THE    TOBACCO    PLANT 

When  it  is  remembered  that  tobacco  can  be  successively  grown  under  the 
torrid  temperature  of  the  equator  and  on  the  bleak  hills  of  Canada,  beyond  the 
40°  n.  lat.,  the  question  regarding  its  production  is  not  "where  can  tobacco  be 
grown,"  but  rather  "  where  will  it  not  grow?  " 

The  tobacco  plant  adapts  itself  to  almost  any  climate  where  its  votary  man 
can  subsist,  but  it  is  exacting  in  one  respect,  it  will  not  flourish  on  a  wet  bed  or 
with  wet  feet.  Thousands,  aye,  millions  of  acres  of  land,  well  adapted  to  tobacco, 
remain  unutilized  all  over  the  United  States.  And  on  much  of  this  undeveloped 
area  the  finest  types  of  tobacco  can  be  successfully  and  profitably  grown. 
• 

RESUME. 

The  following,  prepared  for  us  by  Major  Ragland,  is  the  substance  of  his 
manual  "boiled  down." 

The  tobacco  plant  thrives  best  in  a  rich,  warm,  well-drained  soil,  and  can  be 
successfully  grown  from  the  equator  to  beyond  the  fiftieth  parallel  of  latitude, 
showing  a  most  wonderful  adaptation  to  climate. 

Beyond  any  other  field  crop  grown,  tobacco  requires  "high  farming,"  i.e.. 
heavy  manuring  and  thorough  tillage;  and  no  crop  responds  more  readily  or 
bountifully,  when  the  right  types  are  planted  on  soils  adapted  thereto,  and  the 
product  properly  cultivated,  cured  and  handled. 

A  deep,  rich  soil  overlaying  a  red  or  dark  brown  subsoil,  is  best  suited  for 
the  dark,  rich  export  type.  •  A  gravelly  or  sandy  soil,  with  a  red  or  light-brown 
subsoil,  is  best  adapted  to  the  production  of  sweet  fillers  and  stemming  tobaccos. 
Alluvials  and  rich  flats  produce  the  best  cigar  stock.  White  Burley  is  most  suc- 
cessfully grown  on  a  dark,  rich  limestone  soil.  For  yellow  wrappers,  smokers  and 
cutters,  a  gray,  sandy  or  slaty  top-soil  with  a  yellowish  porous  subsoil  is  prefera- 
ble. The  land  must  be  loamy,  dry  and  warm,  rather  than  close,  clammy  and  cold ; 
and  the  finer  and  whiter  the  sand  therein,  the  surer  the  indication  of  its  thorough 
adaptation  to  the  yellow  type.  The  soil  so  greatly  affects  the  character  and 
quality  of  the  products,  that  success  is  attainable  onty  where  the  right  selection 
of  both  soil  and  variety  is  made  for  each  plat  planted,  and  planters  do  well  to 
heed  this  suggestion. 

For  dark,  rich  "shipping,"  nothing  has  been  found  superior  to  the  following: 
James  River  Blue  Pryor,  Lacks  or  Beat-All,  and  Medley  Pryor.  For  sweet  fillers: 
Sweet  Oronoko  and  Flanagan.  For  stemming:  Long  Leaf  and  Broad  Leaf  Gooch, 
Hester,  Tuckahoe  and  Big  Oronoko.  For  mahogany  wrappers:  Primus,  Tucka- 
hoe,  Hobgood.  Yellow  Pryor,  Flanagan  and  Gold  Leaf.  For  cutters:  Hyco,  White- 
stem  Oronoko.  Yellow  Oronoko.  Silkv  Prvor   and  Granville  Yellow.     For  vellow 


300  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


wrappers  and  fillers:  Sterling,  Primus,  Granville  Yellow,  White-stem  Oronoko, 
Tuckahoe,  Hester,  Long  Leaf  Gooch,  Yellow  Oronoko  and  Yellow  Pryor. 

Trial  will  determine  what  variety  is  best  for  any  locality  as  no  one  variety  is 
best  for  all  locations.  To  plant  varieties  unsuited  to  the  type,  or  on  soil  unadapted 
thereto,  is  to  invite  failure  every  time. 

The  leading  cigar  varieties  are:  Connecticut  and  Pennsylvania  Seed  Leaf, 
Imported  and  American  Grown  Havana,  and  several  Spanish  Strains. 

Start  Bight. — The  planter  should  select  and  prepare  land  suited  to  the  type 
he  purposes  to  raise,  and  then  sow  seeds  of  varieties  recommended  herein  for  the 
types  specified,  in  good  time,  on  beds  thoroughly  prepared  and  fertilized — warm 
southern  and  southeastern  slopes  preferred — and  cover  the  beds  with  thin  canvass. 

South  of  thirty-seven  degrees  north  latitude  seed  may  be  sown  from  15th 
of  December  to  10th  of  March — the  month  of  January  preferable.  Further 
north,  sow  later.  Sow  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  of  seed  to  the  100  square  yards, 
and  firm  the  soil  with  the  feet  or  lightly  brush  them  in.  Raking  buries  the  seeds 
too  deep  for  successful  germination.  If  the  seed-beds  are  thoroughly  manured 
and  canvassed  as  directed,  they  will  require  but  little  further  attention,  and  the 
plants  be  ready  for  transplanting  soon  after  1st  of  May.  Plant  no  tobacco  after 
1st  of  July,  but  fill  up  the  missing  hills  with  field  peas  or  other  crop. 

To  grow  a  paying  crop  of  tobacco,  the  soil  must  be  thoroughly  prepared  and 
put  in  fine  tilth  and  be  heavily  manured.  No  soil  is  naturally  so  rich  that  the 
product  is  not  materially  increased  and  made  finer  and  better  by  the  application 
of  manure.  Both  domestic  and  commercial  manures  are  successfully  used  under 
tobacco.  And  experience  has  demonstrated  that  it  is  best  to  use  them  in  con- 
junction— either  together  in  compost  which  is  best,  or  by  applying  the  domestic 
manure  broadcast  and  drilling  the  commercial  material  when  preparing  the  land 
for  planting. 

The  usual  practice  is,  for  the  leaf  types,  to  run  the  rows  three  feet  three  to 
four  inches  wide — to  facilitate  through  cultivation — and  set  the  plants  in  hills  or 
drills  two  feet  ten  to  three  feet  apart.  White  Burley  and  cigar  tobacco  is  set 
closer. 

Commence  cultivation  as  soon  as  the  transplanted  plants  have  taken  root, 
which  will  be  in  from  ten  to  fifteen  days  after  setting  out,  and  continue  to  stir 
the  soil  with  plow  and  hoe  every  two  weeks  until  the  leaves  begin  to  lap  across 
the  rows;  after  which  the  hand-hoe  alone  must  be  used.  Frequent  cultivation, 
when  the  plant  is  young,  tends  to  promote  rapid  and  vigorous  growth,  early 
development,  and  ripening,  essential  to  the  yield  and  quality  of  the  product. 

Any  mode  of  cultivation  which  is  frequent  and  thorough,  and  very  similar 
for  the  cabbage  crop,  will  suit  tobacco.  Different  soils  require  different  utensils 
and  cultivation,  and  therefore  the  judgment  of  the  planter  must  guide  him,  as 
no  fixed  rules  can  be  successfully  followed.  The  diversity  of  soils  and  the  vicis- 
situde of  seasons  prelude  any  fixed  line  of  action. 

Pruning  and  Topping. — So  soon  as  the  plants  shall  have  attained  sufficient 
size  and  the  seed-bottom  is  discernible,  prune  off  the  small  lower  leaves  of  the 
dark  export  type  to  six  inches  up  from  the  ground  and  pinch  out  the  seed-bud, 
leaving  eight  to  ten  leaves  on  the  plant,  the  number  left  varying  according  to  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  An  average  of  nine  leaves  to  the  plant  makes  the  richest 
and  most  salable  product 


302  PROFITABLE   FARMING. 


For  the  yellow  and  other  manufacturing  types  it  is  best  not  to  prune,  but  to 
gather  the  lower  leaves  as  they  ripen  and  cure  them  for  smokers. 

White  Burley  and  cigar  tobacco  may  be  topped  leaving  ten  to  fifteen  leaves 
to  the  plant. 

The  bud  and  horn  worms  must  be  carefully  picked  from  the  plants  as  they 
make  their  appearance,  or  they  will  inflict  great  damage  to  the  crop.  The  former 
is  most  destructive  early  and  before  the  plants  are  topped;  the  latter  comes  in 
two  broods,  the  first  in  June,  and  if  these  are  destroyed,  the  quantity  in  August 
and  September  (their  second  appearance)  will  be  greatly  curtailed.  Various 
modes  for  destroying  worms  and  moth  have  been  resorted  to,  but  none  so  suc- 
cessfully as  hand-picking  and  killing. 

Suckers  Avill  sprout  at  the  axils  ©f  leaf  and  stalk  after  the  plants  are  topped, 
and  these  must  be  pulled  off  as  fast  as  they  attain  the  length  of  two  and  three 
inches.  If  permitted  to  grow  longer  they  sap  the  juices  of  the  plant  and  detract 
from  the  size  and  richness  of  the  leaves. 

Ripe  tobacco  of  the  commercial  leaf  type  is  known  by  the  graining  and 
thickening  of  the  leaf  and  change  of  color — the  leaf  assuming  a  3rellowish  and 
sometimes  mottled  yellow  and  green  appearance- — and  when  the  under-surface  of 
the  leaf  will  crack  open  on  pressure  between  the  thumb  and  finger  when  folded 
over. 

White  Burley  and  cigar  tobacco  are  harvested  not  so  ripe  as  indicated  for  the 
leaf  types. 

Tobacco  of  the  several  types  are  hung  in  several  wa}*s:  Some  cut  the  plants 
by  splitting  them  down  the  middle  of  the  stalks  and  straddling  them  across  laths; 
some  spear  the  plants,  using  a  spear-like  instrument  hollow  at  one  end  to  fit  the 
lath;  others  string  the  leaves,  pulling  them  from  the  plants  as  they  ripen  and 
stringing  them  upon  wired  sticks  or  laths,  while  others  use  cotton  twine  in  the 
place  of  wire. 

The  dark  export  type  is  still  mainly  cured  in  log-barns  dried  over  open  wood 
fires.  But  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  when  the  flue,  so  indispensable  for  curing 
the  yellow  type,  will  be  used  for  curing  this  type  also.  Creosote  imparts  no 
desirable  qualities  to  any  type,  and  the  taste  grows  every  year  more  and  more  in 
favor  of  unsmoked  tobacco. 

The  sweet  filler  is  partially  dried  by  sun  and  air  and  afterwards  cured  by  flues. 

The  yellow  wrapper  and  cutter  type  is  cured  entirely  by  the  use  of  flues. 

The  cigar  type  and  White  Burley  are  cured  mainly  by  air-drying. 

To  specify  every  detail  of  the  several  modes  of  curing  the  different  types 
would  extend  this  article  greatly  beyond  the  limits  assigned,  and  Ave  therefore 
commend  to  the  would-be  tobacco  raiser  a  careful  perusal  of  the  methods  hereto- 
fore mentioned. 

The  tobacco  planter  should  bear  in  mind  that  no  crop  is  more  exacting  than 
tobacco;  that  small  crops  receive  better  attention,  and  are  more  profitable  than 
large  ones.  No  crop  grown  in  the  United  States  will  pay  more  handsome  returns 
than  tobacco  when  properly  grown  and  managed. 

Many  fine  crops  are  ruined,  after  being  cured,  by  rough  and  careless  handling 
in  stripping,  assorting,  bulking  and  packing.  Tobacco  should  never  be  handled 
except  when  in  "order"  or  "case" — i.  e.,  when  the  leaf  is  pliant  and  not  too  limp 
from  excess  of  moisture. 


TOBACCO.  ::<>:; 


All  tobacco  should  bo  assorted  as  the  leaves  are  stripped  from  the  stalks  <>r 
taken  from  the  sticks,  having  reference  to  rolor,  length  and  quality,  tieing  all 
such  together  neatly  into  hands  or  bundles,  placing  eight  to  ten  leaves  of  "lugs" 
— inferior,  lower  or  ground  leaves — and  five  to  seven  of  leaf,  in  each  hand. 

Tobacco  is  in  safe  order  or  condition  fur  packing  when  the  leaf  is  pliant  and 
the  stem  dry  and  will  crack  half-way  down  from  the  large  end.  Packed  in  such 
condition,  tobacco  "sweats  sweet."  If  too  moist,  it  will  heat  in  bulk  and  spoil; 
if  too  dry,  it  is  broken  and  shows  rough  and  unsightly. 

We  have  requested  Major  Ragland  to  furnish  us  his  descriptive  list  of 
tobacco  seed  for  insertion  in  this  book,  that  applicants  may  know  where  to  apply 
for  the  best  varieties  suited  ,to  all  the  types,  and  by  reference  to  the  foregoing 
pages  may  be  enabled  to  select  properly. 

TO    TOBACCO    PLANTERS. 

To  grow  fine  tobacco  of  any  type,  the  first  thing  requisite  is  good  seed  of 
some  variety  best  adapted  to  the  type  sought  to  be  produced.  The  bright  varie- 
ties will  not  make  rich,  heavy,  waxy  goods,  nor  will  the  dark  varieties  make  fine 
yellow,  silky  goods.  While  cigar  leaf  requires  varieties  specially  adapted  to  stock 
Suitable  for  cigars.  You  cannot  be  too  careful  in  the  selection  of  your  seed,  and 
it  will  pay  you  to  procure  them  from  reliable  growers  or  dealers  only.  Poor  seed 
are  dear  as  a  gift,  while  good  seed  for  a  large  crop  of  tobacco  cost  very  little,  and 
yet  one  dollar  properly  expended  at  this  point  has  saved  hundreds  of  dollars  in 
the  increased  value  of  the  crop.  Take  no  risk,  but  use  only  the  best  varieties 
which  are  essential  in  making  a  fine  staple,  which  always  sells  at  remunerating 
prices. 

TO    SEEDMEN    AND    DEALERS. 

There  are  varieties  of  farm  and  horticultural  seeds  which  grow  to  perfection 
only  in  localities  most  favorable  to  their  normal  development,  and  it  behooves 
every  dealer  in  seeds,  solicitous  to  furnish  the  best,  to  grow  or  have  grown  for 
their  trade  these  seeds  where  they  come  to  the  highest  perfection. 

The  soils  and  climate  of  Virginia  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  tobacco  of  every 

•  type ;  and  seed  grown  here,  under  improved  methods,  possess  the  highest  vitality 

and  finest  native  qualities.     Many  planters  in  other  States  send  to  Virginia  for 

seed  every  year — Virginia  seed  giving  better  results  than  seed  procured  elsewhere. 

Tobacco  seed  grown  and  saved  like  buckwheat,  i.  e.,  every  panicle  on  the 
stalk  allowed  to  remain  and  bear  capsules,  will  turn  out  double  the  quantity  in 
yield,  over  seed  plants  trimmed  of  all  their  lower  thyrsi  and  only  three  or  four 
at  most  of  the  top  ones  allowed  to  bear  seed.  The  pruning  process,  however,  is 
the  proper  mode,  for  by  it  the  seed  capsules  are  larger — the  whole  force  @f  the 
plant  is  directed  to  the  formation  of  fewer  capsules  with  seed  of  higher  vitality, 
which  may  be  more  surety  relied  upon  to  transmit  their  peculiar  good  qualities. 
Seed  thus  grown  are  more  reliable  in  every  essential  quality,  and  should  never  be 
classed  with  seed  grown  after  the  old  method. 

VARIETIES   RECOMMENDED   AS   THE   BEST   FOR   EVERY   TYPE   OF    TOBACCO. 

Use  only  pedigree  seeds,  improved  by  continuous  selection,  and  grown  on 
the  crown  shoots  only,  warranted  true  to  name  and  of  the  highest  vitality.     It  is 


804  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


essential  to  select  a  variety  suited  to  the  type  desired  to  be  produced,  and  to  olant 
only  one  variety  in  the  same  field,  to  insure  uniformity  in  the  crop. 
None  better  can  be  found  than  the  following: 

Sterling. — The  newest  and  brightest  of  the  yellow  type; 
being  the  earliest  to  ripen,  is  surest  in  localities  liable  to 
early  frosts. 

Primus. — Leaves  large,  fibres  fine  and  texture  silky. 
Yields  big  crops  of  extra  fine  quality.  Suited  for  manufac- 
turing or  cigars.  Grows  rapidly  and  may  be  relied  upon  to 
ripen  with  Sterling.     New  and  scarce. 

Spotted  Pryor. — A  new  favorite ;  early,  fine  and  adapted 
to  several  types.  ,.  Mild  in  flavor  and  makes  fine  brights  or 
mild  colory  fillers. 

Long  Leap  Goocti. — Leaf  larger  and  finer  than  the  Round 
Leaf  Gooch.  One  of  the  very  best  for  the  manufacturing 
types. 

Lacks. — Broad  leaf,  tough  fine  fibre.  On  gray  soils  cures 
bright  and  elastic;  on  dark  soils,  rich  and  gummy.  Known  as  Jesup  or  Beat- All 
in  some  localities.     Good  and  reliable. 

Granville  County  Yellow. — A  superb  variety,  and  a  favorite  with  many 
planters  who  average  from  thirty  to  fifty  dollars  per  hundred  pounds — select  lots 
selling  for  several  dollars  per  pound.  Among  the  earliest  to  mature  and  ripen. 
Tuckahoe. — A  first-class  variety  in  every  respect.  New  and  preferable  to 
most  of  the  older  varieties  for  possessing  more  body.  Leaf  long  and  extra  fine — 
the  perfection  of  a  wrapper. 

White  Stem  Oronoko. — From  the  yellow  Oronoko,  which  it  resembles,  and 
a  most  excellent  variety.  Greatly  preferred  in  some  localities  where  the  finest 
types  are  grown. 

Hyco. — A  new  variety,  and  the  easiest  of  all  cured  yellow.  Fine  texture, 
good  flavor  and  sells  well.  A  hybrid  Oronoko  and  gourd  leaf.  A  beautiful  and 
desirable  variety. 

Hester. — A  new  variety  originated  in  Granville  county,  N.  G,  and  has  no 
superior  for  the  yellow  type,  and  makes  fine  cigar  stock.  It  has  size,  shape, 
texture  and  color,  and  ripens  early.  It  recommends  itself  greatly  in  this,  that  it 
has  greater  adaptability  over  a  wider  range  of  soils  and  latitude  than  any  other 
of  the  yellow  varieties,  and  may,  on  this  score,  be  considered  the  surest. 

Yellow  Oronoko. — A  reliable  old  yellow  variety,  grown  for  more  than  fifty 
years,  and  improved  with  reference  to  the  production  of  yellow  stock. 

Gooch. — A  new  variety  of  a  great  excellence.  Resembles  the  yellow  Oronoko, 
but  has  a  larger  leaf;  a  splendid  manufacturing  sort. 

Yellow  Pryor. — Preferred  by  many  for  brights,  and  succeeds  where  other 
yellow  sorts  fail.     The  west  is  giving  it  preference. 

Sweet  Oronoko. — Used  for  first-class  plug  fillers,  and  makes,  when  sun-cured, 
the  best  natural  chewing  leaf.  A  favorite  for  the  "  Homespun  "  wherever  known. 
Known  as  little  Oronoko  in  some  localities.  Makes  an  eastern  filler  unsurpassed. 
Flanagan. — Originated  in  Henry  county,  Va.,  and  is  greatly  used  for  making- 
sweet  fillers  and  mahogany  wrappers.  It  is  a  variety  of  the  Old  Sweet  Oronoko, 
with  broader  leaves  and  finer  texture. 


TOBACCO. 


305 


Bio  Oronoko. — An  <>kl  variety  and  a  good,  tried  one.  Has  a  large,  broad, 
finely-shaped  leaf,  and  for  strips  and  dark  wrappers  has  no  equal. 

Blue  Pryor. — The  genuine  James  river  favorite.  Rich  shipper,  superior  to 
the  Kentucky  Blue  Pryor. 

Medley  Pryor. — Originated  in  Halifax  county,  Va.,  about  seventy  years  ago, 
and  is  a  general  favorite  with  planters  who  grow  the  English  and  Continental 
grades.  When  properly  grown  and  cured,  it  commands  the  highest  price  for  a 
"shipper." 


Figuring  up  the  Prottts. 

Bradley  Broad  Leaf. — A  popular  variety  for  several  types — export,  manu- 
facturing and  cigars.     A  good,  reliable  variety. 

Connecticut  Seed  Leap. — The  largest,  finest  and  best  of  this  indispensable 
kind.     Every  seed-stock  carefully  selected. 

Pennsylvania  Seed  Leaf. — Gessner  and  other  superior  kinds.  The  best 
grown  in  the  famous  Lancaster  county  district. 

General  Grant. — One  of  the  finest,  earliest  and  most  popular  kinds  for 
cigars.     Grows  more  in  demand  every  year. 

Persian  Rose. — Finer  than  the  Muscatel,  and  may  be  relied  upon  to  make 
the  finest  cigar  stock.     A  very  promising  variety. 

Hardy. — A  Turkish  variety  which  stands  heat  and  drought  beyond  all  others, 
and  may  be  topped  to  twenty-five  leaves  or  more.  Superior  to  Latakia,  and  pos- 
sesses a  very  agreeable  odor  and  flavor. 

Brazilian-American. — The  finest  Brazilian  strain  acclimated.  Makes  excel- 
lent cigars  and  delightful,  aromatic  pipe-smoking  tobacco. 

Havana. — Grown  from  imported  seed  (Vuelto  de  Ahajo) — direct  Better 
than  imported  seed  for  American  planters. 

Big-  Havana. — A  h}d:>rid  Havana  or  Cuban  seeddeaf.     A  heavy  cropper,  of 
fine  texture,  delightful  flavor  and  the  earliest  cigar  variety  to  mature  and  ripen. 
Will  make  two  crops  from  one  planting  in  the  South,  whilst  its  earliness  makes 
it  most  desirahle  for  high  latitudes. 
20 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


Cotton. 


BY   PROFESSOR   J.    S.    NEWMAN,    ALABAMA,  AND  F.  C.  FURMAN,  GEORGIA. 


HE  COTTON  PLANT  is  a  child  of  the  sun.  Its  natural  habi- 
tation is  in  the  tropical  regions  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America, 
but  it  has  been  acclimated  and  successfully  cultivated  as  far 
'IjP  north  as  the  thirty-sixth  degree  of  north  latitude.  Its  cultiva- 
-.■Qr~-  tion  covers  a  very  large  portion  of  our  globe.  In  the  eastern 
hemisphere  the  range  of  its  cultivation  extends  from  Southern 
Europe  on  the  north  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  on  the  South. 
In  the  Western  Hemisphere  from  Virginia  to  Southern  Brazil. 
It  has  been  most  successfully  cultivated,  however,  between  the 
thirtieth  and  thirty-fifth  degrees  of  north  latitude.  Humboldt 
found  it  growing  in  the  Andes,  at  an  elevation  of  nine 
•thousand  feet.  Boyle  reports  it  cultivated  at  an  elevation  of  four  thousand  feet 
in  the  Himalayas.  Such  elevations,  however,  are  not  favorable  to  its  best  develop- 
ment. Botanically,  cotton  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Malvacear,  genus  Gos- 
sypncm.  Botanists  differ  as  to  its  proper  classification  into  species;  some  nume- 
rate as  many  as  ten  species,  others  seven,  and  others  only  three  as  necessary  to  a 
clear  discrimination  between  the  distinctive  characteristics  recognizable  after 
making  due  allowance  for  differences  resulting  from  soil  and  climatic  influences. 
The  history  of  the  cotton  plant  antedates  in  its  beginnings  the  commercial 
annals  of  the  human  family.  India  seems  to  have  been  the  most  ancient  cotton- 
growing  country.  For  five  centuries  before  the  Christian  era  her  inhabitants 
were  clothed  in  cotton  goods  of  domestic  manufacture  from  the  fiber,  grown  upon 
her  own  soil,  by  her  own  crude  methods.  "It  is  said  that  'more  than  two  thou- 
sand years  before'  Europe  or  England  had  conceived  the  idea  of  applying  modern 
industry  to  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  India  had  matured  a  system  of  hand- 
spinning,  weaving,  and  dyeing,  which,  during  that  vast  period,  received  no 
recorded  improvement.  The  people,  though  remarkable  for  their  intelligence 
whilst  Europe  was  in  a  state  of  barbarism,  made  no  approximation  to  the 
mechanical  operations  of  modern  times,  nor  was  the  cultivation  of  cotton  either 
improved  or  considerably  extended." 

Notwithstanding  the  proximity  of  China  to  India,  it  was  not  until  the 
eleventh  century,  that  the  cotton  plant  became  an  object  of  common  culture  in 
China.  The  first  mention  made  of  cotton  in  the  records  was  two  hundred  years 
before  th-e  Christian  era.  From  that  time  down  to  the  seventh  century  it  is  men- 
tioned, not  as  an  object  of  industry,  but  one  of  interest  and  curiosity;  an  occu- 

306 


COTTON.  307 


pant  of  the  flower  garden,  the  beauty  of  its  flowers  heing  celebrated  in  poetry. 
It  is  recorded  in  their  annals  as  a  circumstance  worthy  of  note,- that  the  Emperor 
Ou-ti  had  a  robe  of  cotton  when  be  ascended  the  throne  in  502.  In  the  eleventh 
century  field  culture  of  cotton  commenced  in  China,  but  owing  to  the  opposition 
of  the  people,  especially  those  engaged  in  growing  and  manufacturing  wool  and 
flax,  it  was  not  until  1368  that  the  cultivation  and  manufacture  of  cotton  were 
well  established. 

Central  and  South  America  and  the  West  Indies  grew  and  manufactured 
cotton  long  before  their  discovery  by  Columbus,  Avbo  found  the  plant  under  cul- 
tivation, and  the  people  using  fabrics  made  from  the  staple.  At  the  conquest  of 
Mexico  by  Cortez,  in  1519, 
he  found  that  the  clothing  of 
the  Mexicans  consisted  prin- 
cipally of  cotton  goods;  the 
natives  of  Yucatan  present- 
ed him  with  cotton  garments 
and  cloths  for  covering  his 
tuts,  while  Montezuma  pre- 
sented him  with  "curtains, 
coverlets,  and  robes  of  cot- 
ton, fine  as  silk,  of  rich  and 

.  -.  '    .  Cotton  Planter,  A  D.  1S7B. 

various    dyes,    interwoven 

with  feather  work  that  rivaled  the  delicacy  of  painting."  The  plant  was 
successfully  cultivated  in  Peru  in  the  time  of  the  Incas,  in  1332.  Specimens 
were  also  found  in  the  ancient  Peruvian  tombs  and  taken  to  England  at  an  early 
•date  for  exhibition. 

Egypt  seems  not  to  have  either  cultivated  cotton  or  used  its  fabrics  at  a  very 
early  date,  since  the  cloths  in  which  the  mummies  were  enveloped  were  of  flax, 
instead  of  cotton.  Indeed,  it  appears  that  those  nations  which  were  early  cele- 
brated for  their  manufacture  of  fine  linen,  were  slow  to  substitute  the  cotton  for 
the  flax. 

Herodotus  mentions  cotton  fabrics  450  B.  C,  and  speaks  of  trees  in  India, 
^'bearing  as  their  fruit,  fleeces  more  delicate  and  beautiful  than  those  of  sheep." 
The  cotton  fabrics  of  the  Hindoos  have  been  excelled  in  firmness  and  excellence 
only  by  the  production  of  the  most  perfect  machines  of  modern  times.  The  city 
of  Calcutta,  on  the  western  coast,  gave  its  name  to  the  fabric  known  as  calico. 
Tavernice  describes  some  of  their  goods  as  "so  fine  that  you  could  hardly  feel 
them  in  your  hand,  and  the  thread  when  spun  is  hardly  discernible." 

The  famous  muslins  of  Dacca  have  been,  on  account  of  their  fineness,  desig- 
nated as  "webs  of  woven  wind."  It  is  said  that  muslins  made  in  Bengal  are  so 
fine  that  "  when  spread  upon  the  grass  and  covered  with  dew  they  are  not  dis- 
cernible." 

Spain  was  the  first  of  the  European  States  to  grow  cotton.  It  was  introduced 
here  by  the  Moors  in  the  tenth  century.  The  first  cotton  was  planted  in  the 
United  States  in  1621.  "Carroll's  Historical  Collections  of  South  Carolina" 
mention  the  growth  of  the  cotton  plant  in  that  province  in  1666.  In  1736,  it 
was  pianted  in  gardens  in  Talbot  county,  Maryland,  latitude  thirty-nine  north. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  revolutionary  war,  General  Pelaeall  was  said  to 


308 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


have  had  thirty  acres  planted  in  cotton  near  Savannah,  Georgia.  It  is  stated 
that  in  1748,  among  the  exports  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  were  seven  bags 
of  cotton  wool,  valued  at  three  pounds  eleven  shillings  and  five  pence  a  bag. 
Another  small  shipment  was  made  in  1754,  and  in  1770  three  more,  amounting 
to  ten  bales.  In  1784,  eight  bales  shipped  to  England  were  seized  on  the  ground 
that  so  much  cotton  could  not  he  produced  in  the  United  States.  The  first  Sea 
Island  cotton  was  grown  on  the  coast  of  Georgia  in  1786,  and  its  exportation  com- 
menced in  1788,  by  Alex- 
ander Bissel,  of  St.Simon's 
Island.  In  1791,  the  cot- 
ton crop  of  the  United 
States  Avas  two  million 
pounds,  of  which  three- 
fourths  was  grown  in 
South  Carolina  and  one- 
fourth  in  Georgia.  Ten 
years  later,  1801,  forty- 
.8£!2@S  eight  million  of  pounds 
'i  were  produced  —  twenty 
million  pounds  of  which 
was  exported. 

The  United  States  have  long  since  excelled  all  other  countries  in  the  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  the  cotton  produced.  India  ranks  next  in  importance  in  its 
supply  of  cotton  to  the  United  States,  but  its  fiber  is  far  inferior  to  the  American. 
The  other  cotton-producing  countries  worthy  of  mention  are  the  East  Indies, 
Brazil,  the  West  Indies  and  Guinea. 


Cotton  Planter,  A.  D.  1883. 


THE    CULTIVATION    OF   COTTON. 


We  commend  the  following  letter  from  one  of  the  most  prominent  and  suc- 
cessful planters  of  the  South  to  the  attention  of  our  readers: 

My  purpose  is  not  to  enter  into  a  lengthy  discussion  of  the  nature  of  the 
cotton  plant,  but  simply  to  give  a  few  plain  and  practical  rules  to  be  observed  in 
its  cultivation.  The  cotton  plant  is  subject  to  many  disasters,  and  requires  great 
care  in  its  cultivation.  It  is  a  tender  plant,  and  requires  that  its  surroundings 
should  be  favorable,  in  order  to  insure  its  proper  growth  and  development,  and 
hence  it  is  necessary  to  give  it  every  possible  advantage  from  first  to  last.  The 
success  of  a  cotton  crop  depends  as  much  upon  the  proper  preparation  of  the 
land  before  planting,  as  upon  the  after-cultivation  of  the  cotton. 

This  can  only  be  done  by  plowing  deeply,  and  breaking  up  very  fine;  and 
unless  this  is  done,  the  cotton  will  not  stand  a  drought  without  shedding  its 
forms,  as  cloddy  land  will  not  stand  a  drought. 

If  the  soil  is  stiff  and  liable  to  break  up  in  clods  when  plowed  with  an  ordi- 
nary plow,  the  sweep  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  best  plow  that  can  be  used  to  make 
the  soil  fine  in  breaking  up.  It  is  true  that  it  will  have  to  be  broken  several  times 
before  bedding,  but  still  very  little,  if  any  time  will  thereby  be  lost,  as  it  makes 
a  wide  furrow,  and  an  acre  of  ground  can  be  broken  up  almost  three  times  as 
quickly  with  a  wide  sweep,  as  it  can  with  a  scooter  ,    In  cultivating  cotton,  sweeps 


COTTON. 


309 


from  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches  across  the  wings,  should  bo  used  altogether,  as 
they  never  make  the  land  cloddy.  In  stiff  land  plow  twice  in  the  same  furrow, 
the  first  and  second  plowing  in  order  to  make  the  soil  fine  and  deep — four  furrows 
will  plow  out  a  row,  and  then  set  the  sweeps  to  run  very  flat  and  shallow,  so  that 
they  will  not  penetrate  the  soil  more  than  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half,  and 
run  only  twice  or  three  times  in  the  row. 

This  shallow  plowing  is  necessary  to  avoid  cutting  or  breaking  the  lateral 
roots  of  the  plant,  which  is  always  fatal  to  cotton,  causing  it  to  shed  its  fruit  and 


Cotton  fiauting. 

thereby  lose  a  portion  of  its  first  crop.  The  finer  and  deeper  you  can  make  the 
soil  between  the  rows  before  the  cotton  begins  to  take  on  forms,  the  more  effec- 
tually will  it  resist  drought  and  greater  will  be  its  yield.  For  deep  sandy  soil, 
however,  light  skimming  is  best  at  all  times.  The  width  of  the  rows  should  he 
regulated  by  the  climate  and  soil  in  which  the  cotton  is  planted.  La  a  northern 
climate  or  on  moist  flat  lands,  or  bottom' lands,  the  rows  should  be  wide  enough 
(according  to  the  variety  of  cotton  planted)  to  prevent  the  branches  from  inter- 
locking, in  order  that  the  cotton  may  get  sufficient  air  and  sun-shine  to  make  it 
mature  and  open  early.  The  stand  should  be  thick  in  the  drill,  say  three  stalks 
for  every  foot,  to  keep  down  the  sap  of  the  cotton  to  hasten  its  maturity,  j^or 
such  a  climate  and  such  soils,  the  Early  Cluster  variety  of  cotton  is  best;  and  it 
should  be  planted  on  high  beds  and  these  should  be  kept  up  in  its  cultivation  in 
order  to  keep  the  soil  as  warm  as  possible.     In  sections  far  north,  for  cotton,  it 


310 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


would  be  well  to  stir  the  soil  shallow  after  every  rain  to  increase  heat.  By  a  strict 
observance  of  this  rule,  I  think  that  the  production  of  cotton  could  be  success- 
fully accomplished  at  least  one  degree  north  of  the  present  limit  of  its  cultivation. 
In  the  middle  portion  of  the  cotton  section,  the  rows  should  not  be  very  wide 
■n  order  that  the  branches  may  interlock  freely,  with  a  good  stand  in  the  drill, 
say  two  stalks  for  every  foot.  In  the  southern  portion  of  the  cotton  section 
(except  on  damp  or  bottom  lands),  the  rows  should  be  narrow,  especially  on  diy 
sandy  soil,  or  in  sections  subject  to  long  droughts  (such  as  some  portions  of 
Texas  and  Southern  California),  in  order  that  the  land  may  be  well  shaded  and 
kept  comparatively  cool  to  prevent  the  heat  of  July  and  August  from  causing  the 
cotton  to  shed  its  fruit.  Moreover,  the  cotton  should  be  planted  and  cultivated 
on  a  flat  surface. 


Cotton  Hoeing. 

In  sections  subject  to  droughts,  cotton  should  be  planted  very  early  (even  at 
the  risk  of  its  having  to  be  planted  over),  in  order  that  a  fair  crop  may  bo  made 
before  the  heat  of  summer  comes  upon  it. 

The  success  of  cotton  raising  depends  very  much  upon  the  variety  of  cotton 
planted.  For  a  general  crop,  I  consider  the  last  improvement  on  the  Early 
Cluster  variety,  the  best  that  I  have  every  used,  as  it  produces  a  large  crop  of 
bolls  on  a  comparatively  small  stalk,  and  matures  very  early,  thereby  insuring  in 
sections  subject  to  the  cotton  worm,  a  fair  proportion  of  bolls  before  the  worm 
appears. 


COTTON.  311 


The  foregoing  hastily  written  views  are  submitted  to  the  public  with  the  hope 
that  they  may  be  of  some  little  benefit  to  the  cotton  planter,  and  even  if  they  do 
not  embody  a  correct  system  of  cotton  culture,  that  they  will  at  least  be  instru- 
mental in  directing  the  minds  of  those  who  are  concerned  to  a  thorough  investi- 
gation of  the  matter  which  will  eventually  lead  to  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the 
question,  "  What  is  the  best  practical  mode  of  cultivating  cotton?" 

FIRST    WORKING   OF   COTTON. 

By  the  time  the  corn  is  disposed  of,  cotton  will  need  its  first  working;  To 
avoid  "getting  behind,"  it  is  very  important  that  these  first  workings  should  be 
begun  as  early  and  pushed  forward  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Not  a  moment's  time 
should  be  lost.  Just  as  soon  as  the  cotton  is  up,  the  ground  on  each  side  of  it 
should  be  lightly  scraped  off,  either  with  scraper,  sweeps  or  harrow.  Something 
that  can  run  veiy  near  the  cotton,  kill  incipient  weeds  and  grass,  break  the  crust, 
&c,  and  yet  not  cover  up  the  cotton.  The  dirt  scraped  off  being  thrown  in  the 
middle  will  cover  up  the  young  grass  there  and  leave  everything  clean  but  the 
narrow  strips  where  the  cotton  stands.  Follow  now  with  hoes  and  chop  out  lightly 
aYid  rapidly.  The  bringing  down  to  a  final  stand  had  better  be  left  for  the  next 
working. 

Opinion  is  much  divided  as  to  what  constitutes  a  "stand."  It  must  necessa- 
rily vary  with  soil  and  climate,  and  ought  to  vary  with  width  of  rows — the  wider 
the  rows  the  thicker  the  stalks  should  stand  in  the  drill,  other  things  being  equal. 
Wherever  the  nature  of  the  land  (as  bottom  lands)  produces  dense,  luxuriant 
growth,  greater  distance  must  be  given  to  admit  air  and  light  and  prevent  rotting 
of  the  bolls.  Mr.  Dickson's  plan  of  leaving  from  two  to  three  stalks,  at  the  dis- 
tance apart  of  the  width  of  a  No.  2  Scovill's  hoe,  when  first"  published,  was 
opposed  by  many.  On  the  sandy  lands  along  the  coast,  where  Sea  Island  cotton 
is  cultivated,  such  crowding  will  not  answer.  The  stalks  will  run  up  without 
throwing  out  a  branch  for  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  from  the  ground.  Mr. 
Samuel  Barnett,  the  worthy  secretary  of  the  Georgia  State  Agricultural  Society, 
after  quite  an  extended  investigation  of  the  point  in  question,  came  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  nature  of  the  land  decided  whether  it  was  best  to  leave  one  or  three 
stalks  in  a'hill — and  that  matter  had  to  be  tested  by  each  one  for  himself  on  his 
own  farm — no  general  rule  on  the  subject  could  be  laid  down.  It  is  altogether 
probable  that  besides  the  nature  of  the  land,  the  length  or  shortness  of  the  season 
would  have  a  controlling  influence.  Mr.  Barnett's  observations  Avere  made  prin- 
cipally in  the  middle  portions  of  the  "  cotton  belt." 

One  of  the  best  farmers  in  Eastern  Virginia  says:  The  land  for  cotton  plant- 
ing should  be  closely  broken  from  four  to  six  inches  deep,  according  to  quality. 
Light  soft  land  need  not  be  broken  at  so  great  a  depth  as  stiff  close  land.  If  you 
have  coarse  barn-yard  manure,  it  should  be  spread  on  the  land  before  breaking; 
but  if  fine,  Avell  rotted  manure,  it  is  best  to  put  it  in  drills,  Avhich  should  be  marked 
off  a  distance  in  this  section  of  country  of  from  three  to  four  feet,  varying  accord- 
ing to  the  richness  of  the  soil,  giving  the  widest  distance  to  the  richest  land;  but 
the  usual  distance  does  not  \rary  far  from  three  feet.  The  rows  should  be  laid  off 
with  a  shoA^el  plow  or  trowel  hoe;  and  if  you  cannot  do  better,  a  single-horse  turn 
plow  will  answer  pretty  well.     If  I  have  fine,  Avell  rotted  manure,  or  intend  using 


312 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Peruvian  guano  or  strongly  ammoniated  manures,  I  put  it  along  in  this  row  and 
turn  two  streaks  over  it  with  a  one-horse  turn  plow,  which  will  only  make  a  small 
ridge,  which,  while  fresh  and  light,  should  be  opened  with  a  wooden  hoe,  made  by 
trimming  a  piece  of  hard  wood,  two  feet  long,  in  tbe  shape  of  a  hand-saw  file, 
and  placing  an  upright  in  about  the  middle,  so  that  when  placed  in  a  plow-beam 


and  run  on  top  the  ridges  the  rows  will  be  opened  not  more  than  two  inches  deep^ 
and  quite  sharp  at  the  bottom,  so  that  the  seed  when  sown  will  be  in  a  narrow, 
straight  row.  If  using  any  of  the  superphosphates,  I  sow  it  in  this  row  with  the 
seed.     About  three  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre  will  be  found  sufficient.     The  seed 


COTTON. 


313 


may  bo  rubbed  in  wood-ashes,  lime,  plaster,  or  dirt,  by  pouring  a  little  water  over 
them  and  then  rolling  them  -with  a  -weed-hoe,  in  order  to  divest  them  of  the  lint 
that  holds  them  together,  and  thereby  enable  you  to  scatter  them  uniformly  along 
the  rows.  This  being  done,  run  a  board  over  the  rows  to  cover  them  up,  which 
should  bo  done  as  shallow  as  possible. 


When  my  cotton  is  covered,  I  like  to  see  a  good  percentage  of  the  seed  on 
the  top  of  the  rows.  The  plow  to  cover  them  may  be  made  by  taking  a  piece  of 
scantling  or  plank,  two  feet  long,  and  mortice  or  nail  it  to  an  upright  piece  eigh- 
teen inches  long,  with  a  tenon  to  go  through  a  plow-beam,  and  run  it  gently  over 
the  rows.     Care  should  be  taken  to  secure  good  seed,  and  regularity  in  sowing  is 


314 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


n% 


essential,  as  much  depends  on  a  good 
stand  of  cotton  to  secure  a  full  crop. 
The  cotton  being  up,  the  cultivation 
should  be  commenced  as  early  as  pos- 
sible; first,  by  scraping  off  the  ridges 
with  a  cotton  scraper,  or  by  running  the 
bar  of  a  single  horse  plow  each  side  of 
the  cotton,  just  as  shallow  as  the  plow 
Avill  turn.  This  will  assist  you  very  much 
in  cutting  the  cotton  out  to  a  stand, 
as  it  leaves  the  cotton  on  a  narrow  row, 
and  if  done  by  good  plowmen  will  be 
quite  straight;  but  avoid  letting  your 
plow  go  deep,  or  you  will  have  diffi- 
culty in  keeping  your  cotton  from  fall- 
ing after  chopping  it  out. 

The  seasons  in  this  climate  being 
very  short  and  uncertain,  every  facility 
should  be  afforded  the  cotton,  to  make 
an  early  start;  the  sooner  the  cotton 
can  be  placed  in  a  growing  condition 
the  better.  Commence  cutting  it  out 
just  as  soon  as  it  is  done  coming  up. 
No.  2  or  3  weed  hoes  should  be  used  for 
that  purpose.  I  usually  run  over  it  rap- 
idly, leaving  several  stalks  in.  a  bunch, 
always  following  the  cutting  out  with 
the  plow  to  put  a  little  dirt  to  the  cot- 
ton to  keep  it  from  falling  in  case  of 
wind  or  drifting  rain.  The  Cato  plow 
I  mostly  use  for  this  purpose,  but  a 
shovel  plow  or  one  of  old-fashioned 
trowel  hoes  with  a  little  mould-board 
is  about  the  best  thing  I  ever  tried  for 
that  purpose.  As  soon  as  over  gapping 
it  out,  I  commence  thinning  to  a  stand, 
leaving  one  stalk  according  to  the  width 
of  the  hoe,  and  when  at  wider  distance, 
two  stalks. 

Your  cotton  thinned  and  worked, 
you  have  done  the  most  difficult  part 
in  cultivation.  The  plowing  for  cotton 
need  not  be  very  deep,  but  thorough  and 
close,  keeping  the  land  well  stirred  to 
keep  down  the  grass.  You  will  find  it 
necessary  to  plow  your  cotton  about  four 
times,  and  to  go  over  it  about  once  with 
the  hoes  after  it  is  thinned  to  a  stand. 
You  should  plow  your  cotton  over  as 


'COTTON.  315 


soon  as  possible  after  heavy  rains  or  wet  spells,  but  it  should  not  bo  plowed  when 
the  land  is  too  wet;  but  there  are  some  years  that  the  seasons  are  so  wet  this  can- 
not be  avoided. 

In  tbe  cultivation  of  the  crop  I  gradually  draw  out  my  plows.  The  last 
plowing  should  bo  quite  shallow,  only  sufficiently  deep  to  destroy  the  grass. 
Cotton  does  not  require  much  rain,  so  that  in  its  cultivation  you  should  avoid 
leaving  it  in  a  condition  that  the  water  will  settle  around  the  roots.  I  mean  by 
this  that  you  should  keep  the  middles  plowed  out  so  that  the  water  will  settle  in 
the  middle  of  the  rows.  When  the  cotton  begins  to  spread  over  the  row  so  that 
you  cannot  cultivate  it  longer  without  injury,  or  when  the  bolls  begin  to  form  to 
considerable  extent,  the  cultivation  should  cease,  always  leaving  your  cotton  clear 
of  grass. 


There  are  two  opinions  about  topping  cotton.  My  own  is  that  some  seasons 
it  is  an  advantage,  Avhile  in  others  it  is  a  disadvantage.  In  a  wet  season  it  is  cer- 
tainly a  disadvantage,  as  it  will  cause  the  cotton  to  sucker,  and  thereby  do  more 
harm  than  good.  When  the  seasons  are  regular,  I  think  topping  an  advantage; 
and  of  a  dry  year  I  think  it  does  no  good,  as  the  cotton  will  not  be  apt  to  be  of 
too  large  growth.  Half  a  bale  of  cotton  in  this  section  I  think  at  least  an  aver- 
age crop,  but  we  sometimes  get  as  much  as  a  bale  to  the  acre.  The  same  land 
may  be  put  in  cotton  for  many  years  without  injury  to  the  land  or  detriment  to 
the  crop,  by  proper  care  and  judicious  fertilizing. 

The  season  for  picking  cotton  in  this  section  commences  about  the  1st  Octo- 
ber, and  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  is  a  fair  day's  Avork. 

LINTLESS    COTTON. 

Gerald  McCarthy,  Botanist,  North  Carolina  Experiment  Station,  says:  This 
is  what  is  usually  known  as  a  "Sport"  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  will  not  pro- 
duce seed  true  to  the  new  type.  The  composition  of  cotton  seed  is  as  follows  : 
One  thousand  pounds  of  seed  contains  about  fifteen  pounds  potash  and  sixteen 
pounds  phosphoric  acid,  all  of  which  comes  from  the  soil,  and  must  be  rej^laced 
with  fertilizer.  According  to  latest  statistics,  the  farmers  of  the  cotton  belt  annu- 
ally produce  about  2,300,000  tons  of  cotton  seed,  which  they  sell  to  the  mills  for 
export  to  the  Northern  States  and  Europe  for  about  $18,000,000.  To  replace  the 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid  contained  in  this  quantity  of  seed  they  are  compelled 
to  pay  for  commercial  fertilizers  $46,500,000.  In  other  words,  they  deliberately 
throw  away,  or  make  a  present  to,  Northern  and  European  stock-raisers  and  rail- 
road companies  of  $28,500,000. 

These  figures  tell  the  whole  story.  They  explain  why,  throughout  the  cotton 
belt,  the  houses  are  generally  unpainted,  the  surroundings  wretched,  an  d  poverty 
apparent  everywhere. 

It  must  be  a  very  wealthy  country  that  can  afford  to  throw  away  annually  as 
much  money  as  the  cotton  planters  do.  But  the  above  figures  are  really  much 
below  the  real  amount.  Not  only  does  the  cotton  farmer  sell  his  seed  for  less 
than  one-third  of  its  value,  but  he  afterwards  buys  back  at  exorbitant  prices, 
under  the  name  of  "lard,"  the  oil  contained  in  the  seed,  and  the  meal  as  Northern 
beef,  which  has  probably  been  fed  upon  cotton  seed. 

Considering  the  manurial  value  of  cotton  seed,  and  the  market  price  the 
farmer  gets  for  it,  the  business  is  sufficiently  ruinous  even  when  the  farmer  sells 


31fi'  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


his  lint  for  a  fair  price.     To  go  into  the  business  of  growing  lintless  seed  is  not  a 
very  encouraging  prospect  for  either  the  farmer  or  the  country. 

Intelligent  and  prudent  farmers  will  continue  to  grow  for  lint,  and  strive,  by 
careful  selection,  to  improve  both  quantity  and  quality  of  the  staple,  while 
reducing,  if  possible,  the  weight  of  seed  to  the  bale.  They  will  return  their  seed 
directly  to  the  soil,  or  better,  feed  it  to  cattle  or  sheep,  and  save  the  manure.  If, 
when  cotton  is  "laid  by,"  cow-peas, burr-clover,  rye,  or  buckwheat  be  sown  in  the 
furrows,  the  latter  crops  will  cover  the  ground  and  keep  the  land  free  from  weeds. 
When  the  cotton-pickers  have  finished  their  work,  cattle  or  sheep  may  be  turned 
into  the  field  to  consume  the  crop  sown  in  the  furrows,  or  this  may  be  allowed  to 
stand  till  spring  and  be  plowed  under.  In  this  Avay,  with  the  purchase  of  very 
little  commercial  fertilizer,  the  maximum  crops  of  lint  cotton  may  be  secured  and 
the  land  kept  in  good  heart. 

TWENTY-EIGHT    BALES    OF    COTTON    ON    TWELVE    ACRES    OF    LAND. 

During  the  cotton  season  a  correspondent  of  the  Southern  Planter  frequently 
heard  of  a  wonderful  patch  of  cotton  on  Mr.  John  P.  Gray's  farm.  He  says, 
in  the  March,  1890,  number  of  this  excellent  journal  :  I  have  secured  an  ac- 
count thinking  it  might  stimulate  others,  particularly  those  who  work  small 
farms  with  their  own  hands.  If  every  crop  this  year  were  cut  down  one-half, 
and  the  same  time  and  manure  and  attention  given  to  the  other  half,  there  would 
be  no  diminution  in  yield  and  more  satisfaction.  The  yield  of  cotton  is  won- 
derful in  this  case,  but  others  have  nearly  reached  it  Mr.  A.  M.  DeLoach,  of 
Stafford's,  made  on  thirteen  acres  fifteen,  twenty,  and  twenty-five  bales  of  500 
pounds  each.  The  land  was  cow-penned  at  the  rate  of  two  acres  per  year.  "We 
have  too  few  stock;  no  cattle,  no  prosperity.  There  should  be  three  where  there 
is  only  one  cow  now,  and  1,000  sheep  where  there  is  now  only  one.  Mr.  Gray 
will  use  1,000  pounds  of  fertilizer  this  season  and  fifty  bushels  of  cotton  seed,  and 
Mr.  DeLoach  will  work  his  field  for  all  it  is  worth.  Who  will  follow  suit?  Here 
is  Mr.  Gray's  account: 

Broke  the  land  flush  with  six-inch  turn  plow,  deep,  in  latter  part  of  Febru- 
ary. Then  laid  off  in  five-foot  rows,  very  deep.  Put  down  fifty  bushels  green 
cotton  seed  per  acre;  measured  acres  twenty-one  row  to  task.  Covered  the  seed 
lightly  with  board  on  plow  stock.  Let  stand  until  the  6th  of  April,  and  put  down 
two  hundred  pounds  of  Georgia  State  Grange  fertilizer  to  the  measured  acre  on 
the  top  of  the  seed.  Then  I  put  four  furrows,  with  seven-inch  turn  plow  to  the 
bed,  moderately  shallow;  opened  for  planting  with  small,  short  bull  tongue. 
Dropped  seed  by  hand  thirty  inches  apart  in  hills;  covered  with  log  drag  on  the 
10th  of  April;  then  on  the  1st  of  May  before  it  was  fairly  up,  plowed  very  shal- 
lowwith  twenty-six  inch  sweep,  four  furrows  to  the  row,  and  replanted;  stand 
poor.  On  May  20th,  ploAved  every  other  middle  very  shallow,  and  put  in  the 
siding  furrow  two  hundred  pounds  of  the  following  mixture:  Equal  quantities  of 
cotton  seed  meal,  acid  phosphate  and  kainit  to  the  measured  acre.  On  the  1st 
of  June,  same  in  the  other  middle,  going  behind  each  plowing  with  hoes,  and 
chopping  anything  that  should  not  remain  in  cotton,  going  over  three  acres  per 
day  with  the  hand;  thinned  to  stand,  which  was  never  very  good.  On  the  12th 
of  June  put  four  furrows  to  every  other  middle  with  twenty-six  inch  sweep,  very 
Bhallow;  on  the  24th,  four  furrows  to  every  other  middle  with  twenty-six  inch 


An   Ante-Bellum  Planter. 


(317) 


318  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 

sweep,  very  shallow.  July  6tli,  the  other  middle  same  way;  on  the  18th  same  as 
to  other  middle.  The  cotton  hy  this  time  would  hide  a  medium  size  mule.  Did  not 
plow  any  more.  After  the  land  was  broken  all  plowing  was  very  shallow.  Season  was 
good  through  April,  dry  in  May,  until  middle  of  July,  and  then  excessively  hot  and 
wet.  After  very  heavy  rains — 13th,  14th,  and  15th — all  the  crop  on  place,  except 
the  twelve  acres  described,  scalded  and  stopped  growing  and  made  nothing  after 
that.  But  the  twelve  acres  did  not  drop  a  form  or  leaf  or  change  color,  and  grew 
on  steadily  until  September  15.  Then  the  caterpillars  left  nothing  but  stalks  and 
bolls.  I  am  confident  the  patch  would  have  made  one-half  bale  more  to  the  acre 
if  the  caterpillar  had  not  attacked  it.  The  land  was  old  and  worn.  Ten  years 
ago  I  commenced  to  manure  it.  Soil  is  sandy,  mixed  a  little  with  clay  in  spots; 
subsoil  yellow  clay,  varying  from  six  inches  to  three  feet  in  the  three  acres. 
The  following  is  the  cost: 

Work,  plowing  and  hoeing,  -         -         -         -         -         -  $96  80 

Cotton  seed  for  manure,         ------  120  50 

Guano  (600  pounds  to  acre), 79  20 

Cost  of  picking, -         -  190  50 


$486  00 


I  gathered  twenty-eight  bales  weighing  five  hundred  and  five  pounds,  includ- 
ing bagging  (jute)  and  ties.  Averaging  net  $45 — the  twenty-eight  making  $1,260, 
and  the  net  on  twelve  acres  being  $774. 

I  planted  Peterkin  seed,  hybridized  with  the  Jones  big  boll. 


TSTEW    VARIETIES    OF    COTTON. 


During  the  last  year  the  Mississippi  Experiment  Station  has  grown  twenty- 
five  varieties  of  cotton  as  a  test  of  comparative  yield  and  values.  All  were  grown 
on  similar  soils  and  received  the  same  treatment,  but  the  yields  varied  from  157.6 
to  396.3  pounds  of  lint  cotton  per  acre.  The  proportion  of  lint  to  seed  varied 
from 26.5  per  cent,  in  the  "Dickson's  Improved"  to  36.3  percent,  in  the  "Cham- 
pion Cluster,"  and  the  average  number  of  ripened  bolls  from  lOf  on  "The Pre- 
mium" to  32§  on  the  "Peterkin."  The  average  yield  of  lint  cotton  was  301.9 
pounds  per  acre,  while  the  average  of  the  five  varieties  giving  the  largest  yields 
was  379.2  pounds  per  acre,  as  follows: 

Truitt's  Premium, 396.3 

Ferrell's  Prolific,        --------  395. 

Jones's  Long  Staple  Prolific,      ------  385.2 

Excelsior,  ---------  335.5 

Dickson's  Improved,  -------  352.2 

This  work  is  to  be  continued  during  the  present  year,  and  it  is  desired  to  add 
other  new  and  promising  varieties  to  those  used  last  year.  Parties  having  varie- 
ties of  cotton  which  are  in  any  way  superior  to  the  old  and  well-known  sorts,  will 
confer  a  favor  by  writing  to  me  and  giving  description. 

S.  M.  Tracy, 
Director  Experiment  Station,  Agricultural  College,  Miss. 
February  6,  1890. 


COTTON.  3T9 


HON.    PARISH    C    FURMAN   ON    INTENSIVE    FARMING. 

In  the  life-history  of  every  people,  as  in  that  of  each  individual,  sooner  or 
later,  there  conies  a  timo  when  confronted  l>y  an  onward  rushing  wave  of  adverse 
circumstances,  all  the  intelligence,  courage,  and  self-reliance  of  the  individual,  all 
tho  patriotism,  culture,  and  self-devotion  of  the  people  are  called  into  active  and 
unswerving  exercise  in  order  that  from  the  nettle  danger  may  be  plucked  the 
flower  safety,  and  that  the  wave  threatening  devastation  and  destruction  may,  once 
overmounted,  become  the  friendly  tide  that,  taken  at  the  flood,  leads  on  to  fortune. 
It  is  through  such  an  ordeal  that  Ave,  the  people  of  the  South,  are  passing  to-day. 
Within  a  period  of  time  so  short  that  it  seems  that  yesterday  all  our  most  cher- 
ished institutions  have  been  swept  away  like  leaves  upon  the  bosom  of  a  mountain 
torrent,  leaving  us,  as  the  heritage  with  "which  to  begin  as  it  were  anew  our  struggle 
for  existence,  only  our  homes  and  our  honor — the  one  as  pure  and  untarnished  as 
the  driven  snow — the  other,  alas!  in  bub  too  many  instances,  charred  by  a  cruel 
war.  Never,  perhaps,  in  the  history  of  the  world  have  circumstances  surround- 
ing a  people  appeared  so  dark  and  gloomy  as  those  that  have  latterly  enveloped 
iJs.  For  us,  it  has  truly  seemed  that  each  day  dawned  upon  a  change,  and  every 
sun  set  upon  new  miseries.  Our  heart-strings  torn  and  bleeding  with  the  loss  of 
many  of  our  bravest  and  wisest,  with  every  representative  of  value  that  had  been 
established  among  us  swept  from  existence,  without  any  manufacturing  interests, 
we  were  forced  to  turn  to  our  Southern  soil,  and  to  that  alone,  as  the  source  from 
whence  the  material  must  be  obtained  with  which  to  rebuild  our  shattered  for- 
tunes. Nobly  has  that  soil  responded,  and  although  at  first  our  progress  was 
slow  and  uncertain — though  dark  was  the  night  and  lowering  the  clouds  by  which 
we  were  surrounded — without  the  light  of  even  one  feeble  star  to  guide  our  falter- 
ing footsteps,  yet  at  last,  thank  God,  the  night  is  passing  away,  and  through  a 
rift  in  the  clouds,  that  are  fast  dispersing  and  disappearing,  the  glorious  sunlight  of 
a  new  and  perfect  day  is  gilding  with  its  golden  beams  the  hilltops  and  valleys  of 
our  native  land  once  more. 

For  us,  old  customs,  old  methods,  old  systems  have  become  as  memories, 
suggesting  to  us  in  their  connection  with  a  past  that  can  never  be  reproduced, 
associations  that  are  both  pleasant  and  mournful  to  the  soul.  The  old  South, 
with  its  peculiar  institutions,  its  marked  individualities,  is  gone  forever.  New 
methods,  new  habits,  new  systems  are  daily  asserting  and  establishing  themselves 
among  us,  and  it  is  to  a  comparison  of  the  old  and  the  new  that  I  invite  your 
attention  to-day;  for  it  is  only  from  the  record  of  our  mistakes  in  the  past  that 
•wisdom  can  ever  be  derived  to  lead  us  to  success  in  the  future.  Great  as  are  the 
changes  that  have  occurred  with  us  in  every  department,  in  none  have  they  been 
so  marked  and  complete  as  in  our  entire  system  of  agriculture,  and  in  no  depart- 
ment was  the  necessity  for  a  change  more  pressing — nay,  more  vitally  essential. 

An  examination  into  the  methods  and  customs  almost  universally  in  vogue 
among  the  farmers  of  ante-bellum  days  shows  that  these  were  deserving  of  the 
name  of  system  upon  one  score  only,  and  that  was  systematic  destruction,  every- 
thing to  tear  down — nothing  looking  towards  building  up.  With  our  fore-fathers 
the  history  of  agriculture  was  the  repetition  of  an  oft-told  tale — the  plow  ever 
following  fast  upon  the  axe.  Their  system  of  agriculture  looked  only  to  immediate 
jeturns,  not  to  ultimate  results. 


320  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


When  this  country,  with  its  untold  resources,  was  delivered  into  their  hands 
a  priceless  heritage  indeed  was  theirs.  How  have  they  accounted  for  the  trust? 
After  retaining  its  possession  and  use  uninterruptedly  for  nearly  a  century,  in 
what  condition  have  they  transferred  it  to  us,  their  descendants?  Is  it  improved, 
beautified — with  its  hill-sides  laughing  with  fatness  and  its  valleys  teeming  with 
accumulated  fertility?  Ask  of  the  intelligent  traveler  who  has  just  completed  a 
journey  through  the  cotton  belt  of  the  South,  and  what  think  you  will  be  his 
answer?  He  will  tell  you  of  a  land  from  the  face  of  which  the  magnificent  forests 
of  oak,  ash,  hickory  and  pine,  that  once  adorned  the  hills  and  beautified  the 
valleys,  have  disappeared,  leaving  in  their  stead  a  ragged  growth  of  old-field  pine, 
interspersed  with  patches  of  broom-sedge  and  briars,  and  seamed  and  scarred  with 
gullies  of  every  conceivable  shape  and  size. 

He  will  tell  you  that  the  brooks  and  streamlets,  once  perennial,  now  upon 
the  recurrence  of  every  summer  dry  up  and  disappear,  leaving  the  beds  over 
which  they  were  wont  to  sing  and  sparkle,  as  deposits  for  mud  and  organic  matter, 
rotting  and  festering  under  the  rays  of  our  semi-tropical 
sun — fruitful  sources  of  miasma  and  disease.  He  will 
tell  you  that  our  rivers,  once  teeming  with  the  finest 
fish,  their  waters  pure  and  clear  as  those  of  the  fountains 
from  which  they  took  their  source,  now  roll  on,  dark, 
muddy,  repulsive — their  waters  laden  with  the  fertility 
that  every  rain  bears  into  their  bosoms  from  our  denuded 
and  already  exhausted  soil,  making  of  them  fit  abodes 
only  for  the  scavengers  of  the  sea,  tbe  mud-cat  and  the 
gar.     He  will  tell  you  that  our   country  looks  prema-  ^^^^?§^P 

turely  old  and  that  there  must  be  something  .radically  HmaooFootEoiier. 

wrong  in  a  system  of  agriculture  that  has  already  wrought  such  disastrous  results, 
in  a  section  peculiarly  favored  with  advantages  of  soil  and  climate,  and  that 
promises  to  develop  under  more  favorable  auspices  into  the  garden  spot  of  the 
world.     Do  we  not  realize  fully  the  force  and  effect  of  these  statements. 

Under  the  old  system,  before  the  war,  was  not  the  truth  brought  home  to  us 
by  the  yearly  hegira  to  the  fresh  and  untried  regions  of  the  West,  that  annually 
deprived  us  of  many  of  our  most  valuable  and  enterprising  citizens,  who,  perceiv- 
ing that  their  lands  were  failing,  and  the  fresh  or  forest  land  in  the  older  States 
having  all  been  pre-empted  and  cleared,  sold  out  and  sought  fresh  fields  and 
pastures  new,  rather  than  attempt  to  build  up  and  restore  their  paternal  acres. 

But  there  is  a  limit  to  even  this.  The  Western  lands,  then  a  terra  incognita, 
are  now  in  their  turn  settled  and  in  cultivation,  and  are  in  many  sections,  notably 
in  Mississippi,  as  I  learn  from  reliable  authority,  even  with  their  wonderful 
natural  fertility,  beginning  to  give  warning  by  decreasing  productiveness,  that 
they  cannot  always  stand  the  drain  of  our  unnatural  system. 

In  every  section  of  the  South,  from  the  Potomac  to  the  Rio  Grande,  the 
farmers  are  awakening  to  the  fact  that  the  system  of  our  fore-fathers  was  ruinous 
to  themselves  and  the  prospects  of  their  children.  While  they  recognize  and 
indorse  the  principle  so  grandly  illustrated  by  thousands  of  their  brethren  during 
the  dark  days  from  18G0  to  1865,  that  it  is  right  to  die  that  our  country  may  live, 
yet  they  have  followed  a  policy  at  home  that  is  slowly  but  surely  draining  from 
that  country  its  heart-blood  drop  by  drop;  they  have  been  allowing  their  country 


COTTON.  321 


to  die,  and  aiding  and  abetting  in  that  death,  that  they  themselves  may  starve. 
At  last  they  have  become  keenly  alive  to  this  great  fact  and  every  impulse  of 
patriotism  and  self-interest  prompt  them  to  put  a  stop  at  once  and  forever  to  so 
unnatural  and  unfortunate  a  system.  They  admit  that  their  lands  are  daily 
becoming  poorer;  they  recognize  the  fact  that  this  is  an  evil,  and  that  the  great 
question  of  the  day  in  this  country  for  all  classes,  the  rich  and  the  poor,  the 
learned  and  the  ignorant  is,  what  is  the  source  of  this  evil,  and  where  is  the 
remedy? 

It  is  a  maxim  of  the  law,  based  upon  common  sense  and  experience,  that  for 
every  wrong  there  is  a  remedy,  but  before  the  remedy  can  be  applied  the  cause 
from  whence  the  evil  springs  must  be  definitely  ascer- 
tained, for  that  once  removed,  the  evil,  which  is  but  its 
visible  manifestation,  can  no  longer  exist.  In  this  case 
the  cause  is,  I  am  satisfied,  to  be  found  in  a  system 
directly  and  necessary  resulting  from  the  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances surrounding  the  Southern  planter  of  the 
olden  time. 

•  From  the  very  nature  of  things  the  Southern  planter 
was  foreordained  to  be  an  extensive  farmer.  With  him 
everything  was  done  on  a  magnificent  scale.     He  was  Hindoo churka Gin. 

literally  monarch  of  all  he  surveyed,  with  authority  within  the  law  as  abso- 
lute as  the  autocrat  of  all  the  Russias.  The  possession  of  hundreds  and  thou- 
sands of  slaves  dependent  upon  him  for  food,  care  and  protection,  drove  him  to 
the  utilization  of  their  labor  in  the  cultivation  of  large  areas  of  land. 

His  business  necessarily  became  so  cumbersome  and  its  demand  for  time  ana 
attention  in  all  its  branches  so  irksome  that  the  management  of  its  details  (those 
all  important  items  in  scientific  agriculture)  was  inevitably  entrusted  to  agents, 
and  on  every  Southern  plantation  in  the  days  of  slavery  the  overseer,  as  the  agent 
was  called,  became  a  standing  institution,  as  essential  to  the  regular  working  of 
the  farm  machinery  as  Cuffee  himself.  These  overseers,  without  exception,  were 
an  uneducated  class  of  men,  energetic,  with  fair  executive  ability,  but  entirely 
devoid  of  those  educational  advantages,  absolutely  essential  where  improved 
methods,  based  upon  an  exact  and  scientific  system  are  to  be  introduced  and 
observed  as  the  ground-work  for  an  advanced  and  intelligent  system  of  hus- 
bandry. To  them,  as  a  rule,  the  supervision  of  the  farm  work,  from  seed  time 
to  harvest,  was  entrusted,  and  the  attention  of  the  proprietor  was  divided  between 
the  general  management  of  his  finances,  a  search  after  recreation,  in  travel,  at 
home  and  abroad,  and  an  active  interest  in  the  success  of  his  political  party,  and 
friends — for  Southern  agriculture  of  the  olden  time  proved  a  better  school  for 
statesmen  than  for  farmers. 

Under  such  a  system  diversified  agriculture  was  out  of  the  question,  for  it 
requires  a  division  of  labor  necessarily  employing  skill  and  training,  and  fer- 
quently  demanding  the  use  of  improved  implements  and  machinery,  and  above 
all,  calling  for  the  constant  presence  and  intelligent  direction  of  an  educated 
brain,  such  as  the  average  overseer  could  never  expect  to  possess.  Southern  agri- 
culture, therefore,  resolved  itself  largely  into  the  cultivation  of  the  two  great  crops 
of  the  country,  corn  and  cotton,  and  it  is  to  the  constant,  unvarying  production 
of  these,  that  we  may  trace  the  source  of  all  our  woes.     Labor  costing  nothing, 


322  PROFITABLE  FARMING 


except  the  expense  of  feeding  and  clothing  the  laborer,  the  corn  crop  furnishing 
the  hog  and  hominy,  the  favorite  food  of  the  negro,  and  the  cotton  was  left  as  the 
money  crop,  always  easily  and  certainly  convertible  into  cash.  Under  this  system 
the  last  thing  ever  taken  into  consideration  was  the  effect  upon  the  soil;  that 
planter  was  considered  the  most  successful  who  could  exhibit  the  greatest  produc- 
tion to  the  hand  or  laborer,  and  not  to  the  acre  or  given  amount  of  land;  and 
until  the  introduction  of  Peruvian  guano  a  few  years  before  the  war  the  use  of 
manure,  except  upon  the  garden,  or  the  turnip  patch,  was  an  unknown  factor  in 
Southern  agriculture.  As  a  natural  result  there  has  been  a  steady  and  rapid 
deterioration  in  the  productiveness  of  our  cultivated  lands.  Even  with  slave 
labor,  agriculture  in  the  older  settled  portions  of  the  South,  where  the  lands  had 
long  been  and  continuously  in  cultivation,  was  becoming  unremunerative;  and 
when,  after  emancipation,  our  planters,  loath  to  leave  the  old  rut,  and  wedded  to 
old  habits,  undertook  to  hire  their  labor,  and  farm  as  before,  the  result  was  not 
slow  in  making  itself  known,  by  working  out  the  universal  bankruptcy  of  all  who 
attempted  it. 

It  has  been  thoroughly  demonstrated  that  in  the  older  settled  portions  of 
the  South  the  extensive  system  as  formerly  practiced  must  be  abandoned,  and  in 
many  sections  a  system  of  tenantry  for  a  stated  rent,  or  farming  on  shares,  whereby 
the  labor  of  the  freedman  is  put  against  the  use  of  this  land,  has  been  adopted ;  but 
this  is  only  temporary,  as  the  wear  of  the  land  is  greater  here  under  Cuffee's  mode 
of  culture  when  farming  for  himself,  uninstructed,  and  neglected  by  the  land  owner, 
than  when  the  same  darkey  Avorked  it  as  a  slave  under  the  watchful  eye  of  the 
overseer.  There  can  be  no  permanency  in  any  system  of  agriculture  that  fails 
to  build  up  the  soil,  and  keep  it  at  least  at  a  certain  standard.  This  can  only  be 
accomplished  with  us  by  a  change  from  extensive  to  intensive  farming — by  a 
reduction  of  our  acreage  and  an  increase  of  its  productiveness.  In  other  words, 
we  must  plant  less  land  and  make  more  on  it.  Just  here  lies  the  solution  of  our 
troubles.  But  methinks  I  note  a  suggestion  in  the  form  of  a  query  shaping  itself 
in  the  minds  of  more  than  one  of  my  hearers:  "I  can  easily  plant  less  land,  but 
how  am  I  to  make  more  on  it?  There's  the  rub."  I  tell  you  to  feed  your  land 
and  your  land  will  feed  you.  The  return  in  increased  and  sustained  power  for  labor 
and  service  upon  the  part  of  the  animal,  that  you  secure  from  the  food  that  you  give 
your  horse,  is  not  more  certain,  immediate,  and  satisfactory,  than  will  be  the 
increased  productiveness  of  your  land  in  its  yield  of  any  given  crop,  in  return  for 
plant  food  furnished  in  quantity  and  quality  suited  to  the  requirements  of  that 
crop.  You  must  feed  your  land,  but  you  must  not  do  so  blindly  but  intelligently. 
Success  may  be  attained  once  by  accident,  but  permanent  results  are  found  only 
attendant  upon  a  practice  based  upon  correct  theory.  With  many  intelligent 
farmers  the  idea  has  been  persistently  maintained  that  in  case  of  imperfect  pro- 
duction, the  deficiency  being  in  the  soil,  soil  analysis  should  be  resorted  to  as  the 
most  direct  and  economical  means  for  acquiring  that  knowledge  necessary  to 
enable  them  to  restore  to  the  soil  those  elements  in  which  it  is  lacking;  and  this 
theory  which,  though  specious,  is  incorrect  and  impractical,  has  really  been  a 
great  stumbling  block  in  the  way  of  our  proper  agricultural  advancement. 

Upon  this  point,  I  desire  to  give  you  in  full  the  opinion  of  George  Yille,  of 
France,  the  man  selected  by  Napoleon  III.  as  the  man  in  all  France  to  take 
charge  of  the  experimental  farm  of  the  empire  at  Vincennes.     Ho  says:  One 


COTTON.  323 


would  think  that  a  chemical  analysis  -which  has  been  pushed  so  far  in  our  day 
and  whose  methods  have  acquired  at  the  same  time  so  much  delicacy  and  cer- 
tainty, ought  at  least  to  give  us  a  means  of  estimating  with  certainty  the  richness 
of  the  soil,  and  so  guiding  us  in  the  choice  of  the  manure  best  suited  to  its  nature. 
There  is  none,  however,  and  I  defy  the  most  skillful  chemist  to  say  in  advance 
what  will  be  the  return  from  earth  submitted  to  him,  and  what  manures  are  most 
appropriate.  A  few  words  will  explain  the  reason  why  chemistry  is  powerless  to 
furnish  us  with  these  indications.  Let  us  suppose  a  soil  containing  both  quartz 
sand  and  feldspar  sand  among  its  mechanical  elements.  For  vegetation  these 
two  sands  are  equivalent,  although  the  first  is  from  silica,  and  nothing  but 
silica,  while  the  second  is  a  silicate  based  upon  lime,  potash  and  soda,  besides 
containing  phosphate  of  lime  in  feeble  but  very  appreciable  Quantities.  Here 
then  are  two  bodies  whose  composition,  in  spite  of  simil- 
itude of  exterior,  have  no  analogy,  and  which,  however, 
are  equivalent  in  an  agricultural  point  of  view,  because 
the  feldspar  being  insoluble  in  water  its  role  in  regard 
to  vegetation  descends  to  that  of  the  quartz  sand,  that 
♦s  to  say  to  a  simple  mechanical  element.  But  for  the 
chemist  there  are  no  insoluble  bodies.  So  he  confounds 
in  one  whole  the  potash,  lime,  and  phosphate  of  lime  \/&" 
that  the  feldspar  sand  contains,  though  they  are  of  no 
use  in  vegetation,  with  the  products  of  the  same  nature  cSmie cotton dewier, 

which  we  have  ranged  under  the  class  of  active  assimilable  elements.     Thus  is 
explained  the  insufficiency  of  the  signs  Avith  which  chemistry  can  furnish  us. 

You  cannot,  therefore,  by  analysis  of  your  soil  find  your  way  to  properly 
feed  your  land,  because,  in  a  mixture  of  minerals,  the  chemist  is  powerless  to  dis- 
tinguish between  those  that  are  active  in  regard  to  plants,  and  those  that  are 
inert.  Let  us,  therefore,  come  to  look  upon  our  soil  as  being  what  it  really  is — 
only  the  vehicle  for  making  our  crops,  furnished,  it  is  true,  by  an  all-wise  Creator 
with  a  supply,  greater  or  less  in  different  soils  and  different  localities,  of  the  dif- 
ferent elements  of  fertility  essential  to  plant  growth ;  but  a  supply,  limited  at 
best,  and  that  must  be  constantly  renewed  as  a  drain  is  made  upon  it,  to  prevent 
final  exhaustion  and  sterility.  Having  assumed  this  stand-point,  does  not  our 
way  become  clear?  Is  it  not  evident  that  without  a  draft  upon  the  natural  sup- 
ply or  deposit  in  our  bank,  so  to  speak,  the  capital  will  not  be  disturbed?  while 
on  the  other  hand,  common  sense  and  experience  both  tell  us  that  if  continual 
drafts  are  made  without  any  return,  our  deposit  must  sooner  or  later  be  entirely 
exhausted?  Whence,  then,  comes  the  drain?  Clearly  from  the  crops.  If,  then, 
we  are  able  to  ascertain  what  it  takes  to  make  a  given  crop;  Avhat  organic  and 
inorganic  elements,  and  in  what  proportion  of  each,  and  can  further  determine 
accurately  in  what  form  to  restore  these  to  the  soil  whence  they  have  been  with- 
drawn so  as  most  economically  and  effectually  to  furnish  them  as  plant  food,  then 
the  problem  is  solved,  and  we  ought,  in  practice,  to  be  able  to  build  up  and 
improve  our  lands  under  a  continued  and  unbroken  cultivation.  With  our  Southern 
farmers  much  discredit  has  been  thrown  upon  the  chemical  manures,  Avhich,  pro- 
perly used,  are  invaluable,  by  their  improper  or  one-sided  use,  first  as  Peruvian 
guano,  and  latterly  by  what  are  knoAvn  as  commercial  fertilizers.  These  are  phos- 
phatic  ammoniated  manures,  and  you  will  pardon  me  for  quoting  the  opinion  of 


324 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Hand  Puliiug. 


an  eminent  scientist  of  Germany,  Dr.  Franz  Guroberg,  as  touching  the  effect  of 
their  indiscriminate  use.     The  doctor  says: 

"There  is  no  doubt  about  the  fact  that  the  application  of  bone  dust,  as  well 
as  other  phosphates,  to  the  soil,  may  and  will  produce  large  yields  for  several 
years,  the  soil,  by  reason  of  such  application  (mainly  in  connection  with  nitrogen) 

being  stimulated  to  more  vigorous  action. 
The  soil  yields  largely  of  the  nourishment, 
which,  in  addition  to  phosphates,  all  plants 
necessarily  require,  but  as  no  compensation 
is  allowed  for  the  absorption  of  the  former, 
we  but  too  often  experience  the  result  that 
where  a  soil  receives  only  phosphate  manu- 
ring for  a  length  of  time,  it  will  become 
eventually  entirely  unproductive.  Phos- 
phate manuring  only  restores  to  the  soil 
the  one,  omitting  the  other  nourishments 
needed  for  the  active  thriving  of  the  plants, 
and  as  a  consequence  the  soil  and  crops 
deteriorate  in  quantity  and  quality.  One- 
sided manurement  will  not  produce  satis- 
factory results  for  any  length  of  time." 

The  experience  of  our  farmers  in  the 
use  of  these  phosphatic  ammoniated  ma- 
nures exactly  supports  the  truth  of  the  doctor's  assertion.  "When  first  intro- 
duced all  who  tried  them  were  delighted  and  thought  they  had  found  a  bonanza 
indeed.  So  long  as  the  elements  essential  to  plant  growth  that  the  fertilizer 
failed  to  furnish,  and  that  therefore  had  to  be  forthcoming  from  the  soil,  held  out, 
not  a  dissenting  voice  was  heard  as  to  their  value,  and  the  business  of  the  manu- 
facture and  sale  rapidly  assumed  gigantic  proportions.  But  after  a  while  the 
farmers  found  that,  all  at  once,  without  any  premonition,  lands  upon  which  fertili- 
zers had  been  continuously  used,  began  to  show  evident  signs  of  exhaustion,  and 
in  the  case  of  the  cotton  crop,  rust,  which  is  but  the  result  of  improper  nutrition, 
or  starvation,  made  its  dreaded  appearance.  To  meet  the  exigency  many  farmers 
doubled  and  quadrupled  their  application  of  fertilizers,  but,  to  their  astonish- 
ment, with  no  visible  improvement;  and  not  understanding  the  cause  of  the 
sudden  change,  many  of  them  believed  that  the  acids  in  the  chemicals  had 
poisoned  the  land.  In  this  they  were  mistaken.  Most  plants  are  very  composite. 
the  cotton  plant  peculiarly  so,  requiring  nine  different  elements,  organic  and 
inorganic,  for  its  perfect  production.  Of  these  commercial  manures  furnish  only 
four,  leaving  the  others  to  be  supplied  by  the  soil  or  atmosphere.  The  moment 
any  one  of  these  is  exhausted,  at  once  the  effect  becomes  apparent  in  a  sickly 
condition  of  the  plant  and  a  marked  reduction  in  production.  This,  and  not  the 
presence  of  the  acid,  is  the  cause  of  the  trouble  that  has  puzzled  the  brain  of  so 
many  of  our  farmers.  In  proof  of  it,  take,  as  I  have  done,  the  cotton  plant, 
have  it  submitted  to  analysis,  ascertain  its  component  parts,  and  from  these  com- 
pound a  manure  that  shall  be  a  perfect  food  for  the  plant,  apply  enough  to  meet 
all  tli3  requirements  of  the  crop,  and  I  Avill  guarantee  that  rust  "will  disappear  at 
once  and  never  more  make  its  appearance  so  long  as  the  proper  supply  of  perfect 


COTTON.  325 


plant  food  is  furnished  upon  this  system.  As  an  evidence  of  the  wonderful 
increase  in  production  directly  resulting  from  the  use  of  a  perfect  manure,  I  will 
give  the  official  figures,  taken  from  the  official  reports  of  the  French  empire, 
giving  the  difference  in  yield  between  the  natural  land,  the  same  laud  manured 
with  lot  manure,  and  again  when  fertilized  with  a  perfect  plant  food: 

From  a  field  in  Champagne,  cultivated  for  the  first  time  with  an  application 
of  71,000  pounds  manure  to  the  acre,  nineteen  bushels  of  wheat  were  raised, 
while,  by  the  use  of  a  complete  fertilizer,  the  return  was  raised  to  forty-seven 
bushels;  from  an  acre  of  silicious  earth  in  the  department  of  Aisne,  with  thirty- 
six  thousand  pounds  of  manure,  11^  bushels  of  wheat  were  obtained,  with  the 
perfect  manure  40^  bushels,  the  same  earth  without  manure  producing  3.60 
bushels;  and  in  the  department  of  the  Drome,  on  a  pebbly  hill  broken  up  for  the 
purpose,  the  earth  without  manure  yielded  4.33  bushels  to  the  acre,  with  thirty- 
four  thousand  pounds  of  manure  it  gave  11.41  bushels,  and  with  the  complete 
fertilizer  the  return  was  43.11  bushels. 

Nearer  home,  upon  the  scrubby  pine  lands  of  Middle  Georgia,  I  myself,  by 
the  use  of  a  perfect  cotton  manure,  have  in  four  years  raised  the  production  of 
•sixty  acres  of  land  from  eight  bales  of  cotton,  to  seventy  bales  of  cotton  and  500 
bushels  of  oats,  and  the  increased  value  of  the  land  alone  will  more  than  pay  for 
every  dollar's  worth  of  manure  used  upon  it  during  the  period,  leaving  the  crops — 
the  cost  of  working  which  under  the  intensive  system  was  very  small — almost 
clear  profit,  proving  incontestably  that  the  results  from  scientific  agriculture  in 
the  world  are  no  more  certain  and  satisfactory  than  with  us  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  for  correct  principles  are  universal  in  their  application  and  results. 

I  have  asserted  that  in  practice  the  old  or  extensive  system  has  clearly  demon- 
strated itself  a  failure,  because  it  has  rapidly  impoverished  our  lands,  and  has 
thereby  made  agriculture  unremunerative,  driving  from  its  pursuit  those  of  our 
young  men  who  have  brains  and  energy,  and  making  of  it  only  a  dernier  resort 
of  those  who  having  failed  at  everything  else  are  pronounced  fit  to  be  only  farmers. 
On  the  other  hand,  I  assert  that  the  intensive  system  builds  up  our  lands  and 
offers  to  the  young  men  of  the  country  with  limited  means,  but  possessed  of 
energy,  education,  and  industry,  by  far  the  most  inviting  field  for  enterprise  and 
labor  opened  up  to  the  youth  of  this  generation — a  field  in  which  they  at  once 
and  at  the  same  time  may  achieve  their  own  ease  and  independence,  and  compel 
the  assurance  that  the  future  of  their  country  has  opened  out  into  a  vista  that 
grows  broader  and  more  beautiful  as  it  reaches  further  and  still  further  onward 
into  the  realms  of  the  great  unknown. 

Let  us  consider  these  propositions  and  the  proof  given  to  establish  their  truth, 
for  if  true  all  must  admit  their  vital  importance. 

The  first  is,  that  our  Southern  lands  are  becoming  poorer  under  the  existing, 
or  extensive,  system.  This  no  one  will  deny.  The  second  is,  that  the  intensive 
system  is  able  at  once  to  meet  and  remove  this  evil — to  stop  at  once  the  wear  and 
tear  and  consequent  exhaustion,  and  more  than  this,  to  rebuild  and  restore  our 
worn  and  wasted  lands,  so  that  they  may  once  more  feast  our  eyes  with  fields  of 
golden  grain,  and  gladden  our  hearts  with  granaries  that  groan  under  the  accu- 
mulated burden. 

Whence,  then,  proceeds  this  wear  and  tear  that  causes  the  exhaustion?  Its 
source  is  clearly  not  natural  but  artificial,  for  nature  never  tears  down,  she  always 


326 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


builds  up;  and  in  recognition  of  this  fact  the  farmer  turns  his  land  out  to  rest,  as 
he  calls  it,  in  order  that  nature  may  be  allowed  an  opportunity  to  revive  its  failing 
powers. 

The  trouble  comes,  first,  from  a  continual  withdrawal  from  the  soil  of  min- 
eral or  elementary  matter  by  successive  crops  without  any  return  until  the  natural 
supply,  which,  in  the  case  of  mineral  matter,  nature  is  powerless  to  reproduce,  is 
exhausted  or  so  reduced  as  to  furnish  an  insufficient  supply  of  available  material 
for  plant  food;  and,  second,  from  the  loss  mechanically,  caused  by  our  tropical 
rains  and  burning  summer  sun  and  winds,  in  washing  away  the  finer  particles  of 
our  soil,  and  drying  out  the  humus  or  organic  matter  from  the  soil,  both  of  which 
losses  are  aggravated  by  our  shallow  system  of  culture,  keeping  the  surface  soil 
always  loose  and  clear  of  the  weeds  and  grass  that  nature  strives  to  place  as  a  car- 
pet upon  the  surface  to  guard  against  loss  by  evaporation. 


Saw  Gin,  A.  D.  1794. 


Under  the  intensive  system  the  dram  upon  the  soil  by  the  crops  is  at  once 
removed,  for  that  system  pre-supposes  the  supply  in  advance  of  an  amount  of  food 
fully  sufficient  to  the  requirements  of  the  crop,  and  this  plentiful  supply  of  plant 
food  in  itself  produces  a  rapid  and  vigorous  growth  upon  the  part  of  the  crop — 
say  cotton — that  causes  it  to  quickly  shade  the  ground,  protecting  it  from  the  sun 
and  winds,  and  thereby  largely  removing  in  part  the  second  cause  of  trouble. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  plant  also,  under  the  complete  system,  which  is  won- 
derful, causes  the  earth  to  be  quickly  filled  with  a  net  work  of  rootlets,  holding  it 
together  and  preventing  washing,  and  a  succession  of  crops,  one  following  imme- 


COTTON. 


327 


diately  upon  the  removal  of  the  other,  gives  quick  and  satisfactory  dividends,  and 
keens  a  growing  crop  constantly  upon  the  surface,  protecting  it  from  loss  hy  wash- 
ing or  evaporation  Under  the  intensive  system  the  rapidity  of  plant  growth  is 
almost  incredible.  Last  year,  after  raising  a  crop  of  oats,  I  planted  the  land  on 
the  9th  day  of  Juno  in  cotton.  In  August  I  pulled  up  a  stalk  of  tho  cotton  to 
exhibit  it  in  connection  with  my  address  before  tho  Georgia  State  Agricultural 
Society.  Just  fifty-nine  days  after  the  seed  were  deposited  in  the  ground,  and  if 
then  measured  five  feet  and  three  inches  in  height,  and  had  on  it  one  hundred 
and  twenty-six  bolls,  blooms  and  squares.  You 
can  readily  understand  how  a  crop  growing  as 
rapidly  as  this  would  soon  cover  the  land  and 
protect  it  in  every  way. 

Four  yearr  ago  I  took  a  piece  of  sandy  land, 
loose  in  texture  and  easily  washed,  lying  upon 
a  steep  hillside — so  steep,  in  fact,  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  the  crops  carried  part  of  the  way  up 
the  hill  to  the  wagon  at  harvest.  My  object  in 
Selecting  it  was  to  see  if  by  a  continuous  succes- 
sion of  crops  it  was  not  practicable  to  stop  the 
washes,  which  were  very  numerous,  and  in  some 
places  more  than  two  feet  in  depth,  and  bring 
the  land  into  good  condition. 

I  began  by  planting  oats,  followed  at  once  by  RoiierGin,  a.  d.  ua. 

corn  and  peas;  first  filling  the  gullies  with  pine  tops  and  ploughing  over  them.  I 
fertilized  each  crop  with  manure  suited  to  its  requirements,  and  kept  the  land 
in  continual  cultivation,  raising  every  year  on  it  three  crops,  as  above  stated,  and 
to-day  its  productiveness  is  increased  four-fold  and  the  surface  is  smooth  and 
unbroken,  without  any  sign  of  a  gully  apparent. 

From  these  illustrations,  drawn  from  my  own  experience,  you  can  see  that 
the  intensive  sj^stem  is  able  to  remove  the  sources  from  which  spring  the  great 
evils  that  so  sorely  afflict  our  agricultural  interests. 

The  only  other  question  left  for  consideration,  and  one  with  which  I  am  fre- 
quently confronted,  is; 

"  Granted  that  it  can  do  all  this,  does  it  pay?  Is  it  not  too  expensive  for 
general  adoption?     Is  it  within  the  means  of  the  average  farmer?" 

To  answer  these  queries  I  will  draw  upon  my  own  experience  and  give  you 
the  figures  covering  my  five  years'  experiment  on  sixty  acres  of  land. 

Five  years  ago  I  selected  sixty  acres  of  the  poorest  land  in  Middle 
Georgia,  five  acres  being  red  clay,  twenty-five  sandy  surface,  with  clay  sub- 
soil, near  the  surface,  and  about  one-half  or  thirty  being  sandy,  piney 
woods  land,  without  any  clay  within  several  feet  of  the  surface.  I  cul- 
tivated this  carefully  the  first  year  without  manure,  and  made  on  it  eight 
bales  of  cotton.  The  second  year  I  applied  five  hundred  pounds  of  com- 
post per  acre,  consisting  of  six  bushels  cotton  seed,  six  bushels  stable  and  lot 
manure,  and  one  hundred  and  forty  pounds  of  chemical,  costing  two  dollars  per 
acre,  making  the  cost  of  manure  used  on  the  sixty  acres  $120.  The  crop  was 
twelve  bales  cotton,  averaging  four  hundred  and  seventy  pounds,  and  bringing 
$4?  per  bale — giving  four  bales  of  cotton  increase,  or  in  money  $188,  and  leaving 


32S  PROFITABLE  FARMING 


a  profit  on  its  use,  after  paying  for  the  manure,  of  $68,  or  about  sixty  per  cent. 
The  third  year  I  doubled  the  manure,  using  one  thousand  pounds  per  acre,  costing 
on  the  sixty  acres,  in  the  aggregate,  $240,  and  the  crop  nearly  doubled,  rising  to 
twenty-three  bales,  and  giving  an  increase  of  fifteen  bales,  worth  $675,  with  a 
profit  from  the  use  of  the  manure  of  $435,  or  nearly  two  hundred  per  cent,  on 
the  money  invested  in  manure.  The  fourth  year  I  doubled  the  application  again, 
with  an  aggregate  cost  of  $480,  and  this  time  the  crop  was  a  little  over  doubled, 
being  for  this  year  forty-seven  Dales;  the  increase  over  the  first  year  being  thirty- 
nine  bales,  worth  $1,755;  leaving  a  profit  of  $1,275,  or  nearly  three  hundred  per 
cent,  on  the  investment.  The  fifth  or  last  year  I  again  doubled  the  manure,  using 
four  thousand  pounds  to  the  acre,  costing  altogether  $960,  and  the  crop  harvested 
was  seventy  bales  cotton  and  five  hundred  bushels  oats — five  acres  of  the  land 
having  been  planted  first  in  oats  and  afterwards  in  cotton,  with  a  yield  of  five 
hundred  bushels  oats  and  seven  and  two-thir  s  bales  of  cotton.  Putting  the  oats 
at  sixty  cents  per  bushel,  the  money  value  of  this  crop  was  $3,450,  leaving  a  profit 
on  investment  in  manure  of  ,f  2,490,  or  a  per  centage  of  profit  of  nearly  two  hun- 
dred and  sixty  per  cent. 

You  will  observe  that  the  per  centage  of  profit  was  not  quite  so  great  this  year 
as  last,  but  the  return  in  money  was  greater  as  there  was  twice  as  much  invested, 
but  the  profit  in  the  use  of  the  manure  in  increased  production  represents  only 
one  branch  of  the  profit.  While  I  was  increasing  my  crops  and  receiving  heavy 
dividends,  I  was  building  up  my  land.  "When  I  began,  two  hundred  dollars  would 
have  been  a  large  price  for  the  sixty  acres,  to-day  I  could  sell  it  for  fifty  dollars 
an  acre;  so  that  twenty-eight  hundred  dollars  has  been  made  by  the  increase  in 
value  of  the  land,  but  the  manure  used  during  the  time  only  cost  in  the  aggregate 
$1,800,  so  the  enhanced  value  in  the  land  pays  for  the  manure  and  leaves  a  thou- 
sand dollars  as  profit.  Again,  to  make  seventy  bales  of  cotton  and  five  hundred 
bushels  of  oats  with  the  average  production  of  Georgia  or  Alabama  lands,  will 
require  at  least  two  hundred  and  fifty  acres  of  land,  and  it  will  take  at  least  eight 
mules  and  labor  in  proportion  to  cultivate  it.  I  cultivated  my  crop  with  two 
mules,  thus  saving  the  investment  of  nine  hundred  dollars  in  that  most  undesir- 
able of  all  property,  a  mule,  when  run  by  Cuffee  as  a  freeman,  saving  the  labor  of 
a  six-mule  farm,  and  the  feed  of  six  mules;  really,  under  the  intensive  system,  I 
cultivate  my  sixty  acres  of  land  with  less  labor  than  a  crop  of  sixty  acres  required 
under  the  old  system.  I  plant  late,  and  all  good  farmers  know  that  means  less 
work,  and  my  crop  grows  so  rapidly  that  it,  as  it  were,  works  itself,  and  I  soon 
have  to  lay  it  by,  whereas,  under  the  bumble-bee  cotton  system,  it  is  a  hard  fight 
all  the  year  between  the  cotton  and  the  grass,  and  the  farmer  is  kept  constantly 
digging  to  save  his  crop. 

Again,  I  am  able  to  employ  and  secure  the  best  and  most  effective  labor. 
There  are  two  ways  of  controlling  men,  one  by  the  hope  of  reward,  and  the  other 
by  fear  of  punishment.  I  have  found  that  by  holding  out  the  inducements 
to  my  laborers  of  extra  wages  in  the  event  that  a  certain  fixed  product  is  obtained 
that  the  quality  and  efficiency  of  their  work  is  greatly  improved.  Again,  they 
take  a  pride  in  the  crop,  and  are  as  careful  and  constant  in  their  efforts  to  secure 
a  maximum  result  as  I  myself. 

If,  then,  the  intensive  system  is  preferable  to  the  old  or  extensive,  why,  you 
will  ask,  is  its   adoption  not  more  universal?     Remember  that  Rome  was  not 


COTTON.  320 


built  in  a  day.  It  takes  time  to  revolutionize  the  habits  of  thought  and  action 
into  which  a  people  have  crystalized  by  tho  practice  of  three  generations.  But 
I  note  in  the  eagerness  for  thorough  practical  information  as  to  tho  new  system 
that  every  day  is  becoming  more  extended  and  more  earnest  among  our  people, 
a  golden  bow  of  promise  spaning  the  horizon  that  overhangs  tho  destinies  of  the 
new  South.  And  I  predict  here,  to-day,  that  we  have  already  entered  upon  an 
era  of  success  and  prosperity  such  as  has  never  yet  been  recorded  for  any  people 
in  the  annals  of  history. 

To  us  nature  has  proffered  her  choicest  blessings  in  boundless  profusion.  The 
sky  that  smiles  upon  the  vine-clad  hills  of  Scio's  rocky  isle  is  not  more  blue  than 
are  our  Southern  skies — the  winds  that  caress  the  waves  upon  the  bosom  of  tho 
dreamy  iEgean  are  not  more  balmy  than  are  Southern  zephyrs.  Our  rivers  as 
they  rush  foaming  over  their  rocky  beds  on  their  ceaseless  journey  to  the  sound- 
ing sea  offer  to  us  a  power  of  nature's  own  creation,  needing  only  the  intelligent 
control  and  direction  of  educated  man  to  drive  the  machinery  of  industries,  as 
yet  unnumbered  and  untold.  Our  mountains  hold  stored  away  within  their  rugged 
bosoms  a  wealth  of  varied  minerals,  equal  in  supply  to  the  demand  of  the  united 
world  of  ages  yet  unborn.  All  that  is  needed  for  the  development  of  these  won- 
drous interests  is  educated  brain,  for  truly  is  educated,  skilled  thought  in  tho 
brain  of  labor  the  alchemy  of  modern  industry — turning  all  that  it  touches  into 
gold.  Our  neglect  as  a  people  in  the  past  of  the  advantages  that  nature  has  lav- 
ished upon  us  has  been  almost  criminal — let  us  be  careful  to  make  for  ourselves  such 
a  record  in  the  future  as  shall  serve  as  an  expiation  for  that  past.  With  the 
whole  world  paying  tribute  to  South  Carolina  as  eager  pui-chasers  of  her  phos- 
phate rock,  we  have  sat  quietly  by  and  allowed  European  manufacturers  to  come 
under  our  very  noses,  transport  the  rock  across  the  ocean,  manufacture  it  and 
ship  it  back  to  us  as  their  most  available  and  profitable  market.  Ah !  but  you 
say,  we  could  not  help  it;  we  did  not  have  the  material  here  from  which  to  make 
the  sulphuric  acid  necessary  to  render  the  rock  soluble  and  available.  My  friends, 
nature  never  does  anything  by  halves  and  never  makes  a  mistake.  The  scientists 
will  tell  you  that  iron  ore  is  never  found  in  working  quantities  without  the  pres- 
ence of  coal,  laid  away  in  the  great  store-house  of  nature  in  close  proximity,  for 
without  the  coal  the  iron  ore  could  never  be  reduced. 

So  nature  never  manufactured  in  her  wonderful  laboratory  the  phosphate  beds 
without  a  provision  near  at  hand  of  a  material  ready  at  the  proper  time  to  be 
utilized  by  man  in  the  preparation  of  that  phosphate  rock  for  the  salvation  of 
our  worn  and  wasted  lands.  We  have  that  material.  The  mountains  both  of 
Georgia  and  Alabama  abound  in  pyrites  ore  of  the  finest  quality,  exactly  suited 
for  the  production  of  sulphuric  acid,  that  pi'oduct  of  which  Liebig,  the  great  agri- 
cultural chemist,  said:  "  Show  me  the  amount  of  sulphuric  acid  that  a  nation  pro- 
duces, and  I  will  tell  you  what  is  its  advancement  in  the  scale  of  civilization." 

The  American  manufacturers  have  heretofore  ignored  pyrites  in  the  manu- 
facture of  acid  phosphate,  using  Sicily  sulphur,  a  volcanic  product,  brought  at 
heavy  expense  across  the  ocean,  as  the  base  from  which  to  procure  thoir  acid. 

The  English  manufacturers,  however,  the  largest  and  most  successful  manu- 
facturers in  the  world,  of  acid  phosphate,  utilize  pyrites,  obtained  from  Spain,  in 
the  manufacture  of  their  sulphuric  acid.  They  ship  the  pyrites  from  Spain  to 
England — buy  the  Carolina  rock  at  Port  Royal  and  Charleston,  grind  it  fine, 


330 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


"§g  <r. 


Cotton  Whipper,  A.  D.  1SS2. 


acidulate  it  with  acid  made  from  pyrites  and  ship  the  same  phosphate  back  across 
the  Atlantic  to  Charleston  and  other  ports,  and  undersell  the  Charleston  manu- 
facturers, who  mine  the  phosphate  rock  at  the  doors  of  their  factories.  Indeed 
the  manufacturers  who  use  Sicily  sulphur  have  confessed  their  inability  to  cope 
with  English  manufacturers,  using  pyrites,  by  demanding  recently  in  Congress, 
that  a  tariff  of  three  dollars  a  ton  be  imposed  upon  English  acid  phosphate  for 
the  protection  of  American  industry. 

This  being  true,  what  can  we  do  in  Georgia  and  Alabama,  with  the  pyrites 
standing  out  in  ledges  from  our  mountains,  the  phosphate  rock  within  easy  reach, 
and  the  consumer  waiting  at  the  door  of  our  factory  to  take  the  goods  as  soon  as 

made  ?  And  yet  Georgi a  and  Alabama  consumed  last 
year  233,000  tons  of  chemical  manures,  and  manufac- 
tured less  than  thirty  thousand,  sending  without  their 
borders — the  money  which  should  have  been  kept  at 
home — for  two  hundred  thousand  tons  of  fertilizers. 
How  can  we  ever  expect  the  prosperity  and  power, 
as  a  people,  to  which  our  natural  advantages  entitle 
us,  while  we  supinely  pursue  such  a  policy  as  this? 
As  manufacturers  of  standard  chemicals,  we  not  only 
should  supply  all  home  demand,  but  control  the  mar- 
kets of  the  Avorld,  and  as  the  Greek  in  Sparta's  palm- 
iest days  was  wont  in  pride  to  say  "  the  mountains 
look  upon  Marathon  and  Marathon  looks  upon  the 
sea,"  so  as  manufacturer:;  our  watchword  should  be  borne  upon  the  winds  to  the 
four  quarters  of  the  globe,  "the  mountains  look  upon  Charleston  and  Charleston 
looks  upon  the  sea." 

In  conclusion,  there  is  but  one  class  of  society  upon  the  success  of  which  all 
others  are  dependent  for  their  prosperity,  and  that  is  the  farmer.  The  doctors 
may  suffer,  and  everybody  else  is  the  better  off  for  it — for  they  thrive  on  our 
ailments;  the  lawyers  may  starve,  and  peace  reign  in  Warsaw,  for  they  fatten 
on  our  quarrels  ;  but  as  fares  the  farmer  so  fares  the  State.  All  the  learned 
professions  are  crowded  to  overflowing.  We  need  no  more  professional  men. 
The  great  crying  necessity  of  this  country  is  intelligent,  educated  agriculturists. 
The  States  have  wisely  opened  up  opportunities  for  young  men,  by  embracing 
which  they  may  educate  and  prepare  themselves  peculiarly  as  farmers.  Seize 
upon  the  opportunity ;  make  scientific,  intelligent  agriculture  your  study  and 
delight,  and  my  word  for  it,  you  will  never  regret  your  choice,  for  it  will  bring 
you  fame  and  wealth,  and  what  is  better  than  either,  contentment.  Do  not  be 
satisfied  to  be  a  mere  tiller  of  the  soil;  study,  originate,  make  your  agriculture 
what  it  is — a  scientific  profession. 

Above  all  study  nature,  commune  with  her  from  early  morn  till  dewy  eve. 
Strive  to  learn  her  laws  and  follow  them,  for  in  so  doing  lies  the  secret  of  success 
in  any  department  of  life's  labor,  whether  in  science,  the  arts,  or  agriculture. 
Search  ever  after  the  truth — not  that  truth  which  justifies  you  or  your  pet  theories 
to  yourself,  but  seek  truth  for  truth's  sake,  and  when  you  have  found  it  follow  its 
lead.  Nature  is  always  true,  and  if  you  can  find  out  what  nature  wants  you  will 
never  make  a  mistake.  Nature's  laws  like  nature's  God  are  fixed,  eternal, 
unchangeable,  and  the  success  of  that  man  is  assured  who  conforms  accurately  to 
their  requirements. 


COTTON. 


331 


If  any  one  can  but  ascertain  the  natural  laws  applicable  to  and  controll- 
ing any  branch  of  agriculture  and  then  by  following  them  carefully  and  consci- 
entiously can  succeed  in  building  a  system  that  will  cause  two  blades  of  grass, 
two  stalks  of  grain,  two  ears  of  corn,  or  two  bolls  of  cotton  to  spring  and  grow 
where  but  one  grew  before,  then  indeed  is  his  mission  on  earth  not  a  fruitless 
one,  thoiigh  men  may  fail  to  erect  in  his  honor  monuments  of  marble  or  bronze, 


The  Home  of  the  Farmer  of  To-day, 

and  though  none  may  attempt  to  perpetuate  his  memory  embalmed  in  glowing 
canvas,  or  carved  upon  the  chiseled  stone — he  will  leave  an  impress  behind  him 
that  time  cannot  efface,  and  that  will  last  long  after  the  bronze  or  marble  shall 
have  crumbled  into  dust.  The  good  that  he  has  done  will  not  die  with  him — 
it  will  live  on — it  will  but  broaden  and  deepen  with  the  growth  of  time  and  its 
influence  will  only  cease  to  be  exerted  for  the  benefit  of  suffering  humanity — 
when  time  itself  shall  have  lapsed  into  eternity. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


ftorticttltumf 


BY   J.    W.    FITZ. 


HE  PREPARATION  of  the  soil  for  all  orchards  should  be 
thorough  by  means  of  proper  drainage,  deep  stirring  of  the 
soil  and  "use  of  harrow;  and  if  not  rich  it  should  be  made  bo. 
The  distance  apart  for  orchard  trees  should  vary  according 
to  fertility  of  the  Boil,  aspect,  and  habits  of  the  varieties 
planted.  The  roots  when,  taken  up  should  not  be  allowed  to 
dry  by  exposure  to  wind  and  sun  before  or  whilst  preparing 
holes  or  places  for  them,  and  damp  or  moist  weather  should  be 
preferred  for  setting  them. 

ACCLIMATION. 

Fruit  trees  removed  from  a  warmer  climate  to  a  colder  should  be  planted  in 
the  spring  in  order  to  avoid  a  cold  winter,  and  enable  them  to  accommodate 
themselves  better  to  the  new  position.  Trees  from  a  warmer  climate  should  be 
planted  in  fall  or  winter.  All  trees  that  produce  the  same  from  the  seed,  if  from 
a  different  climate,  should  be  raised  from  the  seeds,  as  their  acclimation  in  this 
way  is  more  gradual  and  perfect. 

THE   APPLE. 

This  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  fruits.  It  has  been  in  cultivation  for  many 
ages,  and  is  the  product  of  many  countries.  Pliny,  the  historian,  tells  us  that 
the  Romans  cultivated  twenty-two  varieties  of  apples.  How  many  sorts  are  now 
cultivated  in  our  country  and  times  is  hard  to  guess — perhaps  from  two  to  three 
thousand  varieties.  An  artist  in  New  York  city  says  he  has  colored  fruit  plates 
of  nearly  three  thousand  varieties  of  fruits,  colored  from  nature,  many  of  which, 
including  apples,  probably  are  worthless  everywhere  except  in  particular  climates, 
soils  and  situations;  but  a  goodly  number,  including  some  new  sorts,  have  a  wide 
range  of  adaptation,  and  are  more  or  less  good  and  profitable  in  the  various  fruit 
regions. 

Our  own  country,  perhaps,  affords  climates  and  soils  superior  to  most  others 
for  the  culture  of  fruits,  and  especially  the  apple;  and  the  temperate  regions  of 
Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  parts  of  West  Virginia,  for 
■diversity  of  sorts,  productiveness,  size,  color,  flavor  and  adaptability  to  numerous 
kinds,  excel  most  other  States.  But  we  may  not  be  ahead  as  to  natural  keeping 
qualities.     Some  of  the  Northern  States  and  Canada  are  famous  for  this  dosirar 

332 


HORTICULTURAL. 


333 


ble  quality  in  their  fruits.     Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  apples  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  areas  perfect  as  those  of  more  temperate  regions,  and   Ihe  trade  is 


large  and  remunerative. 


LOCATION   AND    SOIL. 


We  know  that  every  farmer  has  not  a  choice  location  or  the  best  soil  for  the 
apple,  or  fruits  generally,  but  he  should  utilize  the  best  he  has.  The  sites  for 
orchards  where  the  apple  flourishes  best,  in  the  Southern  and  Southwestern 
States,  are  generally  on  northern  exposures.  The  north  sides  of  hills  or  grounds 
are  best  suited  for  most  of  our  apples,  especially  winter  sorts,  as  the  ripening  is 
somewhat  retarded  and  the  keeping  quality  better  preserved  than  on  hot  and  dry 
southern  slopes:  but  if  the  soil  is  good  and  suitable  the  apple  in  any  of  the 
States  above-named,  will  grow  and  thrive  in  almost  any  exposure  or  aspect. 
Steep,  stony  and  rough  places,  that  are  worthless  for  cereal  crops,  are  often  the 
very  best  for  the  apple.  Many  of  the  low  and  level  portions  of  the  Seaboard 
States,  if  well  drained,  are  adapted  to  some  varieties  of  apples,  especially  early 
kinds,  and  for  nearly  all  the  luscious  small  fruits;  and  the  middle  and  upper  sec- 
tions of  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  North  Carolina  are  more  favorable  to  the  apple, 
pear,  peach  and  cherry,  as  well  as  to  many  of  the  small  fruits. 

EFFECTS   OF   SOIL. 

Soil,  as  well  as  climate,  greatly  affects  the  quality,  size,  and  appearance  of  all 
fruits.  For  instance,  the  famous  Albemarle  Pippin  has  a  limited  range  where  it 
is  grown  to  perfection.  It  is  mostly  the  chestnut  ridges  and  mountain  declivities 
and  foot  hills,  with  puffy  red  soil,  that  produce  all  the  excellencies  of  this  apple; 
and  various  other  sorts  attain  in  such  soils  richness,  flavor,  size,  and  color  not  to 
be  found  elsewhere.  This  also  applies  to  and  is  superior  for  other  fruits,  as  the 
pear,  cherry,  peach,  quince,  &c. 

PLANTING. 

Thirty  feet  apart,  for  standard  orchard  trees,  in  soil  moderately  rich,  is  about 
right.  Rich  soils  require  more  space — say  forty  feet.  Trees  with  upright  or  con- 
ical tops  may  be  set  nearer  together.  To  keep 
the  rows  straight,  after  the  ground  is  staked  off, 
we  use  the  "notched  board."  At  thirty  feet 
apart  an  acre  will  contain  forty-eight  trees;  at 
thirty-five  feet,  thirty -five  trees.  Plant  in 
spring  or  fall,  when  the  soil  is  in  order,  prefer- 
ring damp  days.  (We  prefer  fall  planting  in 
the  Southern  States.)  In  planting  and  prepar- 
ing the  holes  the  soil  from  the  holes  should  be . 
thrown  to  one  side,  and  if  not  rich,  fine  compost 
or  rich  mould  should  be  well  mixed  with 
it — and  this  applies  generally  to  fruit  trees.  The  subsoil  from  the  holes  should 
be  scattered  around.  The  holes  should  be  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  deep, 
with  diameter  about  three  feet.  In  planting  throw  in  the  rich  top  or  prepared 
soil  until  the  tree  will  stand  as  deep,  or  an  inch  or  two  deeper,  than  it  stood  in 
the  nursery.  See  that  the  roots  are  well  spread  out,  and  that  the  tree  sits  erect 
and  firmlv  on  the  soil  in  the  bottom  of  the  holes.     Give  the  tree  a  slight  churning; 


The  Right  Way 


(334) 


Springtime  in  the  New  Orchatd, 


HORTICULTURAL. 


335 


Tlie  Wrong  Way. 


when  the  roots  are  covered  some  inches,  and  during  the  process  tramp  in  the  soil 
moderately  with  the  feet,  leaving  no  interstices  under  or  among  the  roots,  so  that 
the  soil  may  press  close  among  them.     As  a  rule,  when  the  tree  is  set,  about 

three  or  four  inches  of  soil  should  be  placed  above 
the  upper  tier  of  roots.  In  setting  large  trees  the 
holes  should  be  large  and  deep  in  proportion,  and 
it  is  important  that  the  bark  of  each  large  tree  should 
correspond  with  the  point  of  the  compass  to  which 
it  stood  before  removal.  To  be  sure  of  this,  before 
digging  mark  the  north  or  south  side.  Mr.  John 
Dollins,  nurseryman,  of  Crozet  P.  0.,  Albemarle 
county,  Va.,  is  author  of  a  new  work  on  trans- 
planting trees,  that  is  both  novel,  and,  we  believe,  valuable.  It  embraces  some 
entirely  new  ideas. 

CULTIVATION. 

%  The  neglect  of  young  orchards  is  often  the  cause  of  partial  or  entire  failure 
and  discouragement,  and  a  check  to  improvement  and  the  extension  of  fruit  cul- 
ture. Good  enclosures  are  of  great  importance.  The  bovines  prefer  the  leaves 
and  tender  twigs  of  the  apple  to  the  best  clover.  They  will  hook  their  rough 
tongues  to  the  branches  and  tear  down  and  off  the  best  twigs  and  limbs  within 
their  reach.  Orchard  culture  is  indispensable  for  our  dry  climates  and  thirsty 
soils,  and  this  is  often  done  by  the  culture  of  root  crops.  Deep  culture  should 
not  be  given  among  or  immediately  over  the  roots  of  fruit  trees.  After  plowing 
the  harrow  should  be  used  unless  superseded  by  the  cultivation  of  crops. 

The  culture  of  a  limited  number  of  trees  is  best  effected  by  the  use  of  the 
spading-fork  immediately  under  them.  The  use  of  this  garden  tool  does  no 
injury  to  the  roots  and  the  soil  is  stirred  much  deeper  and  the  moisture  better 
preserved  than  is  effected  by  plow  and  harrow.  The  crops  best  suited  among 
young  trees  are  low,  hoed  vegetable,  as  ruta-baga,  carrots,  field  beets,  potatoes, 
etc.  Any  mode  that  will  keep  the  ground  clean  and  mellow  near  to  and  for 
several  feet  from  the  trees  is  best.  "When  the  trees  become  large,  it  is  far  the  best 
not  to  attempt  the  raising  of  any  other  than  the  fruit  crop. 

MANURING   AND   MULCHING. 

Stable  or  barn-yard  manures,  rich  muck,  scrapings  from  borders,  yards  and 
fences,  wood  ashes,  soap-suds,  &c,  are  good,  or  a  composition  of  most  of  these 
is  still  better  for  fruit  trees  generally;  and  the  quantity  should  be  regulated 
according  to  the  requirements  of  the  trees,  and  may  be  mixed  with  the  soil  or 
spread  on  top  late  in  fall  or  in  winter.  Lime  or  the  rubbish  from 
the  walls  of  old  buildings  may  be  used  on  most  soils  with  great  ad- 
vantage. Mulching  with  coarse  manure  or  litter  for  trees,  old  or 
young,  especially  for  newly  planted  trees,  is  the  next  best  thing  to 
culture,  or  it  may  be  connected  with  it.  But  this  should  not  be 
heaped  around  the  stems  of  the  trees,  as  is  the  practice  with  some 
simple  persons,  as  field  mice  and  other  vermin  find  this  a  pleasant 
and  secure  home,  where  they  can  live  without  going  abroad,  on  the 
bark  of  stems  and  the  roots.  Mulching  should  be  spread  around  as  far  as  the 
roots  extend. 


Cuttings. 


336 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


PRUNING. 


Whip-Tongue  Grafting. 


Fruit  trees  in  our  climate  require  much  less  thinning  and  pruning  than  in 
the  English  climate,  or  is  recommended  by  British  authors.  Our  practice  for  the 
latitude  under  consideration  would  be  a  sparing  use  of  the  knife  and  saw.  Some 
varieties,  from  the  natural  density  of  their  heads,  require 
more  opening  for  the  admission  of  sun  and  air,  whilst 
others  are  naturally  all  right  in  this  respect;  or,  if  not, 
slight  operations  are  sufficient.  All  dead  limbs  or  those 
that  cross  and  rub  each  other  from  the  action  of  the  winds, 
should  be  removed.  As  a  rule  light  pruning  is  always 
preferred  by  our  authors.  As  to  the  proper  time,  there  is 
much  diversity  of  opinion.  For  promoting  growth,  late  fall 
or  winter  is  preferred.  For  increasing  fecundity  and  perfect 
fruiting,  early  summer  pruning  is  practiced.  All  long,  strag- 
gling branches  should  be  cut  back,  and  thinning  is  effected  by  shortening  the 
twigs  of  the  last  year's  growth. 

GRAFTING. 

Improvement  by  grafting  is  adapted  to  various  fruits.     Young  trees  are  thus 
propagated,  and  different  modes  for  this  are  practiced.     The  heads  of  thrifty, 

(sometimes  large  trees)  of  worthless  sorts,  may  by  this 
means  in  a  very  few  years  be  changed  so  as  to  bear  the  very 
best  fruits.  The  proper  time  to  graft  the  apple  tree,  in  the 
States  we  have  named,  (for  out-door  work)  is  early  in,  or 
all  through  April.  At  this  time  the  sap  begins  to  move — 
the  wax  works  freely — and  the  wounds  heal  more  quickly. 

J  I      I  Ml     W%,  Good  grafting  wax  is  made  by  melting  together  two 

§^^e»a&-A$\-?l*  pounds  of  rosin,  one  pound  of  bees-wax  and  one  pound  of 
cieft Graft.  tallow  (or  linseed   oil  in  place  of  tallow).     This  composi- 

tion is  then  poured  into  cold  water  to  cool,  and  worked  with  the  hands  until 
6oft  and  pliable.  This  wax  may  also  be  used  to  protect  the  wounded  parts  of  trees. 


VARIETIES. 

In  the  selection  of  varieties  lies  one  of  the  main  stumbling-blocks  in  market 
orcharding,  and  for  home  use  mistakes  are  often  made.  Many  sorts  produce 
confusion.  Only  a  few  in  all  the  long  lists  given  by  authors  are  well  adapted  to 
any  particular  section.  For  amateur  and  for  home  use  and  home  markets,  a  more 
liberal  selection  is  required. 

Summer. — We  recommend,  both  for  market  and  home  use,  for  the  tide-water 
portions  of  Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  further  South,  the  following 
varieties,  ripening  mostly  in  the  order  named:  White  June  (eating),  Red  June, 
Early  Harvest,  Early  Joe,  Horse,  Red  Astrachan,  large  (the  most  beautiful  of 
apples),  Summer  Queen,  Large  Yellow  Bough,  and  Summer  Sweet  Paradise. 

Autumn. — American  Summer  Pearmain,  Porter,  Gravenstein,  Jersey  Sweet, 
Yellow  Bellflower,  Williams's  Favorite,  Hedwick  Codling  Swaar,  Fall  Pippin, 
Peck's  Pleasant,  Green  Cheese,  and  Mother. 

For  Cider. — Hagloe  Crab  (early  cider  and  vinegar),  and  Campbell. 


HORTICULTURAL.  337 


For  Winter. — Wine  Sap,  Ortloy,  Buckingham,  Domine,  Willow  Twig,  York 
Imperial,  Limbertwig  (James  river),  Shockley,  Brooks's  Pippin,  Milam,  Rhode 
Island  Greening,  Nickajack  (of  40  names),  Callasago,  Carter's  Blue,  Nansemond 
Beauty  (new),  Rawle's  Genet  (blooms  late),  Mason  &  Stronger  (new),  and  Sliiply 
Green  (late  keeper). 

Varieties  adapted  to  the  middle  and  upper  regions  of  Maryland  and  the 
Piedmont  regions  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  and  farther  South,  in  addition 
to  some  of  the  sorts  above-named: 

For,  Summer. — Golden  Dixie  (new;  originated  in  Albemarle  county,  Va.)? 
Summer  Pippin,  Golden  Sweet,  Summer  Hagloe,  Summer  Red  Streak,  Red  June, 
Red  Astrakhan,  Early  Harvest,  Summer  Queen. 

For  Autumn. — Autumn  Bough,  Porter,  Jersey  Sweet,  Dutchess  of  Oldenburg 
(iron  clad),  Rambo,  Gravenstein,  American  Golden  Russet,  Rhode  Island  Green- 
ing, Peek's  Pleasant,  Mother,  Fall  Pippin,  Milam,  Cooper,  Holland  Pippin,  Ortley, 
Yellow  Bellflower. 

For  Winter. — Albemarle  Pippin  (for  mountainous  sections),  Wine  Sap,  Lim- 
bertwig (late  keeper),  York  Imperial  (Johnson's  fine  winter),  Striped  Winter 
Pearmain,  Shockley,  Rawle's  Genet,  Pitot  (new),  Baltimore  Pippin,  Buckingham, 
Ben  Davis,  Campfield  (for  cider  and  eating),  London  Pippin,  Ivanhoe  (new;  very 
popular). 

For  Cider. — Hughes's  Virginia  Crab,  Smith's  Cider,  Wine  Sap,  Campfield, 
Harrison,  and  Hagloe  Crab. 

Varieties  for  the  upper  parts  of  Maryland  and  the  Valley  of  Virginia: 
Summer. — Many  of  the  early  sorts,  suitable  for  the  parts  named,  do  well  in 
these  sections.     We  add  a  few  others:    Early  Red  Margaret,  Early  Joe,  Early 
Strawberry,  Summer  Sweet  Paradise,  Early  Summer   Pearmain,  Ed- 
ward's Early,  Summer  Rose,  Summer  Red  Streak. 

Autumn. — American  Golden  Russet  (late),  Fall  Wine  Settle  Pip- 
pin, Sisk  (new),  Rome  Beauty  (new,  late  fall),  Annate  (origin,  Ca.), 
Fall  Pippin,  Blue  Pearmain,  Porter,  Garden  Royal,  Lowell,  and  Falla- 
water  (late  fall). 

Winter. — Tallman's  Sweet,  Yellow  Bellflower,  Baldwin,  Domine, 
Roxbury  Russet,  Granite  Beauty,  Milam,  Winter  Cheese,  Winesap, 
Grimes's  Golden,  York  Imperial  (Johnson's  fine  winter),' Winter  Sweet 
Paradise. 

For  Cider. — Smith's  Cider,   Harrison,  Campfield,   Hughes's  Vir- 
ginia Crab,  Hagloe  Crab. 

We  have  treated  more  especially  on  the  apple,  it  being  the  most  valuable  of 
*11  fruits. 

NOTES    0?T   THE    PEAR. 

The  increasing  demand  for  this  excellent  and  wholesome  fruit  calls  for  more 
knowledge  of  its  habits,  adaptation  and  culture.  Probably  no  section  of  the 
country  is  better  suited  to  its  growth  and  perfection  than  the  maratime  and 
middle  parts  of  the  Southern  States.  Pears  of  the  finest  size  and  flavor  are 
grown  in  the  upper  and  Piedmont  counties  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina;  also 
m  various  parts  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky. 

The  pear,  in  congenial  soil,  becomes  a  large  and  longdived  tree.     Coles  says: 

22 


338  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


"The  Endicott"  pear-tree  is  still  living  and  flourishing  in  Danvers,  Mass.  It 
was  imported  by  Governor  Endicott  in  1628.  It  is  said  that  near  Vincennes, 
111.,  there  is  a  tree  sixty  or  seventy  years  old  that  measures  ten  feet  in  circum- 
ference, and  has  yielded  in  one  season  one  hundred  and  eighty-four  bushels  of 
fine  fruit.     This  proves  the  wide  range  of  adaptability  of  the  pear. 

Soil  and  Situation  for  the  Pear. — Any  good,  strong  soil,  especially  sandy,  friable 
loam,  or  any  well  adapted  to  the  apple,  is  proper  for  the  pear;  but  it  is  more  impa- 
tient of  wet  places,  as  the  roots  run  much  deeper  than  those  of  the  apple.  It  will 
stand  as  much  drought  or  as  much  neglect  as  any  ether  fruit.  We  would  depend 
upon  a  good  apple  location  as  entirely  safe  for  the  pear,  and  is  generally  as  suit- 
able for  the  various  sorts  of  other  fruits. 

CULTIVATION,    MANURES   AND   MANA<^MENT. 

The  same  cultivation  that  produces  the  best  results  with  the  apjDie  is  about 
right  for  the  pear.  The  same  may  be  said  of  manures.  The  natural  shape  of 
the  pear  tree  is  conical,  but  heavy  crops  cause  the  limbs  to  bend  during  growth, 
and  it  becomes  somewhat  spreading.  It  requires  less  pruning  or  trimming  than 
the  apple.  The  pear  is  propagated  mostly  by  grafting  and  budding  on  seedling 
stocks,  and  the  improved  sorts  grow  rapidly  in  good  soil  and  bear  early.  For  dis- 
eases incident  to  this  fruit  we  refer  to  the  books. 

The  culture  of  this  most  excellent  fruit  is  decidedly  on  the  increase,  and  our 
fruit  growers  of  the  maritime  sections  seem  to  be  ahead  of  other  portions  of  our 
fruit  regions.  There  is  no  good  reason  for  this,  as  the  middle  and  upper  counties 
of  Piedmont  are  well  adapted  to  the  pear,  and  the  finest  varieties  may  be  easily 
raised  from  tidewater  to  the  mountains. 

SELECT    LISTS. 

For  convenient  reference  we  will  select  a  few  sorts  that  are  considered  among 
the  very  best  for  general  cultivation,  both  for  market  and  home  use. 

Summer. — Howell,  Flemish  Beauty,  Belle  Lucrative,  Duchesse  d'Angouleme, 
Heiffer's  Hybrid  (new),  Rutter  (also  new  and  excellent),  Seckel,  Urbansite,  White 
Doyenne  Shelton,  Beurre  d'Anjou,  Bnffnm,  and  Beurre  Clairgean. 

Winter. — Glout,  Morean,  Winter  Nelis,  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  Duchesse  d'Bor- 
deaux,  Easter  Beurre,  and  Columbia. 

Mr.  Leighton's  select  list  for  tidewater  sections  are  as  follows:  Duchesse 
d'Angouleme,  Seckel,  Bartlett,  Howell,  Beurre  d'Anjou,  Seldon,  Urbansite,  to 
which  only  a  few  others  should  be  added. 

Nen'  Varieties. — The  "  Rutter  Pear"  was  sent  to  us  by  Mr.  J.  Rutter,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, some  years  ago.  It  fruited  early.  We'  consider  it  a  great  acquisition 
to  the  pear  orchard,  as  it  excels  most  others  in  vigor,  growth,  early  bearing,  pro- 
ductiveness, size  and  flavor.  "  The  Hoosic,"  fruited  and  described  by  William  C. 
Barry,  is  attracting  particular  attention.  Mr.  Barry  also  describes  Herr's  Late 
Winter,  grown  near  Louisville,  Kentucky.  It  is  of  medium  to  large  size,  of  good 
quality,  and  specimens  have  been  kept  in  good  condition  until  May  or  June  of 
tbe  following  year.  HeiiFor's  Hybrid,  we  think,  is  destined  to  become  the  most 
valuable  and  popular  of  new  pears. 


HORTICULTURAL. 


339 


Budding  Illustrated. 


Select  Lists  for  Dwarfs. — Duchesso  d'Angouleme,  Tyson,  Doyenne  d'  St.  Law- 
rence and  Howell  are  preferred. 

THE    TEACH. 

This  delicious  fruit  will  flourish  in  any  good  warm  soil.  It  delights  in  light 
friable  loam,  and  if  a  little  sandy  all  the  better;  yet,  we  believe  the  oldest  and 
largest  trees  may  be  found  in  stiff  loamy  or  clayey  soils; 
but  in  any  good  deep  soil  it  will,  flourish  and  thrive;  and 
it  does  not  object  to  good  cultivation.  Natural  trees  here 
and  there,  with  no  special  attention,  often  produce  fine 
fruit. 

Propagation. — Almost  everybody  knows  how  to  do  it. 
It  will  propagate  itself  if  it  has  half  a  chance,  and  the  re- 
sult as  to  flavor,  is  often  as  good  as  any  mode  devised  or 
practiced  by  man,  and  as  to  hardiness  is  always  superior  to  the  budded  and  highly 
njirsed  sorts. 

Varieties. — These  are  so  numerous  and  excellent  that  an  author  has  much 
difficulty  in  preparing  select  lists.  For  early  sorts  adapted  to  our  various  fruit 
regions,  we  recommend  the  following:  Alexander,  Early  Beatrice,  Early  Louisa, 
Early  Rivers  (all  foreign),  Hale's  Early  (where  it  does  not  rot),  Froths,  Early 
Briggs,  Red  May,  of  California,  which  is  reported  as  being  the  earliest  of  all 
peaches.  Of  this  variety,  in  1876,  five  thousand  bushels  were  sent  to  San  Fran- 
cisco before  any  other  kinds  were  offered  for  sale. 

Mr.  Muhan's  list  for  best  early  sorts,  grown  near  Philadelphia  is  as  follows: 
1.  Downing;  2.  Saunders;  3.  Alexander;  4.  Musser;  5.  Amsden;  6.  Beatrice; 
7.  Wilder;  8.  Hale's  Early.  There  is  at  present  considerable  competition  for 
early  sorts,  and  some  are  reported  as  earlier  than  any  in  the  above  list.  For 
instance,  High's  Early  Canada,  said  to  be  earlier  than  Alexander,  Amsden, 
Beatrice,  or  any  other. 

Select  Lists  for  Tide-water  Sections — Amsden,  Early  Tillotson  (15th  to  25th 
July),  Early  York  (July  and  August),  Yellow  Rareripe  (July  and  August).  Later 
Sorts. — Morris  White,  Thurber  (new;  origin  New  Jersey;  excellent),  Old  Mixon 
(free  and  cling),  Pool's  Large  Yellow,  Lemon  Cling  (for  preserving), 
Columbia  (produces  same  from  the  seed),  Parker's  Late  (10th  October), 
Billen's  Late  (October),  Conklin,  Waterloo,and  Briggs's  Red.  Some  are 
new  varieties  of  great  promise.  Many  of  them  are  all  right  in  the 
upper  counties,  Piedmont  and  mountainous  sections. 

Winter  Peaches. — The  Levy  Winter  Peach  is  said  to  be  about  the 
latest  good  peach  grown  or  known.     It  is  a  yellow  cling,  and  if  gathered 
before  frost  in  October,  will  keep  into  December.     It  is  well  adapted 
to  the  middle  and  some  of  the  Southern  States,  and  comes  into  market 
Young  shoot,   long  after  other  peaches  are  gone.     Fine  for  eating  and  preserving. 


THE    QUINCE. 


Why  the  cultivation  of  this  excellent  fruit  should  be  so  generally  neglected 
is  a  mystery  to  us — possessing,  as  it  does,  qualities  so  desirable,  and  its  uses  in 
domestic  economy  being  so  valuable — and  as  a  market  fruit  it  always  commands 
high  prices. 


(340) 


Preserving  Fruit  with  Mama. 


HORTICULTURAL.  341 


Varieties. — The  Apple  or  Orange  Quince  is  fine  for  cooking,  canning  and  pre- 
serving; free  and  abundant  bearer,  and  ripens  its  fruit  two  weeks  earlier  than  the 
pear-shaped.     Matures  the  last  of  September  or  early  in  October. 

The  Pear-Shaped  Quince  is  also  highly  valuable.  Its  flavor  is  slightly  austere, 
as  with  all  quinces. 

The  Portugal  is  large  and  showy,  and  the  fruit  resembles  the  pear-shaped 
quince,  but  not  quite  so  fragrant.  These  three  are  much  cultivated  in  Britain, 
and  the  latter  is  considered  the  most  valuable  in  that  climate. 

The  Chinese. — Of  immense  size,  rather  coarse,  but  desirable.  There  are  other 
varieties  of  less  note. 

Soils. — The  quince  will  thrive  in  various  soils.  That  which  is  known  as  heavy 
or  clayey  loam,  in  most  climates,  is  considered  best;  yet,  some  prefer  a  somewhat 
sandy  loam.  The  red  oxide  lands  of  the  Piedmont  region  are  well  adapted  to 
this  fruit.  Slightly  gravelly  or  slaty  soils,  if  not  too  dry,  are  also  favorable  to  the 
quince.  It  requires  rather  more  moisture  than  the  apple  or  pear,  "but  not  root 
feet." 

•  Culture  and  Manures. — In  suitable  soil  and  climate,  whsre  the  quince  is  a 
failure,  we  think  the  cause  is  improper  or  superficial  cultivation,  or  no  culture  at 
all.  The  roots  of  this  tree,  or  bush — for  it  maybe  trained  as  the  one  or  the 
other — run  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  this  habit  suggests  the  mode  of 
culture.  Moisture  is  required,  but  not  too  much,  as  we  have  just  stated;  and  this 
is  best  retained  by  sufficient  mulching,  especially  in  soils  rather  dry.  Salt  is 
considered  an  important  adjunct  in  quince  culture.  About  a  pint  to  each  adult 
tree,  we  think,  is  sufficient.  Doubtless  some  cultivators  "have  salted  rather  too 
much"  for  the  good  of  their  trees. 

THE    CHEERY 

The  luscious  cherry  is  a  native  of  Asia.  It  is  generally  divided  into  two 
classes:  First,  Harts  and  Bigarreau;  second,  Dukes  and  Morellas.  The  best 
early  sorts  cultivated  here  are:  May  Dukes,  Early  Richmond,  Black  Tartarian,  of 
Russian  origin,  and  very  large,  heart-shaped.  Later  varieties,  such  as  Napoleon 
Bigarreau  (very  large),  Honey  Heart  (delightful),  Downer,  English  Morella,  Gov- 
ernor Wood,  &c,  should  be  cultivated  wherever  the  cherry  will  grow;  and  for 
very  late,  Ramsley's  Late  Morella,  which  matures  last  of  August. 

Propagation  and  Cidtivation. — The  cherry  is  propagated  by  grafting  and  bud- 
ding. The  latter  is  mostly  practiced.  The  cultivation  should  be  good.  It  is  a 
rapid  grower,  and  the  soil  need  not  be  very  rich.  Hot  southern  exposures  are 
unfavorable  to  the  cherry.  High,  breezy  elevations  are  very  suitable.  The 
largest  trees  and  largest  and  finest  flavored  cherries  are  grown  on  and  about  the 
sides  and  tops  of  the  low  mountains  of  the  Piedmont  regions  of  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina,  and  it  does  equally  as  well  in  the  cool,  elevated  parts  of  Mary- 
land above  the  frost  line. 

THE    FIG. 

This  fruit,  so  ancient,  "so  delectable,"  and  rich,  is  a  native  of  the  warmest 
regions  of  Asia.  It  is  raised  to  a  great  extent  in  the  Southern  parts  of  Europe. 
We  think  it  could  be  successfully  grown  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Virginia  and 
further  South  with  but  little  protection      We  believe  the  better  it  is  known  the 


342 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


more  extensive  will  be  the  cultivation.  It  should  he  put  in  good  warm  soil.  The 
varieties  most  esteemed  are  the  Brunswick,  the  Black  Fig  of  the  Azores,  and  the 
Marceilles,  and  other  esteemed  sorts. 

Dr.  F.  G.  Needham,  of  Washington,  D.  C,  has  published  a  recent  pamphlet 
on  "  Fig  Culture  and  Management." 


THE    RUSSIAN    APRICOT. 


A  new  variety  from  Russia,  introduced  into  Kansas  and  Nebraska  several 
years  ago  by  the  Menonites,  has  proved  to  be  entirely  hardy.  With  the  tempera- 
ture thirty  to  forty  degrees  below  zero  it  has  not  been  injured;  tree  a  rapid,  hand- 


The  Cultivated  Blackberry. 


some  grower,  and  very  prolific,  fruit  the  size  of  small  peaches,  ripening  early,  of 
excellent  quality,  of  a  hne  yellow  color,  with  a  bright  blush  on  the  sunny  side. 
The  manuring,  cultivation  and  management  the  same  as  that  for  the  peach. 


INJURIOUS    INSECTS. 


The  insects  destructive  to  fruits  are  very  numerous,  and  many  kinds  are  Arery 
difficult  to  destroy.     We  shall  only  notice  a  few  of  the  most  common  and  per- 


nicious. 


HOirriCULTUKAL  .  343 


The  Apple-Tree  Borer. — This  borer  also  attacks  the  Quince  and  some  other 
fruit  trees.  To  destroy  borers  after  they  have  penetrated  the  trunk  or  roots,  use 
alkaline  washes.  They  are  repulsive  to  insects,  and  especially  to  this.  When 
the  trees  are  protected  by  such  washes  they  are  seldom  destroyed  or  injured  by 
borers.  Common  soft  domestic  soap,  or  bar  soap,  can  bo  used  for  this  purpose. 
(The  home-made  soap  is  best).  It  is  a  very  good  plan  to  lay  a  chunk  of  soap  in 
the  main  crotch  of  the  ti'eo.  The  main  remedy,  however,  after  he  has  entered 
the  wood  of  the  tree,  is  to  punch  him  to  death  with  a  stiff  wire,  or  cut  him  out 
with  a  sharp  knife. 

The  Tent  Caterpillar ,  is  often  troublesome,  more  especially  on  apple-trees, 
but  they  are  easily  destroyed  by  hand  when  within  reach,  or  their  webs,  with  the 
insects  twisted  out  with  a  slender  pole. 

The  Codling  Moth  is  the  most  destructive  insect  to  the  fruit  of  the  apple-tree; 
also  injurious  to  other  fruits.  There  are  many  traps,  devices,  and  remedies  for 
the  extermination  of  this  pernicious  destroyer  of  fruits.  There  is  nothing  better 
for  large  trees  than  hogs  running  at  large  in  the  orchard.  To  induce  extra  root- 
ing it  has  been  suggested  that  the  orchardist  scatter  a  handful  or  two  of  shelled 
corn  around  the  trees  as  far  as  the  roots  extend.  "This  sets  their  plow  shares  to 
work  in  earnest,  and  they  soon  get  or  expose  all  hibernating  insects  and  their 
larva3,  including  that  of  the  codling  moth."  They  also  consume  the  wormy  fruit, 
worms  and  all,  as  fast  as  it  falls. 

The  Peach-Tree  Borers. — These  are  easily  managed  by  cutting  them  out  with 
a  knife,  or  following  them  up  with  a  wire.  But  the  most  simple  and  convenient 
way  to  destroy  them  is  to  scoop  out  a  small  basin  around  the  crown  of  the  stems 
of  the  trees  and  pour  from  a  pint  to  a  quart  of  boiling  hot  water,  or  water  near 
the  boiling  temperature,  into  the  basin.  The  soil  taken  out  should  also  be  scalded, 
as  it  may  contain  worms,  and  returned  to  the  stem  of  the  tree.  If  worms  bore 
the  under  side  of  the  roots  the  hot  water  will  hardly  reach  them. 

The  Cerculio  ("  Little  Turk,")  is  also  hard  on  the  peach.  He  operates  from  the 
blossoming  to  the  half  grown  or  perfect  peach.  But  his  main  object  is  our  deli- 
cious Plums.  This  insect,  as  an  old  dictionary  says  of  the  flea,  "  is  a  creature  of 
most  infernal  activity." 

Remedy. — Nothing  gets  him  so  effectually  as  the  "jarring  process."  The  tree 
is  tapped  or  jarred — he.is  surprised — folds  up  his  legs — lets  go — and  drops  directly 
into  the  sheet  or  cloth  prepared  and  spread  at  the  foot  of  the  tree  to  receive  him. 
For  convenience,  and  not  to  injure  the  tree,  a  small  lower  limb  is  sawed  off  near 
the  body  of  the  tree,  or  a  medium  sized  nail  driven  in,  affords  a  place  on  which 
to  tap  with  a  wooden  mallet  or  hammer. 

We  do  not  think  it  expedient  on  the  present  occasion  to  go  further  into  the 
subject  of  insects.  This  belongs  more  properly  to  the  books  on  this  subject,  and 
our  readers  will  hardly  expect  in  our  essay  on  fruits  to  find  that  we  have  also 
treated  largely  on  insects. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


<$rapes  and  Offline  funking. 


EY   J.    W.    FITZ. 


to  select 
said  the  I 
and  rot. 
overcome 


N  REGARD  to  this  subject  Mr.  Read  truly  says:  "The  grape  is 
the  most  delicious  and  wholesome  of  all  our  fruits,  and  is  very 
easily  grown."  With  almost  any  treatment  grapes  can  be  raised 
to  some  extent.  There  are  varieties  which  succeed  best  in  the 
North,  such  as  the  Delaware,  Lady,  Clinton,  &c.  Others  in  the 
middle  sections  of  our  country,  such  as  Concord,  Catawba,  Isa- 
bella, Clinton,  and  many  others.  At  the  South,  the  Scupper- 
nong,  Catawba,  Concord,  Brighton,  and  numerous  other  varieties 
do  well  and  are  extensively  cultivated. 

Notwithstanding  rot  and  mildew  are  occasionally  very 
destructive,  yet  this  may  not  continue,  and  we  will  soon  learn 
varieties  that  are  entirely  exempt  from  these  causes  of  failure.  It  is 
ves,  Ironclad,  Noah,  and  Elvira  are  entirely  exempt  from  both  mildew 
With  these  and  other  good  sorts,  if  this  report  is  true,  we  shall  soon 
these  troubles. 

VINTICULTUEE. 


The  planting,  manuring,  culture,  trellis  work,  and  general  management  of 
our  native  vines  is,  we  believe,  well  enough  understood  by  most  of  our  farmers  to 
enable  them  to  have  paying  crops.  But  as  regards  skillful  pruning,  this  cannot 
be  said.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  most  of  our  vineyardists  can  prune  with  mod- 
erate success.  Some  of  our  native,  rampant  vines,  such  as  Concord,  Catawba, 
Ives,  and  others  will  bear  fruit,  more  or  less,  with  almost  any  slip-shod  practice 
in  this  line.  But  can  they  attain  in  this  Avay  the  results  or  crops  they  might  and 
ought  to  have?  We  think  not.  This  is  an  art  possessed  by  only  a  few,  as  yet,  of 
our  vineyardists.  It  can  be  learned  only  by  much  practice,  experience,  and  careful 
observation,  with  instruction  from  the  few  who  follow  the  business  as  a  profession ; 
and  even  those  from  a  foreign  country  fail  in  proper  management  of  our  native 
vines,  as  the  treatment  of  these,  in  many  cases,  requires  to  be  very  different,  and 
consequently  our  own  pruners  have  the  advantage.  A  vineyard  near  us  was 
butchered  and  almost  annihilated  early  last  spring  by  a  man  who  professed  to 
know  all  about  the  business.  He  went  on  cutting  and  thinning  to  such  an  extent 
that  some  vines  did  not  bear  at  all,  and  some  with  few  buds  and  spurs  left  bore 
only  a  few  bunches,  with  here  and  there  vines  that  bore  a  moderate  crop— the 
result  of  grossly  bad  work,  or  accident.     Now  we  think  there  is  too  much  of  this 

(344) 


GRAPES  AND  WINE  MAKING.  345 


manner  of  pruning  in  vogue  with  our  grape  growers.     There  should  be  a  remedy 
for  this  deficiency  in  our  vinticulture. 

Says  a  writer:  "  In  Franco  the  counties,  or  pomological  societies,  have  a  prac- 
tical professor,  who  gives  free  and  public  lessons  on  pruning  in  the  vineyard,  and 
showing  at  the  same  time  theory  and  practice.  I  have  learned  in  this  way  most 
of  what  I  know.  I  have  never  heard  yet  in  Virginia,  or  in  the  South,  of  any  pro- 
fessor giving  such  lessons."  Such  professors  in  this  country  would  need  some 
instruction  from  our  primers  and  trainers,  as  our  vines  as  yet  will  not  stand  some 
of  the  treatment  that  is  required  for  the  benefit  of  foreign  vines. 

Now  this  very  important  matter  should  receive  the  special  attention  of  our 
pomological  and  grape-growing  societies.  The  ignorance  and  guess-work  of  many 
of  our  farmers  and  vineyardists,  as  a  general  thing,  is  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles 
to  successful  grape-growing,  The  writer  also  says:  "In  the  future,  beginning 
next  year,  it  will  afford  me  great  pleasure  to  experiment  in  short  and  long  pru- 
ning on  the  many  varieties  of  grapes  of  my  plantation,  and  to  let  the  public 
know  the  results  of  my  experiments."  We  know  this  writer,  who  is  an  expe- 
rienced vineyardist  and  wine-maker  from  Germany,  and  hope  and  believe  he  will 
be  able  both  to  teach  and  learn  much  in  regard  to  our  native  vines,  and  be  able 
to  benefit  our  grape-growers  and  wine-makers. 

"The  grape  is  one  of  the  best  and  purest  of  tonics."  It  cleans  and  purifies 
the  system,  adds  to  health,  and  renders  more  active  both  the  mental  and  physical 
powers.  The  products  of  the  grape  are  scarcely  less  valuable  tnan  the  grape.  Its 
wine,  whether  fermented  or  unfermented,  contains  the  same  valuable  qualities 
which  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  best  of  other  fruits.  We  hope  the  great  failure 
from  rot  and  mildew  in  1887,  caused  mostly  by  unpropitious  season,  will  not 
deter  our  farmers  from  giving  proper  attention  to  their  vineyards.  Let  us  learn 
to  surmount  all  difficulties,  and  as  the  greater  part  of  the  South  is  admirably 
adapted  to  grape  culture  and  wine-making,  let  us  use  all  the  means  at  our  com- 
mand to  foster  and  encourage  a  business  that  is  destined  to  be  our  leading  indus- 
try. 

With  the  advantages  of  soil  and  climate  unsurpassed  in  adaptation,  and 
with  abundant  facilities  for  transportation,  and  with  good  markets,  there  can  be 
no  failure  in  this  business.  The  Piedmont  sections  of  Virginia  and  North  Caro- 
lina constitute  the  favored  home  of  the  grape.  There  is  in  this  region  (in  Cen- 
tral Virginia)  a  section  lying  on  and  near  the  banks  of  the  Rivanna,  a  branch  of 
James  river,  in  Albemarle  county,  that  is  said  to  rival  and  resemble  the  cliffs  and 
highlands  of  the  Rhine  in  grape  and  wine  production.  The  wine  cellars  of  Char- 
lottesville and  vicinity  are  ample  in  capacity,  and  complete  in  all  their  fixtures 
and  appointments,  and  the  wines  of  these  cellars  and  of  this  section  are  unsur- 
passed in  any  country.  They  have  men  from  Europe  who  understand  their  busi- 
ness, and  it  is  managed  and  carried  on  to  the  best  advantage 


FOOD    ELEMENTS     FOR    THE    GRAPE   VINE. 


Professor  Mallett,  of  the  University  of  Virginia,  in  an  address  delivered 
before  the  State  Pomological  Convention,  said:  In  case  of  the  grape  vine,  our 
knowledge  of  the  food  elements  required  is  fortunately  pretty  definite  and  simple. 
The  plant  does  not  seem  to  demand  nitrogen  in  special  large  amounts,  and  of  the 


346  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


mineral  constituents  of  the  soil  three  are  already  pointed  out  as  particularly 
important — these  three  are  potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  lime.  These  may  be  con- 
sidered and  placed  as  to  their  importance  in  the  order  in  which  I  have  named 
them — first,  potash;  second,  phosphoric  acid;  third,  lime. 

ASHES  AND  BONES  FOR  GRAPES. 

We  are  fully  convinced  of  a  fact  regarding  the  fertilization  of  the  grape, 
which  is  of  the  highest  importance.  Animal  excrement,  or  stable  manure 
(unless  well  rotted),  we  regard  asunsuited  to  its  successful  cultivation;  or,  at  least, 
it  is  far  better  to  employ  the  fertilizing  agents  which  are  so  largely  found  in  the 
plant  structure  and  in  the  fruit.  Potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  lime  are  the  great 
food  staples  which  the  grape  demands,  and  it  cannot  flourish  unless  these  ele- 
ments are  abundantly  supplied.  We'  fertilize  our  vineyard  and  grape  borders  with 
unreached  ashes  and  dissolved  bones,  and  obtain  most  abundant  returns. 

VARIETIES    OF    GRAPES. 

The  late  Lewis  Ott,  a  most  intelligent  and  experienced  German  grape-grower 
and  wine  maker,  has  this  to  say  in  regard  to  our  grapes: 

The  Concord  is  a  most  valuable  table  fruit 
on  account  of  the  size  of  the  bunches  and  berries, 
and  its  fine  appearance  and  excellent  flavor,  but 
not  so  good  for  wine.  It  is  healthy  in  almost  all 
localities  (rampant  in  growth),  and  an  abundant 
bearer. 

Among  the  large  number  of  varieties  there  arc 
propagation  by  Logering.  only  four  guitable  for  making  the  best  wine  in  Vir- 

ginia, namely:  The  Catawba  and  Harbemont  for  white  wine  and  the  Clinton  and 
Norton's  Virginia  for  red  wine.  There  are  others  but  their  value  is  not  suffi- 
ciently proved.  There  are  some  other  varieties  that  seem  to  be  good  wine  grapes, 
as  the  Baldwin's,  Lenoir,  Devereux,  and  others. 

The  Catawba,  a  native  of  North  Carolina,  was  the  first  variety  introduced  in 
this  country  suitable  for  wine.     It  is  a  good  table  grape  and  superior  for  wine. 

The  Norton  s  Virginia  is  what  its  name  indicates,  the  wine  grape  of  Virgin  in. 
The  wine  made  of  it  is  of  the  character  of  the  heavier  grades  of  red  wine  of 
Southern  France,  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  I  am  sure  with  judicious  treatment  a 
wine  can  be  made  of  it  which  comes  very  near  to  port  wine. 

The  Hartford  Prolific  and  Ive's  Seedling  are  very  foxy  and  inferior  in  quality, 
but  being  the  earliest  grapes  we  have,  are  very  profitable  as  table  fruit. 

The  Delaware  is  decidedly  one  of  the  most  delicious  grapes,  and  is  not  excelled 
by  any  for  table  use,  though  the  bunches  and  berries  are  small.  It  is  not  a  pro- 
fuse bearer,  needs  rich  soil  not  much  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  requires  careful  cul- 
tivation. Although  rich  in  saccharine  matter  I  cannot  consider  it  a  good  wine 
grape  on  account  of  its  earliness  and  its  want  of  acids  in  proportion  to  its  con- 
tents of  sugar.  This  is  the  reason  the  Delaware  wine  lacks  the  freshness  so  much 
valued  in  white  wines,  and  it  does  not  keep  well. 

THE    VINEYARD. 

W.  D.  G.,  of  Ulster  county,  New  York,  says  the  plan  of  training  the  grape 
most  in  use  is  the  four-arm  system,  in  which  four  short  arms  are  trained  on  a 


I 


What  a  Treat  ! 


(.347) 


548  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


trellis,  the  first  two  about  three  feet  from  the  ground  and  the  other  two  about  five 
and  a  half  feet.  These  arms  usually  show  from  five  to  seven  buds  each — five  are 
enough,  but  seven  may  be  left,  to  provide  against  accidents  to  some  of  the  buds. 
This  plan  is  so  well  known  throughout  the  country  that  further  description  would 
be  superfluous  to  my  purpose,  which  is  to  call  the  attention  of  vineyardists  to  a  suc- 
cessful modification  of  this  plan,  which  has  been  tried  here  for  several  years  with 
such  good  results  as  to  induce  those  who  have  tried  it  to  extend  its  use  in  prefer- 
ence to  any  other.  This  is  known  here  as  the  "two  long-arm  system,"  and  con- 
sists in  the  training  of  two  instead  of  four  arms,  the  two  having  ten  or  twelve 
buds  each,  and  branching  from  the  main  vine  at  or  near  the  upper  wire.  These 
arms  are  put  over  and  around  the  upper  wire,  and  brought  down  to  the  lower 
one,  to  which  they  are  tied  tightly.  A  better  plan,  however,  is  to  wind  the  whole 
length  of  one  arm  around  the  wire,  leaving  the  other  as  before  stated.  The  arm 
running  horizontally  should  be  in  the  direction  of  the  heaviest  winds  of  the 
locality.  I  have  found  less  damage  done  to  vines  trained  in  this  way  than  in  the 
other.  This  is  especially  the  case  as  regards  injury  from  spring  gales,  often  so 
destructive  in  many  localities. 

Some  of  the  advantages  of  this  two  long-arm  system  are  these:  simplicity 
and  economy;  less  labor  in  summer  pruning  or  pinching-back;  greater  facility  of 
cultivation,  as  the  summer  growth  is  more  out  of  the  way;  and  better  disposition 
of  grapes  for  cutting,  as  they  are  less  tangled  up  when  they  fail  to  receive  the 
necessary  straightening  out  at  the  proper  time;  and,  most  important  advantage 
of  all,  a  greater  yield  of  finer  grapes.  The  reason  of  the  greater  and  better  yield 
need  not  be  told  here;  but  every  observant  grower  will  admit  that  his  best  fruit 
is  found  on  the  upper  arms,  as  a  rule,  while  the  imperfect  and  inferior  clusters 
are  generally  found  on  the  lower  arms.  Probably  some  varieties  of  slow  and 
weak  growth  cannot  be  trained  in  this  way  in  consequence  of  lack  of  ripening- 
wood,  but  with  me  Delaware,  Walter,  Prentiss,  and  some  of  still  less  strength, 
have  responded  satisfactorily;  while  such  strong  growers  as  Concord,  Champion, 
Hartford,  Dutchesse,  Agawan,  Salem,  etc.,  have  given  an  over-abundance  of  well- 
ripened  wood  for  the  long  arms. 

GRAPE-ROT   REMEDY. 

We  make  the  following  very  suggestive  abstract  of  successful  treatment  of 
grape  rot  as  practiced  for  the  last  six  years  by  F.  C.  Miller  &  Son,  of  New  Phila- 
delphia, Ohio,  who  are  largely  in  the  grape  business :  1  pound  ground  sulphur,  2 
pounds  slacked  lime,  2  pounds  copperas,  broken  fine.  It  is  applied  three  times 
during  hot,  sultry,  wet  weather — the  first  application  on  the  first  appearance  of 
rot,  say  from  the  10th  to  the  20th  of  June  with  us.  This  stops  it.  Sudden 
changes  of  temperature,  when  wet,  starts  the  rot  and  mildew  again,  when  another, 
application  is  made. 

PRUNING   THE   VINE. 

IT.  C.  Schmitz  says  on  this  subject:  The  lengthy  teachings  of  the  books  seem" 
to  confuse;  but  the  pruning  of  the  grape  vine  is  far  from  offering  the  difficulties 
of  tree  pruning.     While  an  injury  done  to  a  tree  by  faulty  pruning  is  often  irre- 
parable, the  nature  of  the  vine's  growth  allows  reparation  in  spring  and  summer,^ 
if  proper  forethought  be  used.     In  pruning  the  grape  vine  the  first  question  the  '' 


GRAPES  AND  WINE  MAKING.  349 


operator  has  to  answer,  and  he  must  answer  it  clearly  in  his  imagination,  is, 
"What  will  this  grape  vino  bo  in  one,  two,  three,  and  four  months  hence?" 

A  few  rough  sketches  of  tho  different  future  stages  of  growth  cannot  fail  to 
make  the  primer  clearly  understand  how  much  and  what  must  bo  cutaway.  But 
the  foundation  to  the  future  good  and  safe  pruning  of  the  grape  vino  has  to  be  laid 
now,  when  the  wood  for  next  year's  crop  begins  to  form — when  tho  buds  start, 
and  soon  the  shoots  will  push  to  a  tangled  mass  if  not  restricted.  This  restric- 
tion must  be  well  measured,  neither  too  much  nor  too  little,  the  main  aim  of  the  ' 
operation  being  to  keep  the  vino  in  proper  bounds,  (1)  to  produce  a  good  crop  this 
year,  (2)  to  produce  good,  healthy  wood,  with  matured  fruit-buds  for  next  year's 
crop. 

A  few  points  must  ever  be  present  to  the  operator's  mind.  Over-pinched 
vines  are  apt  in  a  warm  fall  to  push  their  fruit-beds  too  far,  and  these  are  easily 
injured  in  a  rigorous  winter,  if  the  vines  are  not  laid  down  and  protected.  Or 
the  fruit-buds  may  start  all  together  and  become  valueless  for  next  year's  crop. 
True,  other  buds  push  at  once,  but  these  late  forming  buds  are  often  leaf-buds. 

If  vines  are  allowed  from  the  start  to  form  all  the  shoots  they  want  without 
restriction,  the  wood  may  not  ripen  sufficiently  to  withstand  the  rigors  of  the 
winter.  The  third  stage  of  the  growth  of  the  vine  is  when  the  clusters  are 
formed — when  the  bloom  has  shed.  Now  is  the  time  to  reduce  the  quantity  of 
clusters,  retaining  only  the  best  formed,  as  equally  as  possible  divided  on  the 
whole  vine,  and  to  remove  the  fruit  from  the  shoots  intended  for  next  year's  wood. 
Now  or  soon  the  tips  also  of  the  fruit-bearing  canes  have  to  be  pinched,  leaving  two 
or  three  leaves  above  theuppermost  clusters,  but  do  not  pinch  the  shoots  intended 
for  next  year's  wood.  Allow  them  to  grow  at  will,  and  tie  conveniently  as  further 
growth  demands. 

Occasions  may  present  themselves  where  further  pinching  may  be  advisable, 
but  in  practice  it  may  be  found  the  best  policy  to  allow  the  vines  full  sway  from 
now  to  perfect  crops  and  wood  without  further  interference.  Rough  sketches, 
"object  lessons  from  nature,"  of  the  different  stages  of  growth,  penciled  by  him- 
self, will  impress  the  operator  more  than  lengthy  descriptions.  Once  well 
impressed  on  his  mind,  any  necessary  change  can  be  easily  adapted  to  each  dif- 
ferent vine,  may  it  be  young  or  old,  may  the  growth  have  been  scanty  or  small, 
may  the  vine  have  been  injured  by  mildew,  insects  or  disease,  by  the  weather  or 
any  other  factor  influencing  the  last  or  the  coming  crop. 

Pruning  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  leaves  fall.  Vines  set  this  spring 
should  bear  one  or  two  shoots  next  year,  according  to  their  vigor,  Cut  such  vines 
back  to  three  buds  or  so,  leaving  one  or  two  extra  ones  to  provide  against  acci- 
dent. Old  vines  should  be  pruned  according  to  the  condition  of  each  vine. 
Enough  buds  should  be  left  to  produce  a  sufficient  number  of  shoots  to  bear  the 
leaves  and  fruit,  and  no  more,  as  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  those  buds  left  after 
pruning  represent  the  new  growth  for  the  next  year. 

PLANTING   AND   MANURING   THE   VINE. 

Prepare  the  ground  in  fall.  Give  the  vine  plenty  of  manure,  old  and  well 
decomposed;  fresh  manure  excites  growth,  but  does  not  mature  it.  Luxuriant 
growth  does  not  always  insure  fruit.     Dig  deep,  but  plant  shallow.     Young  vines 


(350) 


Treating  the  Children  to  Grapes. 


GRAPES  AND  WINE  MAKING.  351 


produce  beautiful  fruit,  but  old  vines  produce  the  richest.  Prune  in  autumn,  in 
order  to  insure  growth,  but  in  spring  to  promote  fruitfulness.  Plant  your  vines 
before  you  make  trellises.  Vines,  like  old  soldiers,  should  have  good  arms. 
Prune  spurs  to  one  developed  hud,  for  the  nearer  the  old  wood  the  higher  flavored 
tho  fruit.     Those  wdio  prune  long  must  soon  climb. 

Do  not  place  any  manure  or  other  fertilizer  in  contact  or  near  the  roots. 
The  soil  should  he  made  rich  the  season  before  planting;  but  if  not.  your  best 
method  is  to  apply  as  a  mulch  about  the  vine  after  planting.  Thousands  of  vines 
are  killed  each  season  by  placing  fertilizers  in  contact  with  the  roots.  After 
placing  a  few  inches  of  fine  soil  about  the  roots  tread  it  firmly,  then  more  earth 
and  tread  again.  This  firming  the  soil  in  planting  everything  as  of  vital  impor- 
tance. Do  not  fear  getting  the  soil  too  firm.  I  would  not  object  to  pounding  it 
down  as  though  setting  a  fence  post,  providing  in  all  cases  the  soil  was  dry  enough 
for  planting  and  not  wet  and  soggy. 

In  planting  a  square  plot  mark  it  both  ways,  so  as  to  admit  of  horse  cultiva- 
tion, and  plant  at  the  crossing  of  the  marker,  as  for  corn. 

PROPAGATION    OF   THE    GRAPE. 

The  cuttings  are  made  from  the  branches  pruned  off,  and  should  have  two 
buds  at  least;  tie  them  in  bundles,  label,  and  cover  with  earth  in  the  cellar.  The 
Concords  and  many  others  grow  readily  from  such  cuttings  planted  in  the  open 
ground  in  spring;  others  of  harder  wood,  like  Delaware,  etc.,  do  not  grow  readily, 
and  are  raised  from  cuttings  of  a  single  eye,  in  propagating-houses;  while  others 
still,  like  Norton's  Virginia,  are  with  great  difficulty  propagated  from  cuttings  at 
all,  and  must  be  layered.  The  Delaware,  and  others  like  it,  may  be  propagated 
in  the  open  air. 

UNFERMENTED    WINE. 

The  fruit  of  the  vine  is  undoubtedly  one  of  God's  choicest  blessings,  though 
man,  by  fermenting  and  adulterating  the  juice,  has  made  it  a  curse.  A.  W.  P., 
who  appears  to  be  a  thorough  expert  in  wine-making,  has  been  writing  a  series 
of  articles  in  the  New  York  "Weekly  Sun"  on  the  subject.  In  the  last  and  con- 
cluding articles  he  gives  the  method  of  making  unfermented  wine,  which  will  be 
of  use  to  those  who  have  vineyards,  and  who  do  not  want  to  make  fermented 
wines,  hut  would  like  to  utilize  their  grapes  so  as  to  make  a  healthy  beverage  that 
would  keep  for  some  months. 

In  wines  stimulating  properties  are  the  least  to  be  desired.  It  is  questiona- 
ble whether  alcohol,  as  distilled  spirit,  or  as  wine  spirit,  is  ever  of  benefit  to 
health.  It  may  sometimes  modify  disease.  We  need  wine  as  a  beverage,  as  a 
nutrient  and  tonic,  and  these  qualities  are  derived  from  the  constituents  of  the 
fruit  other  than  sugar,  which  converted  into  carbon  dioxide  and  spirit.  Wine 
spirit  may  be  considered  as  the  inevitable,  but  undesirable,  concomitant  of  fer- 
mentation, only  of  use  as  an  antiseptic,  by  conducing  to  the  durability  of  the 
product.  This  leads  to  another  branch  of  the  subject,  on  which  information  is 
asked.  "How  to  make  unfermented  wine."  After  trying  various  methods,  I 
prefer  the  following: 

Mash  the  grapes;  boil  or  not,  as  convenient — by  boiling  more  color  is 
extracted  from  the  skins — then  press.     When  it  is  desired  to  bottle  it,  sweeten 


352 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


the  juice  to  taste,  with  best  white  sugar,  fill  the  bottles,  set  them  upon  a  wooden 
foundation  in  a  boiler,  surround  them  with  water  up  to  the  necks,  bringing  to  a 
boil,  and  boil  for  ten  minutes.  Then  from  one  of  the  bottles  fill  the  rest,  to  make 
up  loss  by  evaporation,  and  cork  them  while  hot.  The  sulphurous  acid  gas 
impregnating  the  juice  will  be  volatized  and  driven  off  by  the  heat. 

This  makes  a  very  commendable  beverage.  It  is  theoretically  and  practically 
pure.  It  is  largely  used  by  churches,  where  the  aversion  to  alcohol  extends  even 
to  the  sacrament,  and  there  is  no  nicer  beverage  for  invalids,  or  for  the  thirsty 
soul  who  of  a  hot  day  wants  a  "long  drink."  A  quart  of  unfermented  juice,  two 
quarts  of  water,  sugar,  lemon  and  ice,  is  about  as  good  a  refrigerator  as  can  be 
invented.     There  are  no  headaches  in  it. 

t. 

KEEPING    GRAPES. 

Only  tough  leathery-skinned  varieties  can  be  preserved  in  good  condition  till 
winter.  It  is  throwing  away  time  and  grapes  to  attempt  keeping  Concords  and 
other  varieties  with  thin  skins.  Bunches  intended  for  keeping  should  be  gathered 
when  perfectly  dry,  and  handled  with  utmost  care  so  as  not  to  bruise  the  berries, 
wrapped  in  clean,  soft  paper,  and  placed  in  shallow  boxes.  The  storage  room 
should  be  dry,  and  as  cool  as  possible  without  actual  freezing. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


(finrftcn    (Culture* 


BY  J.  w.  ]  rrz. 


"  He  brought  me  into  this  delicious  grove — 
This  garden  planted  with  the  trees  of  God.*' 

y:  mm)  HE  GARDEN  proper  is  indispensable  to  every  farmer.  It 
JPWv)  should  be  mostly  occupied  with  the  best  varieties  of  vegetables, 
SSjiD  w^h  very  few  fruit  and  ornamental  trees.  Ornamental  shrub- 
bery and  flowers  may  be  cultivated  to  some  extent.  The  small 
fruits  should  have  a  liberal  share  of  the  grounds,  and  should 
receive  proper  attention.  The  strawberry  should  have  sun, 
culture,  and  a  moderately  rich  soil.  The  raspberry  and  black- 
berry do  best  in  some  shade,  with  cultivation,  but  they  cannot 
afford  to  share  their  food  with  the  roots  of  the  larger  fruits  or 


ornamental  trees.  The  garden,  to  pay  well,  must  be  well 
manured  and  cultivated.  It  scarcely  can  be  too  rich.  The  fertilizers  used  may 
be  commercial,  with  well  rotted  stable  or  barn-yard  manure,  and  fine  litter  to 
keep  up  a  proper  supply  of  humus;  but  as  regards  manures  or  litter,  special  care 
should  be  taken  that  grass  or  weed  seeds  are  not  present  when  they  are  used. 
These  give  much  trouble,  and  will  vegetate  for  years  whenever  the  soil  is  stirred. 

The  great  pleasure  and  profit  of  a  well-kept,  well-filled,  and  well-tilled  garden 
can  scarcely  be  appreciated  by  farmers  who  neglect  or  pay  but  little  attention  to  veg- 
etables and  fruits,  that  conduce  so  largely  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  their 
families,  and  very  much  lessen  the  consumption  of  meats. 

The  vegetable  garden,  if  the  surroundings  will  allow,  should  be  oblong  in 
shape,  so  that  horse  power  can  be  used  to  advantage  when  necessary.  A  strong, 
safe  enclosure  should  be  among  the  first  work  to  receive  attention;  then  spading 
or  deep  plowing,  and  heavy  manuring  at  the  approach  of  winter  is  required.  The 
soil  should  again  be  deeply  stirred  by  early  spring.  Humus  should  abound  in 
the  garden  and  truck  patch,  and  when  partially  decomposed  vegetation  and  litter 
has  been  applied,  wood-ashes  and  lime  may  be  applied  to  hasten  decomposition; 
no  grass  or  weeds  should  be  allowed  to  mature  seeds.  With  proper  attention  grass 
and  weeds  will  be  subdued,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  there  will  be  but 
little  trouble  with  them. 

By  observing  these  rules  the  garden  will  annually  become  richer,  better 
pulverized  and  more  productive,  and  will  prove  a  blessing  and  comfort  to  the 
owner  and  his  family. 

23  (353) 


354  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Lord  Bacon  thus  speaks  in  reference  to  the  garden:  "  God  Almighty  first 
planted  a  garden,  and  indeed  it  is  the  purest  of  human  pleasures.  It  is  the 
greatest  refreshment  to  the  spirits  of  man,  without  which  buildings  and  palaces 
are  hut  gross  handy-works.  And  a  man  shall  ever  see  that  when  ages  grow  to 
civility  and  elegancies,  men  come  to  build  stately  sooner  than  to  garden  finely,  as 
if  gardening  were  the  greater  perfection." 

MELIORATION   OF   GARDEN   SOILS. 

We  are  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  the  melioration  and  proper  culture  of 
gardens  is  very  much  neglected  by  our  farmers.  The  advantages  of  a  well-kept 
garden,  which  in  fact  is  a  miniature  plantation  of  diversified  crops,  are  second 
only  in  importance  to  that  of  a  well-tilled  farm;  and  one  of  the  sources  of  the 
health  and  welfare  of  the  family,  and  good  living,  cannot  be  expected  where  but 
little  attention  is  paid  to  vegetables  and  fruits,  of  which  latter  a  few  dwarf  sorts 
should  be  cultivated  in  every  garden.  They  soon  come  into  bearing,  and  are 
always  appreciated.  We  mean  the  kitchen  garden  and  truck  patches,  from  which 
supplies  for  family  consumption  are  produced. 

The  labor  of  cultivating  vegetables,  especially  in  stiff,  tenacious  soils,  is 
greatly  increased  year  after  year  by  annual  cropping  and  neglect  of  fertilization, 
causing  the  soil  to  run  together  and  become  cloddy  and  tough,  and  the  best  pul- 
verizing implements  may  be  employed  with  only  partial  success;  consequently 
the  crops  become  smaller  and  of  less  value  in  proportion  to  the  negligence  and 
inattention. 

We  can  remedy  this  yearly  increasing  barrenness  and  inaptitude  of  soil  and 
fruitless  expenditure  of  labor. 

The  sovereign  remedy  for  stiff,  compact  soils  is  a  bountiful  supply  from  the 
barn-yard  and  stables,  and  we  should  manage  and  practice  as  follows: 

After  the  crops  have  been  removed  and-  the  ground  softened  by  the  autumn 
rains,  but  not  wet,  the  soil  should  be  moved  to  the  depth  of  two  spades,  and  the 
surface  kept  in  a  rough  and  ridgy  condition.  After  having  received  a  few  hard 
freezings,  a  liberal  supply  of  decomposed  barn-yard  or  stable  manure,  or  a  mix- 
ture of  both,  should  be  freely  applied.  The  soil  cannot  easily  be  made  too  rich, 
nor  can  there  be  too  much  soil ;  and  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked  re-spade 
and  mix  in  the  manure.  This  may  be  repeated  during  the  latter  part  of  winter; 
and  in  early  spring  the  use  of  the  rake  will  produce  a  good  and  sufficient  tilth; 
and  for  late  vegetables  the  mattock  and  rake  will  make  it  all  right. 

It  is  necessary  that  this  process  should  be  practiced  to  some  extent  every 
year,  by  means  of  which  the  crops  will  be  doubled  or  trebled,  the  labor  of  culti- 
vation greatly  reduced,  and  the  quality  of  the  crops  improved  to  a  great  degree. 

Another  means  employed  to  bring  about  disintegration  of  soils  is  lime,  in 
quantities  varying  according  to  the  condition  of  the  soil;  but  this  agent  will  not 
act  with  effect  unless  the  soil  contains  vegetable  matter,  producing  humus  and 
a  medium  proper  for  its  reception  and  action. 

SANDY   SOILS. 

Many  of  our  gardens  are  so  situated  as  to  present  difficulties  of  a  nature 
exactly  opposite   to   the  soils  we  have  just   referred   to;  and   the   means  to   be 


GARDEN  CULTURE. 


^55 


employed  for  correction  are  essentially  different,  except  as  to  the  use  of  lime, 
■which  has  the  singular  property  of  pulverizing  stiff  soils  and  closing  those  that 
are  sandy  and  light. 

In  addition  to  the  use  of  lime,  and  even  without  it,  sandy  soils  may  be  ren- 
dered very  productive  and  kind  by  liberal  dressings  of  muck,  ditch  mud,  and 
clay.  These  should  be  collected  in.  heap3 
or  composted  in  the  fall,  and  applied  in 
early  spring,  mixing  well  with  the  soil. 
This  treatment  may  require  more  labor 
and  expense  than  that  expended  on  stiff 
soils,  which  may  also  be  rendered  more 
friable  by  the  use  of  sand,  but  the  results 
will  be  equally  satisfactory. 

We  have  had  reference  mainly  to 
gardens  and  truck  patches  cultivated  for 
family  use,  but  the  means  recommended 
may  be  extended  to  commercial  gardens 
and  farming  lands  as  well.  Safe  enclos- 
ures for  all  are  important. 

Whilst  on  the  subject  of  gardens,  it  " 
may  be  proper  to  remind  cultivators  that 
without  good  and  improved  utensils  there 
is  loss  of  time  and  labor,  and  we  would 
especially  recommend  for  small  gardens 
the  four-tined  steel  spading  fork  and  the  , 
Chinese-pronged  weeding  hoe.  Both  are 
very  valuable  implements,  and  the  steel 
rake  with  eight  teeth  is  indispensable  in 
destroying  with  facility  incipient  crops  of 
weeds,  and  in  smoothing  the  soil  and  pro- 
ducing that  fine  tilth  so  necessary  in  putting  in  seeds  and  for  their  after-culture* 

THE    FARMER'S   GARDEN'. 

J.  Wilkinson,  landscape  gardener,  of  Baltimore,  says  no  corresponding  area 
of  the  farm  or  plantation  is  so  profitable  as  a  well-prepared,  well-planted  and  well- 
;-iept  vegetable  and  small  fruit  garden. 

Few  farmers  have  made  the  degree  of  progress  in  "  high  farming  "  that  would 
make  it  safe  or  judicious  to  attempt  to  plant  small  fruits  or  vegetables  without 
enclosing  the  ground  to  be  devoted  to  these  purposes  by  a  good  and  suitable  fence. 
It  poultry  is  allowed  the  range  of  the  farm,  as  is  still  very  generally  the  case,  the 
garden  fence  must  be  poultry  proof,  and  for  this  purpose  there  is  no  fence  known 
io  the  writer  that  is  less  expensive  or  more  simple  of  construction  than  the  plain 
picket  or  paling  fence,  with  a  bottom  board  about  one  foot  in  width,  and  with  two 
rails  of  two  by  three  inches,  placing  the  lower  one  six  inches  above  the  bottom 
board,  and  the  upper  one,  the  top  of  it,  twelve  inches  below  the  tops  of  the  pal- 
ings. The  paling  need  not  extend  down  to  the  top  of  the  bottom  board,  by  two 
and  a  half  inches;  and  the  bottom  board  maybe  placed  three  inches  from  the 
surface  of  the  ground. 


The  Farmer's  Vacation. 


GARDEN  CULTURE.  357 


In  the  use  of  palings  four  feet  in  length,  with  bottom  hoard  and  spaces  as 
recommended,  a  fence  five  feet  five  and  a  half  inches  is  produced. 

For  a  fowl  proof  fence,  the  use  of  a  paling,  two  inches  by  two  inches  square, 
and  five  feet  four  inches  in  length,  at  each  fence  post,  which  should  not  be  more 
than  eight  feet  apart,  and  using  four  wires  of  the  size  used  by  bell  hangers,  plac- 
ing the  bottom  wire  three  inches  above  the  top  of  the  palings,  which  need  not  be 
sharpened,  ami  placing  the  other  wires  three  inches  apart,  above  this,  a  very  effec- 
tive fence  is  produced.  The  wires  should  pass  through  suitable  boles  in  the  two 
by  two  inch  pailing — and  may  occasionally  be  wrapped  around  them.  The  tops 
of  the  two  by  two  inch  square  pailing  will  be  much  improved  in  appearance  by 
sharpening  them. 

The  taper  of  the  palings  should  commence  at  the  upper  wire,  which  will  give 
them  a  slender  neat  appearance. 

By  using  the  light  wire,  which  should  be  galvanized,  fowls  will  fly  against  it, 
instead  of  scaling  it,  as  they  would  a  visible  rail,  or  board. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  a  larger  area,  having  four  equal  sides,  may  be 
enclosed  by  a  given  length  of  fence  than  one  of  any  other  form,  except  the  circle, 
which  is  impracticable. 

Whilst  extravagance  or  needless  expenditure  should  be  carefully  avoided  in 
everything  pertaining  to  the  farm,  yet  it  will  be  found  economical  to  enclose  what 
may  be  considered  a  large  area  for  the  purposes  under  consideration. 

No  walks  or  roads  are  necessary  in  such  an  enclosure,  except  a  road  twelve 
feet  in  width  all  around  it  next  the  fence,  and  no  trees,  shrubs  or  plants  should  be 
planted  on  the  margin  of  the  road  next  to  the  fence.  This  road  may  be  robbed 
of  all  its  fertile  soil,  and  it  may  be  used  to  level  up  low  places  in  the  garden,  or  if 
none  exists,  use  it  as  a  top-dressing,  which  will  add  greatly  to  the  productiveness 
of  the  soil.  The  barren  surface  of  the  road,  thus  divested  of  its  fertility,  will 
require  little  expense  to  keep  down  its  spontaneous  production,  and  it  provides 
turning  ground  for  animals  used  in  the  breaking  up  of  the  ground,  also  in  the 
tillage  of  the  crops.  Unless  the  soil  of  the  garden  is  very  porous,  so  that  no  stag- 
nant water  will  stand  in  the  furrows,  or  between  the  rows  of  crops,  the  rows 
should  run  up  and  down  the  slope,  that  surface  water  may  not  accumulate  in 
them,  and  that  each  belt  may  drain  its  own  water.  The  proper  aspect  for  the 
garden  will  depend  much  on  the  soil  and  climate.  In  high  latitudes,  the  south- 
ern aspect  is  most  desirable,  in  low,  and  with  a  dry  oj^en  soil  a  northerly  one  will 
be  preferable. 

Whatever  the  character  of  the  soil  may  be,  the  tillage  should  be  deep  and 
thorough,  and  there  is  little  danger  of  too  great  fertility.  Let  me  urge  such 
readers  as  have  not  already  provided  this  most  indispensable,  profitable  and  luxu- 
rious department  of  the  farm  or  plantation,  to  set  about  it  at  once,  and  have  it 
ready  to  plant  in  time  to  have  the  benefit  of  it  the  coming  season. 

MARKET    GARDENING. 

Within  the  past  five  years  the  business  of  market  gardening  in  this  country 
has  assumed  enormous  proportions.  It  occupies  thousands  of  acres  in  and 
around  our  large  cities  and  villages  and  remote  parts  of  the  country  that  are 
blessed  with  shipping  privileges  which  are  being  farmed  by  energetic  gardeners 


S58  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


and  fruit  growers.  While  gardening,  for  the  past  two  or  three  years,  has  not  paid 
old-time  profits,  yet  it  has  been  made  profitable,  more  so  than  general  farming. 
Seeing  this,  many  farmers  have,  'within  a  few  years,  taken  to  market  gardening  as 
a  means  of  making  their  farms  pa}\  The  devotion  of  large  areas  to  growing 
potatoes,  beans,  and  onions  are  signs  of  this  tendency.  A  great  many  fail  to 
realize  the  profits  from  their  new  departure  that  were  anticipated,  but  it  is  mainly 
those  whose  coarse  and  easily  produced  products  come  in  direct  competition  with 
ordinary  farming,  and  who  fail  to  appreciate  the  different  conditions  in  garden- 
ing as  compared  with  farming. 

The  common  farmer  finds  it  difficult  to  understand  how  essential  are  the 
large  quantities  of  fertilizers  used  by  market  gardeners  in  growing  all  vegetable 
crops.  Grain  and  other  farm  crops  are  grown  with  comparatively  small  amounts 
of  manure.  The  free  use  of  clover  seed  and  keeping  of  farm  stock  enables 
farmers  to  maintain  land  in  good  condition  for  ordinary  cropping  without  pur- 
chasing commercial  manures.  But  this  is  not  enough  for  vegetable  crops,  which 
always  require  heavier  manuring  than  grain.  Nor  is  ordinary  farm  land  rich 
enough  for  garden  crops  without  some  addition  of  purchased  manures,  chiefly 
mineral. 

When  farmers  branch  out  into  the  cultivation  of  vegetable  crops  they  are 
too  apt  to  continue  their  old-time  economy  in  the  purchase  and  use  of  manures. 
It  would  seem  ruinous  to  them  to  apply  sixty  to  one  hundred  loads  of  stable  manure 
per  acre,  or  1,000  to  2,000  pounds  of  the  best  phosphate,  yet  the  market  gardener 
does  it,  and  that  too  on  land  that  has  been  liberally  fertilized  annually  for  many 
years.  In  fact  it  is  hardly  possible  by  one  application  to  fertilize  land  that  has 
been  rich  enough  for  grain  crops,  so  that  it  will  bring  a  full  crop  of  vegetables. 

The  proper  way  for  the  farmer  to  begin  is  to  manure  his  land  heavily  for  a 
year  or  two  and  grow  potatoes,  corn,  or  some  other  coarse  crop.  In  this  time 
thorough  cultivation  will  have  mixed  the  manure  with  the  soil,  weeds  can  be  kept 
down  and  the  land  brought  into  condition  for  producing  better-paying  crops. 
What  can  be  grown  most  profitably  will  depend  altogether  upon  the  market. 
Higher  prices  can  generally  be  got  by  peddling  or  selling  to  some  dealer  in  the 
local  market,  but  farmers  who  live  near  a  shipping  point,  even  fifty  or  one  hun- 
dred miles  from  a  large  city,  can  always  grow  garden  crops  of  some  sort  to  good 
advantage  and  profit.  Farmers  who  find  no  money  in  growing  corn  or  wheat  at 
present  prices  might  try  gardening  another  year  on  a  small  scale,  or  begin  to  pre- 
pare the  soil  for  further  gardening  operations. 

PETER  HENDERSON  ON  MARKET  GARDENING. 

For  the  past  ten  years  market  gardening  has  been  less  remunerative  than  it 
probably  has  ever  been  in  this  country,  particularly  to  the  growers  in  the  vicinity 
of  our  large  cities,  where  transportation  takes  no  longer  than  from  three  to  six 
days  from  points  South.  In  fact,  it  is  exceedingly  doubtful  if  the  crops  of  cab- 
bage, beets,  lettuce,  onions,  radishes,  and  other  early  crops  in  the  hands  of  the 
different  growers  have,  one  with  another,  paid  more  than  the  actual  cost  of  cul- 
ture, and  the  wonder  is  how  year  after  year  the  business  of  growing  early  stuff  is 
continued.  But  every  year  it  is  expected  to  pay  better,  and  thus  they  hold  on, 
supported  mainly  by  their  late  or  second  crops,  with  which  the  Southern  grown 


GARDEN  CULTURE.  359 


products  do  not  interfere.  The  most  important  among  thelate  crops  of  the  market 
gardener  in  the  Northern  States  is  celery,  which,  to  compensate  for  the  loss  in 
profit  of  the  early  crops,  has  for  the  past  ten  years  probably  paid  a  clear  profit 
over  all  expenses  of  $.300  per  acre.  Late  cabbage  probably  pays  half  that,  while 
late  cauliflower  may  average  as  great  a  profit  as  celery;  but  tbe  crop  is  confined  to 
special  localities,  while  celery  can  be  grown  almost  anywhere  north  of  Washington, 
where  the  soil  is  ten  inches  deep  and  thoroughly  pulverized  and  manured.  Other 
late  crops,  such  as  beets,  turnips,  parsnips,  tomatoes,  carrots,  horse-radish,  etc., 
are  grown  at  profits  varying  from  $50  to  $300  per  acre;  but  all  early  crops,  either 
of  vegetables  or  of  fruits,  have  been  less  profitable  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  in 
the  past  ten  years  than  at  any  time  probably  in  tbe  last  half  century,  and  I  see  no 
outlook  for  the  better ;  both  land  and  labor  are  cheaper  in  the  Southern  States,  crops 
in  most  sections  can  be  cultivated  with  less  labor,  and  the  rapidly  increasing  facili- 
ties for  quick  transportation  all  tell  against  the  Northern  grower  who  relies  on  early 
crops.  This,  however,  refers  to  large  cities.  In  inland  towns,  particularly  where 
vegetables  or  fruits  are  grown  for  use  in  the  localities  in  which  they  are  produced, 
the  Southern  crops  do  not  much  interfere,  as  they  are  usually  received  in  such 
condition  as  would  not  bear  reshipment.  So  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  growing  of 
either  vegetables  or  fruits  locally,  for  towns  of  from  5,000  to  50,000  inhabitants, 
is  still,  and  will  likely  continue  to  be,  a  profitable  business.  Another  branch  of 
market  gardening  is  often  very  profitable — that  of  growing  fruits  and  vegetables 
for  summer  boarding-houses  or  hotels.  Many  farmers  are  enterprising  and  ener- 
getic enough  to  go  into  this,  and  they  usually  make  as  much  from  every  acre  so 
devoted  as  from  twenty-five  or  even  fifty  acres  in  ordinary  farming,  for  from  such 
customers  they  get  retail  prices  and  often  high  prices  at  that.  The  great  difficulty 
in  growing  fruits  or  vegetables  away  from  town  is  manure,  for  it  is  indispensable 
to  the  best  results.  No  matter  how  good  the  normal  condition  of  the  soil  maybe, 
it  will  not  long  produce  fine  crops  of  vegetables  or  even  fruit  without  manure. 
Stable  manure,  when  it  can  be  obtained,  is  best,  and  it  should  be  put  on  the  land 
annually  at  the  rate  of  not  less  than  fifty  loads  or  tons  per  acre.  Stable  manure 
is  as  cheap,  in  my  opinion,  laid  on  the  land  at  $3  per  ton  as  bone-dust  or  guano 
at  $40  or  $50  per  ton.  Our  market  gardeners  in  Hudson  county,  N.  J.,  use  at 
least  fifty  tons  per  acre  annually,  and  often  harrow  in,  in  addition,  half  a  ton  of 
guano  or  bone-dust,  and  when  it  is  known  that  most  of  them  yet  pay  $50  per 
acre  rent  annually,  without  a  lease,  thus  costing  for  each  acre  $200  each  year  for 
manure  and  rent  alone,  and  probably  an  equal  amount  for  labor,  it  can  easily  be 
seen  that  unless  every  foot  of  land  is  made  to  tell,  the  balance  would  soon  be  on 
the  wrong  side  of  the  ledger.  Yet  in  the  face  of  this  there  is  hardly  a  market 
gardener  who  has  been  in  the  business  for  twenty  years  but  has  made  money, 
showing  that  the  high  manuring  has  paid  in  the  past  whatever  it  will  do  now  in 
competition  with  the  South.  Certain  it  is  that  if  it  will  not  pay  with  this  manur- 
ing it  will  not  pay  without  it.  Market  gardening  is  largely  carried  on  at  Charles- 
ton, Savannah,  Jacksonville,  and  other  points  in  Florida,  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  and 
many  other  places  South  where  there  is  quick  transportation,  and  though  much 
depends  on  soil  and  location  and  convenience  in  shipping,  it  is  certain  that  at  the 
present  time  the  returns  are  greater  for  the  capital  and  energy  invested  South  than 
North.  In  a  visit  to  Charleston,  S.  C,  a  short  time  ago,  I  called  on  a  firm  of 
market  gardeners,  the  Messrs.  Noisette,  who  had  long  been  customers  of  ours  for 


(360) 


Happy  Young  Ones. 


GARDEN  (JULTUKE.  861 


seeds  and  plants,  never  dreaming  for  a  moment  from  their  intelligent  manner  of 
going  business  but  what  they  were  white  men.  1  was  surprised  to  find  on  asking  for 
them  that  the  firm  was  represented  by  two  modest-looking  colored  men  of  middle 
age,  who,  from  a  beginning  with  11  acres  in  18G4,  had,  in  1883,  got  to  be  owners 
of  75  acres  of  valuable  land,  right  in  the  suburbs  of  Charleston,  every  acre  of 
which  was  worked  in  vegetable  and  fruit  crops  in  the  most  thorough  manner. 
Hardly  a  weed  was  to  be  seen,  and  nearly  every  crop  showed  the  greatest  possible  fer- 
tility, and  no  wonder,  for  they  used  GO  tons  of  stable  manure  and  a  quarter  of  a  ton 
of  guano  per  acre.  They  had  the  biggest  and  best  manure  heap  I  ever  saw  in  any 
market  garden,  having  early  learned  the  importance  of  that  factor  of  success. 
They  employ  an  average  of  75  hands,  or  about  one  to  each  acre,  which  is  about 
the  same  as  is  required  at  the  North,  though  the  wages  paid — 50  cents  per  day 
for  women  and  $1  per  day  for  men — is  little  more  than  half  that  paid  North,  and 
when  it  is  known  that  their  early  products  now  sell  for  three  times  as  much  in 
New  York  or  Philadelphia  as  tho  home-grown  vegetables  and  fruits,  it  can  well 
be  understood  how  profitable  the  business  must  be.  I  did  not  ask  Messrs.  Nois- 
ette what  their  profits  on  their  75  acres  were,  but  I  have  little  doubt  it  would  not 
be  less  than  $20,000  per  year,  and  maybe  $30,000,  for  when  cabbage  sells  for  22 
cents  and  cauliflower  75  cents  per  head,  and  when  we  know  that  10,000  plants 
are  planted  on  an  acre,  it  is  easily  seen  that  market  gardening  must  pay  in  the 
South.  Of  course  every  acre  would  not  be  so  profitable,  and  occasionally  a  crop, 
from  insects  or  other  causes,  may  be  entirely  lost;  but  over  all  there  is  no  ques- 
tion that  the  business,  conducted  in  the  masterly  manner  in  which  it  was  done 
by  those  two  colored  men,  must  be  immensely  profitable.  Everything  indicated 
that  they  were  up  with  the  times.  They  had  the  best  plows,  harrows,  and  rollers 
that  money  could  buy,  and  it  Avas  here  for  the  first  time,  I  must  acknowledge, 
that  I  ever  saw  that  valuable  machine,  the  Manure  Spreader,  in  use.  We  have 
probably  two  hundred  market  gardeners  in  Hudson  county,  N.  J.,  many  of  whom 
have  been  in.  the  business  for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  and  I  doubt  if  there  is  one 
of  those  implements  in  use  among  the  market  gardeners  in  the  whole  county.  To 
be  sure,  few  of  them  have  over  ten  acres,  and  its  value  is  less  on  small  areas, 
though  on  grounds  such  as  cultivated  by  the  Messrs.  Noisette,  where  4,000  tons 
of  manure  is  annually  used  on  their  75  acres,  the  Manure  Spreader  will  pay  for 
itself  many  times  in  a  season,  not  only  from  the  rapidity  with  which  it  does  the 
work,  but  also  from  the  evenness  in  spreading  and  disintegrating  the  manure. 
The  crops  that  Messrs.  Noisette  have  found  to  be  most  profitable  in  Charleston, 
are  strawberries,  lettuce  cauliflowers,  and  cabbage,  though  they  grow  largely  of 
potatoes,  tomatoes,  cucumbers,  and  melons. 

There  are  a  few  valuable  implements  of  recent  introduction  that  I 
might  mention,  such  as  the  Acme  Harrow,  the  Disc  Smoothing  Har- 
row, Improved  Wheel  Hoes  and  Cultivators,  and  the  Manure  Spreader  above 
alluded  to,  the  use  of  which  may  be  made  very  profitable  to  the  market 
gardener,  and  is  perfectly  indispensable  on  any  well  cultivated  farm  of  over 
one  hundred  acres.  In  new  vegetables  the  American  Wonder  Pea,  Early 
Summer  Cabbage,  and  Golden  Savoy  Cabbage,  Snowball  Cauliflower,  Dark, 
Round  Radish,  and  White  Plume  Celery,  are  all  now  standard  vegetables  of  great 
merit.  The  last  named,  "White  Plume"  Celery,  will  open  up  an  entirely  new 
field  in  the  culture  of  this  vegetable,  as  it  possesses  the  wonderful  property  of 


(3021 


English  Sparrows. 


GARDEN  CULTURE.  363 


self-bleaching,  and  can  be  grown  jnst  as  easily  as  cabbage,  lettuce  or  beet  crops. 
No  earthing  or  banking  up  is  required.  It  is  planted  like  any  other  celery  in 
June  or  July,  three  feet  between  the  rows  and  six  inches  between  the  plants,  and 
all  the  work  required  is  simply  to  plow  or  hoe  enough  soil  to  each  side  of  the  row 
to  straighten  it  up  and  the  work  is  done,  as  the  center  stalks  and  leaves  grow  up 
as  white  as  snow,  bleached,  crisp  and  tender  as  the  ordinary  celeries  are  by  the 
slow  and  troublesome  process  of  banking.  Another  valuable  feature  of  this  celery 
is  that  the  leaves  as  well  as  the  stems  being  white  it  will  thus  form  one  of  the 
most  ornamental  of  all  vegetables  for  the  table,  and  there  is  but  little  doubt  that 
it  will  be  grown  for  early  use,  say  from  October  to  January,  to  the  exclusion  of 
all  other  kinds,  not  only  because  it  can  be  grown  by  the  most  inexperienced 
amateur,  but  the  professional  market  gardener  will  save  two-thirds  in  labor  and 
produce  a  more  salable  crop.  For  the  first  two  seasons  it  has  sold  from  its  fine 
appearance  at  double  the  price  of  the  ordinary  celeries. 

THE    POSSIBILITIES    OF    AN    ACRE. 

There  are  so  many  chances  in  gardening,  remarks  the  "American  Cultiva- 
tor," against  the  realizing  of  the  highest  success  of  which  the  land  is  capable 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  that  it  has  always  seemed  to  us  idle  to 
make  such  estimates  as  are  to  be  found'  in  some  books  and  papers  on  gardening 
for  profit. 

It  is  true,  for  instance,  that  we  plant  6,000  early  cabbages  to  the  acre,  and 
that  the  best  early  cabbages  are  usually  worth  ten  cents  each  at  wholesale,  Still 
it  does  not  follow  that  we  are  likely  to  realize  $000  per  acre  for  this  crop.  On  the 
contrary,  most  gardeners  would  think  they  were  doing  very  well  to  realize  half 
this  sum.  The  maggots  will  get  some,  others  will  be  stump-rooted,  the  green 
worm  will  spoil  others,  and  an  untimely  drought,  if  we  have  not  plenty  of  Avater 
to  irrigate  them,  will  make  them  come  so  small  as  to  bring  only  five  cents  or  less 
each. 

Again,  this  same  land  that  had  the  crop  of  early  cabbages  will  carry  a  late 
crop  of  celery,  of  which  we  also  plant  6,000.  Good  celery  is  usually  worth  eight 
cents  at  wholesale,  but  we  do  not  usually  realize  $480  per  acre  for  this  crop. 
Though  it  will  sometimes  exceed  this  figure,  yet  the  average  of  good  celery  is 
probably  not  over  $300  per  acre,  and  for  a  very  troublesome  crop  this  is  no  more 
than  it  ought  to  bring  to  make  it  profitable  to  the  grower. 

Onions  may  be  grown  as  an  early  crop  between  celery,  and  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions  800  to  1,000  bushels  per  acre  have  been  grown,  and  they 
often  sell  at  $1  per  bushel  at  wholesale.  But  the  crop  is  subject  to  injury  from 
the  maggots  and  dry  weather,  and  300  to  400  bushels  per  acre  may  be  taken  as  a 
fair  crop,  and  seventy-five  cents  as  a  fair  price  per  bushel. 

One  of  the  most  uncertain  of  crops  as  to  price  is  lettuce  in  summer.  We 
sow  the  seeds  in  rows  fourteen  inches  apart,  and  thin  out  the  plants  to  stand  six 
or  eight  inches  apart,  so  that  we  have  40,000  or  more  plants  to  the  acre.  Now 
lettuce  is  sometimes  short,  and  then  any  one  who  happens  to  have  a  piece  ready 
for  sale  can  sometimes  realize  three  or  four  cents  per  head;  but  it  is  seldom  that 
it  brings  over  one  cent  in  summer,  and  it  is  often  hard  to  sell  much  of  it  even  at 
one-half  cent  per  head.     We  usually  plant  a  small  patch  of  five  or  ten  square 


364  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


rods  of  it  every  ten  days,  and  take  our  chances  of  the  market.  It  will  usually 
average  $300  or  more  to  the  acre,  but  it  is  not  planted  by  the  acre  all  at  once. 
Two  crops  of  lettuce,  however,  can  be  grown  sometimes  on  the  same  land,  and  it 
is  usually  followed  by  some  late  crops,  such  as  horse  radish,  melons,  celery,  etc., 
upon  the  same  land. 

Onion  sets  are  a  very  productive  though  a  laborious  crop.  They  are  planted 
in  rows  twelve  by  three  inches  apart,  and  are  bunched  four  to  each  bunch.  Two 
thousand  dozen  bunches  or  more  can  be  grown  upon  an  acre,  which  Avill  usually 
sell  for  about  $400  or  more,  and  they  are  cleared  about  July  1st,  in  time  for  any 
late  crop  that  is  convenient.  Still,  there  is  so  much  labor  in  growing  and  selling 
them  that  few  gardeners  care  to  grow  more  than  one-quarter  to  one-half  an  acre. 

The  radish  is  a  crop  which  is  very  productive,  but  is  subject  to  injury  from 
the  maggot  on  most  lands.  In  some  favored  spots  for  this  vegetable  gardeners 
often  clear  $300  to  $500  per  acre  for  their  radish  patch.  The  seed  is  sown  in 
small  lots  at  a  time  ever}'  ten  days  in  spring.  They  are  bunched  ten  to  a  bunch, 
and  sell  at  about  two  cents  per  bunch  at  wholesale.  They  are  only  good  for  a 
few  days  after  they  are  ready  for  market.  They  are  grown  on  sandy  land,  and 
are  usually  followed  by  melons  or  squashes  as  a  second  crop. 

One  of  the  most  productive  of  all  crops  is  spinach.  When  well  grown  it  will 
measure  1,500  to  2,000  bushels  per  acre;  but  it  often  pays  to  cut  it  before  it  is 
half  grown,  so  as  to  get  the  early  price.  It  usually  sells  at  about  $1  per  bushel 
in  winter,  being  brought  from  Norfolk  mostly.  In  April  the  price  begins  to  drop, 
and  by  the  time  it  gets  grown  in  June  often  sells  for  ten  cents  or  less  per  bushel. 
It  is  a  risky  crop  when  wintered  over,  bringing  from  nothing  at  all  up  to  $500  or 
$600  per  acre.  It  is  cleared  off,  however,  in  time  to  use  the  land  for  one  or  two 
crops  afterwards  in  the  same  season,  such  as  melons,  squashes,  celery,  etc. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  cases  that  Ave  remember  of  the  productive 
capacity  of  one  patch  of  land  was  where  a  crop  of  winter  spinach  was  cleared 
away  in  March;  the  land  was  immediately  manured  heavily  and  plowed  and 
planted  with  onion  sets;  these  were  cleared  off  in  June,  melon  plants  having  been 
set  out  about  June  5th,  before  all  the  onions  were  cleared  away.  After  clearing 
the  onions,  about  June  20th,  a  row  of  celery  was  set  out  between  the  melon  rows. 
This  gave  four  full  crops  in  one  year  from  one  piece  of  land,  one  of  which,  how- 
ever, the  spinach,  was  partly  grown  the  previous  year. 

Of  course  such  successions  of  crops  imply  good  land  well  manured,  watered 
and  tilled,  together  with  skillful  management  and  favorable  weather.  All  large 
stories  concerning  the  possibilities  of  an  acre  in  market  gardening  must  be  taken 
with  a  grain  of  allowance,  and  all  circumstances  fully  understood  before  being 
accepted  as  a  guide  to  future  operations. 

HOT-BEDS. 

The  "American  Farmer"  says:  The  first  half  of  February  is  about  the  right 
time  to  start  the  hot-bed,  and  all  who  intend  to  have  one  should  now  prepare  the 
material  to  be  used,  and  repair  the  damage  to  last  year's  sashes  or  provide  new 
ones.  Those  who  have  hitherto  used  stable  manure  alone  for  heating  purposes 
should  try  forest  leaves,  in  any  amount  up  to  one-half  the  entire  bulk  of  material 
used,  and  well  incorporated  with  the  mass;  as  a  regulator  and  retainer  of  the  heat 


GARDEN  CULTURE. 


365 


Hot  Buds— Showing  Method  of  Ventilation. 


generated  by  fermentation  they  arc  unequaled.  Do  not  throw  the  material  hap- 
hazard into  your  hot-bed  pit,  but  spread  it  evenly  over  the  entire  pile,  tramping 
it  firmly  as  you  proceed;  there  should  not  be  less  than  two  feet  in  depth  of  mate- 
rial for  a  bed  started  at  this  time,  and  the  greater  the  depth  the  better,  for  you 
can  easily  get  rid  of  superabundant  heat,  but  cannot  readily  increase  the  amount 
on  the  occasion  of  a  cold  snap. 

Do  not  make  the  common  mistake  of  sowing  indiscriminately  all  varieties 
of  seed  broadcast  over  the  whole  surface  of  your  hot-bed,  but  form  it  into  com- 
partments so  that  the  different 
plants  can  be  aired  and  watered 
independently  of  each  other. 
Cabbage,  cauliflower  and  lettuce 
can  be  put  into  the  same  com- 
partment at  the  coldest  end,  if 
there  is  a  difference;  tomatoes  at 
the  other  end,  and  egg-plant  and 
peppers  in  a  close  compartment 
in  the  centre.  Sow  all  seeds  in 
rows  if  you  sow  directly  in  the 
soil  of  the  hot-bed,  but  it  would  be  far  better  if  you  provide  "flats,"  that  is  shal- 
low boxes,  and  sowing  broadcast  in  these  you  will  have  your,  plants  more  at 
command.  In  case  you  decide  on  the  use  of  flats  there  will  be  no  need  of  any 
soil  in  the-  bed — simply  place  the  boxes  on  the  manure.  When  it  comes  to  trans- 
planting the  convenience  of  the  boxes  will  be  appreciated. 

Always  give  unremitting  attention  to  watering  and  the  temperature;  each 
one  must  be  his  own  judge  as  to  the  amount  of  water  necessary  to  be  applied; 
the  point  to  be  observed  is  never  to  let  the  plants  wilt  for  want  of  it,  and  yet  not 
to  keep  the  soil  so  wet  as  to  rot  them. 

LIMA    BEANS    FOR    MARKET   AND    SEED. 

Growing  Lima  beans  is  a  very  important  branch  of  market  gardening,  and 
often  very  profitable  when  there  is  a  near  market,  as  in  the  neighborhood  of  larger 
villages  and  cities.  Without  this  near  market,  alias  home  demand,  the  Lima 
bean  business  will  hardly  prove  to  be  profitable,  unless  the  grower  knoAvs  of  some 
particularly  favorable  inland  market;  for  instance,  a  large  manufacturing  town 
in  the  coal  or  oil  regions,  which  will  take  his  produce  at  a  more  than  average 
figure.  Never  plant  Lima  beans  for  market  on  a  large  soale,  if  you  have  to  call 
for  the  assistance  of  express  and  other  transportation  companies  in  order  to  get 
your  crop,  not  into  the  hands  of  the  consumer,  but  into  those  of  the  commission 
merchant.  There  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  however,  as  for  the  Southern  grower, 
who  ships  to  Northern  markets;  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  point  out  these  excep- 
tions in  particular. 

The  same  advice  which  Ave  would  give  to  the  would-be  onion  grower,  Ave  Avould 
repeat  to  the  inexperienced  person  Avho  wishes  to  groAv  Lima  beans.  Do  not 
plant  on  a  large  scale  from  the  start.  Let  the  area  planted  be  in  proportion  to 
your  experience.     Always  produce  within  the  limits  of  your  home  market. 

The  Lima  bean,  to  come  to  maturity,  requires  a  long  season  and  warm  soil, 
and  anything  like  a  full   or  even  satisfactory  crop   cannot  be  expected  in  the 


366  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


extreme  North  or  Northwest.  For  such  locations  we  would  prefer  the  White  Dutch 
Runner  or  other  bean  varieties,  all  of  which  are  earlier  than  even  the  so-called 
"improvements"  on  the  large  Lima.  Yet,  with  painstaking,  even  this  can  be 
made  to  yield  enough  to  satisfy  the  home  grower,  though  hardly  ever  the  market 
gardener.  Plant  the  seed  in  thumb-pots  or  inverted  sods  in  the  hot-bed  in  April, 
and  transplant  as  soon  as  the  weather  will  permit. 

Lima  beans  do  best  only  on  soil  which  is  very  rich  and  very  warm.  Sandy 
loam  is  "just  the  thing,"  and  heavy  manuring  is  needed.  We  cannot  see  any  par- 
ticular advantage  in  hill  manuring,  as  the  roots  reach  very  far  in  every  direction 
and  deep  into  the  soil  besides.     Rich,  well  decomposed  stable  manure  is  excellent ; 

but  as  earliness  is  of  paramount  importance, 
the  application  of  phosphates  with  their  ten- 
dency to  hurry  up  maturity,  is  always  advis- 
able, and  often  doubles  the  crop  where  the  sea- 
son is  short.  A  liberal  dressing  of  good  stable 
manure  and  a  few  hundred  pounds  of  some 
good  phosphate  per  acre,  may  give  you  a  rea- 
FormsofBeaus.  sonably  satisfactory  crop. 

Of  the  many  methods  of  training  bean  vines,  described  and  advocated  in 
agricultural  papers  from  time  to  time — as  for  instance,  growing  in  bush  form 
(closely  planted  and  without  support),  tying  to  the  wire  trellises  and  strings,  or 
supporting  by  brush  (like- peas) — none  is  of  as  much  practical  use  as  the  old  way 
of  growing  them  on  poles.  These  need  not  be  long,  especially  not  where  the 
summers  are  very  short.  From  four  to  six  feet  above  the  ground,  according  to 
the  climate,  is  fully  as  much  as  is  required. 

When  the  ground  is  well  manured,  well  plowed,  well  harrowed  and  marked 
out  in  rows  not  less  than  four  feet  each  way,  the  poles  may  be  firmly  planted  at 
the  intersections  and  the  field  is  ready  for  planting  the  beans.  Four  seeds  are  to 
be  planted  around  each  pole,  at  a  distance  of  three  or  four  inches  from  it.  Much 
stress  is  laid  on  having  them  planted  eye  downward,  and,  while  we  admit  that  this 
is  the  most  natural  position  for  the  bean  to  grow,  we  have  never  been  able  to  dis- 
cover that  seed  thus  placed  germinate  quicker,  or  sprouts  surer  than  beans 
planted  otherwise.  In  hard,  baked  soils  it  may  make  a  slight  difference ;.  it  does 
not  in  the  sandy  soils,  which  should  be  selected  for  this  crop,  and  when  planted 
at  the  proper  depth,  i.  e.,  not  over  one  inch.  Lima  beans  can  be  planted  a  few 
days  earlier  than  corn,  as  a  slight  frost  is  not  apt  to  injure  the  young  plants  when 
once  above  ground.  But  as  a  cold,  wet  spell  may  prevent  the  seed  from  germi- 
nating and  cause  it  to  rot,  it  is  advisable  to  sprout  the  beans  before  planting,  and 
thus  make  sure  of  their  germination. 

Two  or  three  thrifty  plants  are  enough  to  each  pole,  and  if  there  are  more, 
the  weakest  may  be  pulled  up.  When  the  remaining  ones  commence  to  run,  tie 
the  vines  to  the  poles.  Keep  down  the  weeds  by  cultivating  both  ways  like  corn. 
Cutting  off  the  ends  of  the  vines  is  advisable,  especially  where  the  season  is 
generally  short.  As  soon  as  the  pods  are  of  the  proper  size  (when  the  beans  in 
them  are  large  and  plump),  they  should  be  gathered  and  taken  to  market.  The 
beans  in  the  pods  are  then  about  four  times  as  large  as  matured  (dry)  ones.  The 
crop  is  generally  sold  in  the  pods,  and  retails,  perhaps,  for  one  dollar  or  more  per 
bushel  on  the  average.     No  definite  statements  can  be  made  in  regard  to  profits, 


HARDEN  CULTURE. 


367 


as  crops,  prices,  land,  labor  and  manure  vary  greatly  in  difFerent  localities.     The 
careful  grower  in  most  places  realizes  very  fair  profits. 

Lima  beans  for  seed  can  be  grown  to  advantage  only  in  places  with  summers 
sufficiently  long  to  bring  a  large  share  of  the  crop  to  maturity.  The  vines  must 
be  clipped  off  closer  than  when  grown  for  market,  and  the  whole  crop  ought  to 
be  gathered  by  hand. 


ECONOMICAL   WAY   OF   RAISING   IRISH   POTATOES. 

A  most  successful  way  of  raising  potatoes  in  the  South  is  by  planting  them 
in  what  is  called  a  "  lazy  bed,"  which  is  done  by  applying  manure  very  heavily 
in  the  rows  and  then  covering  the  whole  bed  with  straw,  leaves,  corn-stalks,  or 


Shelling  Beans  for  Dinner. 


any  coarse  litter.  By  this  plan,  no  working  or  weeding  is  required  and  the  growth 
is  not  stopped  by  the  first  hot,  dry  weather,  as  the  ground  is  kept  cool  and  moist, 
which  greatly  increases  the  yield  of  the  potatoes  and  makes  them  of  much  better 
quality. 


368  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


A  good  plan,  by  which  several  objects  are  combined,  is  to  select  a  field  which 
is  to  be  sown  to  wheat  next  fall,  and  fence  in  as  much  as  will  make  a  good-sized 
feeding-lot  for  cows  and  sheep.  In  this  enclosure  feed  all  of  the  corn-stalks. 
The  following  spring  take  the  adjoining  land  for  potatoes;  plow  well;  then  lay 
off  three  or  four  rows  at  a  time  on  the  side  furthest  from  the  cow-pen.  Make  the 
furrows  deep;  drop  the  potatoes  at  good  distances  apart,  and  fill  the  furrow 
entirely  up  with  coarse  manure,  keeping  on  in  this  way  until  all  are  planted.  The 
object  in  planting  only  a  few  rows  at  a  time  is,  to  avoid  running  the  manure 
wagon  over  the  furrows,  as  this  would  destroy  them.  After  the  field  is  all 
planted,  rake  with  a  hay  or  stalk-rake  the  stalks  from  the  cow-pen  on  the  potato 
plot,  so  that  the  covering  will  be  afoot  thick  after  settling.  This  is  all  that  is 
needed  until  harvest,  when  the  stalks  are  raked  from  the  potatoes  and  thinly 
spread  over  the  wheat  field,  to  be  plowed  under.  The  potatoes  can  be  gathered 
Avithout  digging,  as  they  will  either  be  on  top  of  the  ground  or  in  the  loose 
manure.  In  the  South  potatoes  raised  in  this  way  may  be  left  in  the  ground  all 
winter  and  gathered  in  perfect  condition  in  the  spring. 

The  conditions  of  success  with  this  method  are,  to  use  plenty  of  manure  and 
to  have  the  mulch  at  least  a  foot  thick.  Nothing  is  so  good  for  a  mulch  as  corn- 
stalks, and  in  raising  potatoes  in  a  garden,  the  stalks  may  be  piled  on  the  edge  of 
the  patch  in  gathering,  and  may  be  used  for  several  years. 

VALUABLE    PROPERTIES    OF    THE    TOMATO. 

There  are  few  persons  who  do  not  relish  and  appreciate  the  tomato  as  an 
excellent  and  delicious  vegetable,  and  as  there  is  no  product  of  the  garden  that 
surpasses  it  in  delicate  and  agreeable  flavor,  so  Ave  doubt  if  there  is  another  that 
surpasses  it  in  hygienic  and  medical  value.  As  many  do  not  knoAv  or  appreciate 
its  importance  as  a  medical  agent,  we  present  beknv  the  views  of  Dr.  Bennett,  of 
Europe,  concerning  it,  which  opinions  have  been  abundantly  corroborated  by 
many  other  practitioners.  Dr.  Bennett  says:  1st.  The  tomato  is  an  actiATe  deob- 
struent,  which  is  especially  indicated  in  all  affections  of  the  liATer  and  other  dis- 
eases in  AAdiich  calomel  is  prescribed,  and  is,  in  all  such  cases,  at  once  innocent 
and  most  effective.  2d.  Its  use,  as  an  article  of  diet,  is  sufficient  to  cure  radi- 
cally many  of  those  diarrhces  so  difficult  to  control  with  the  usual  remedies.  3d. 
It  is  the  best  remedy  that  can  be  used  in  those  intractable  diseases — indigestion 
and  dyspepsia.  And  4th.  It  is  one  of  the  most  healthy  of  aliments  where  it  is 
habitually  made  the  diet,  Avhatever  be  the  mode  of  its  preparation. 

The  tomato  has  been  employed  with  great  success  in  cases  of  chronic  dis- 
eases, as  asthmas  and  certain  obstinate  coughs  having  their  seat  in  the  liArer.  Its 
use  as  food  promotes  digestion,  the  seed  acting  as  grinders,  as  it  Avere,  for  other 
food.  We  think  Ave  cannot  too  highly  recommend  its  use,  and  nature,  it  seems, 
intended  it  to  subserve  an  important  purpose  in  domestic  economy,  making  it 
remarkably  prolific,  and  lengthening  out  its  bearing  season  almost  to  the  very 
threshold  of  Avinter.  Its  culture  of  late  years  has  widely  increased,  and  now  there 
is  hardly  a  farm  in  the  land,  avc  suppose,  Avhere  it  can  be  made  to  groAV  and 
mature  its  fruit,  that  does  not  number  this  among  its  products.  Certainly,  any 
one  knoAving  its  value,  and  who  docs  not  concern  himself  in  its  cultiA'ation  for 
the  benefit  of  his  family,  may  be  justly  charged  Avith  neglecting  one  of  his  most 
plain  and  bounden  duties. 


GARDEN  CULTURE.  369 


THE   CULTIVATION    OF  TOMATOES. 


W.  A.  London,  of  Virginia,  says  they  thrive  best  in  a  rich,  damp  soil,  and 
being  of  a  spreading  habit,  I  think  they  are  more  prolific,  and  the  fruit  tenderer 
and  much  better  in  flavor  when  the  vines  are  permitted  to  have  their  own  way 
along  on  the  ground.  Last  year  I  had  a  very  abundant  crop,  planted  on  a  rich, 
damp  place,  and  after  the  second  working  over  with  tho  hoe,  a  good  covering  of 
leaves,  weeds,  and  other  litter  was  spread  on  the  ground  to  hold  tho  moisture,  and 
also  to  keep  the  fruit  from  touching  the  soil.  Small  pieces  of  dry  brush  were 
scattered  about  in  the  patch  between  the  hills,  but  the  vines  were  permitted  to 
take  root  about  in  places,  which  renewed  and  increased  their  strength  for  bearing 
till  frost  killed  them  off  late  in  the  season.  I  am  opposed  to  training  them  on 
stakes,  as  I  am  convinced  that  they  last  longer  and  thrive  best  on  tbe  ground, 
with  leaves,  brush  or  straw  to  keep  the  fruit  off  the  ground.  Tho  fruit  is  better 
flavored  when  ripened  in  partial  shade. 

CULTURE    OF   ASPARAGUS. 

We  advise  all  our  friends  who  own  a  garden  or  farm,  to  plant  a  bed  of  this 
most  delicious  vegetable.  There  is  no  crop  more  sure,  and  no  vegetable  more 
palatable  in  the  spring  of  the  year.  Once  planted,  it  continues  to  yield  freely 
for  many  years,  and  if  well  cared  for,  will  produce  large  and  fine  stalks.  There 
are  said  to  be  several  varieties;  we  think  that  the  soil  and  treatment  makes  the 
difference,  rather  than  the  variety.  Formerly,  the  one  or  two  old  roots  were  set 
quite  deeply,  say  one  foot  deep  in  the  trenches;  but  within  a  few  years  the  prac- 
tice has  somewhat  changed,  as  it  cannot  be  had  so  early  by  deep  planting.  We 
should  not  advise  planting  it  more  than  four  or  six  inches  deep,  preferring  on 
many  soils  four  inches.  The  young  plants  should  not  be  covered  more  than  two 
inches  deep  when  set,  or  they  will  be  likely  to  decay.  The  earth  can  be  drawn 
in  gradually  during  the  summer.  The  rows  may  be  three  and  a  half  or  four  feet 
apart  and  the  plants  in  the  rows  about  a  foot  apart.  Latterly,  some  of  the  gar- 
deners have  adopted  the  plan  of  planting  in  stools  some  two  feet  apart,  and  treat- 
ing these  stools  as  a  stool  or  hill  of  rhubarb.  We  doubt  not  larger  stalks  can  be 
raised  in  this  way  than  by  the  old  method.  Salt  may  be  used  to  advantage  on 
the  beds.  We  have  seen  salt  applied  so  as  to  cause  the  soil  to  turn  red,  and  to 
prevent  all  weeds  from  growing,  and  yet  the  asparagus  would  flourish  finely. 

A   NEW    METHOD    OP    WATERMELON    CULTURE. 

A  correspondent  of  the  "Rural  New-Yorker"  describes  the  following  method  by 
which  an  extraordinary  crop  of  watermelons  was  raised :  Holes  were  dug  ten  feet 
apart  each  way,  eighteen  inches  square  and  fifteen  inches  deep.  These  holes  were 
filled  with  well-rotted  manure,  which  was  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil. 
A  low,  flat  hill  was  then  made  and  seed  planted.  When  the  vines  were  large 
enough  to  begin  to  run,  the  whole  surface  was  covered  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or 
fifteen  inches  with  wheat-straw.  The  straw  was  placed  close  up  around  the  vines. 
No  cultivation  whatever  was  given  afterward;  no  weeds  or  grass  grew.  The  vines 
spread  over  the  straw,  and  the  melons  matured  clean  and  nice.  The  yield  was 
84 


370 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


abundant,  and  the  experiment  an  entire  success.     This  is  surely  worth  trying 
next  year. 

[Note. — Any  kind  of  straw,  leaves,  chips,  half-rotted  weeds,  &c,  would  do 
for  the  vines  to  spread  on.] 


Weighing  the  Baby. 
CUCUMBERS   ON   TRELLISES. 


Wherever  we  go  we  see  the  cucumber  in  the  open  air  suffered  to  run  on  the 
ground.     This  is  no  doubt  a  relic  of  European  culture.     There  it  is  necessary. 


GARDEN  CULTURE. 


371 


The  climate  is  not  hot  enough,  and  the  plants  have  to  ho  started,  if  not  grown 
altogether,  in  low,  flat  glass  frames.  But  where  the  cucumber  grows  wild,  it 
spreads  over  bushes  and  trees,  and  the  growth  and  product  are  enormous.  All 
plants  with  tendrils  prefer  to  ramble  in  this  way.  Tbe  grape-vine,  it  is  well 
known,  seems  fairly  to  rejoice  when  it  can  find  a  large  mass  of  twiggy  brush  to 
ramble  over  at  its  will,  and  so  does  the  cucumber.  No  one  who  has  not  tried  it 
can  have  any  idea  of  the  luxurious  growth  of  a  cucumber  when  trained  to  a  stake 
which  has  a  set  of  stubby  side  branches  left  along  its  length.  Some  which  the 
writer  saw  might  be  taken  at  a  distance  for  some  vigorous  kind  of  ornamental 
gourd — and  the  crop  was  enormous. 

A  great  advantage  in  this  style  of  culture  is  that  the  plants  occupy  far  less 
ground  than  when  permitted  to  spread  over  the  surface  in  tbe  usual  way.  This 
is  a  great  gain  to  small  gardens  and  to  large  ones,  for  that  matter — for  if  we  have 
land  enough  and  to  spare,  few  of  us  have  time  to  waste  in  preparing  more  of  it 
than  is  necessary  to  the  perfection  of  a  crop. 


WINTERING    CABBAGES. 


Joseph  Harris  writes  to  the  "American  Agriculturist"  for  November:  In 
keeping  a  few  cabbages  in  the  garden  for  your  own  use,  select  all  the  good,  solid 
heads,  and  place  them  in  a  single  row,  roots  up.  Tuck  the  outside  leaves  under 
the  head  and  place  the  heads  close  together.  Cover  With  loose  fine  earth  (the 
dryer  and  finer  the  better),  and  see  that  the  earth  is  closely  packed  round  the 
cabbages.  If  this  is  done  early  in  November  and  the  weather  is  warm,  it  is  better 
to  put  not  over  an  inch  of  soil  on  the  top  of  the  cabbages  round  the  stalk.  Then 
before  winter  sets  in  cover  up  completely  with  soil  three  or  four  inches  deep.  If 
3rou  wish  to  take  out  the  cabbages  at  different  times  in  the  winter,  a  good  covering 
of  leaves,  coarse  hay  or  straw  will  be  convenient  to  protect  and  keep  them  all 


right. 


ONION    CULTURE. 


J.  W.  D.,  of  Maryland,  says:  Almost  any  soil  that  is  properly  prepared, 
provided  it  is  not  too  wet  or  too  dry,  will  produce  onions.  As  preparatory  crops, 
potatoes,  carrots,  beets  or  tobacco  fit  the  ground 
admirably  for  this  crop,  the  last  mentioned  ren- 
dering the  onion  less  liable  to  be  attacked  by  the 
maggot,  its  great  enemy.  Use  manure  that  is  well 
rotted  and  do  not  be  afraid  of  getting  the  soil  too 
rich.  Muck  composted  with  dung  or  wood  ashes 
makes  a  good  fertilizer.  Deep  plowing  in  spring 
is  not  advisable. 

In  selecting  the  seed  great  care  is  necessary, 
and  let  no  one  sell  you  onion  seed  because  it  is 

cheap.  The  best  is  the  cheapest.  It  should  not  be  over  a  year  old  to  be  reliable. 
The  amount  necessary  for  an  acre  varies  from  three  to  five  pounds,  depending 
on  the  distance  apart  of  the  drills.  It  should  be  covered  from  half  to  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  in  depth.  As  to  the  time  of  sowing,  the  location  and  state  of  the 
•weather  must  determine  largely,  but  it  is  safe  to  sow  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in 
.good  condition  in  the  spring.     In  respect  to  varieties,  locality  must  again  be  con- 


Various  Forms  of  Onions. 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


sidered.  but  the  Yellow  Danvers.  Bed  Globe  and  White  Portugal  are  always  desira- 
ble sorts. 

If  onion  sets  are  to  be  raised,  sow  the  seed  very  thickly,  say  about  thirty 
pounds  to  the  acre,  having  the  drills  one  or  two  inches  wide.  A  pound  of  seed 
should  produce  three  or  four  bushels  of  sets.  Potato  onions  or  multipliers  are 
propagated  by  planting  bulbs  in  drills  about  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches  apart,  and 
one  to  three  inches  apart  in  the  row.  They  are  not  good  keepers  although  excel- 
lent for  domestic  use  in  their  season.  Top  onions  sometimes  called  button  onions, 
are  produced  by  setting  out  in  the  fall  the  little  bulbs,  and  in  the  spring  they  will 
throw  up  half  a  dozen  stalks,  perhaps,  which  will  bear  the  little  button  onion  on 
top. 

NUTRITIVE   VALUE    OF   THE    ONION. 

According  to  analysis,  the  dried  onion  contains  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
per  cent,  of  gluten ;  it  ranks  in  this  respect  with  the  nutritious  pea  and  the  grains. 
It  is  not  merely  as  a  relish,  therefore,  that  the  wayfaring  Spaniard  eats  his  onion 
with  his  humble  crust  of  bread  as  he  sits  by  the  refreshing  spring;  but  it  is 
because  experience  has  long  proved  that,  like  the  cheese  of  the  English  laborer, 
it  helps  to  sustain  his  strength  also,  and  adds — beyond  what  its  bulk  would 
suggest — to  the  amount  of  nourishment  which  his  simple  meal  supplies.  This 
is  another  argument  for  onion  culture,  Avhich  should  be  heeded. 

CAN   WE    GROW    ONIONS    PROM    SEED? 

In  reply  to  a  correspondent,  the  "Farmer's  Club,"  Oxford,  Penn.,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing on  raising  onions  from  seed:  Get  genuine  seed  from  some  reliable  seeds- 
man, who  will  send  seed  of  last  year's  growth.  Don't  imagine  that  seed  left  over 
from  some  past  age,  or  that  seeds  sent  out  by  irresponsible  firms,  will  ever  raise 
any  onions  the  first  year. 

Have  the  ground  in  excellent  condition,  well  tilled  in  the  fall  and  early  in 
the  spring.  Use  mould  ashes  as  a  fertilizer,  with  a  good  supply  of  composted 
manure,  and  sow  the  good  seed  early  in  the  spring. 

Use  the  same  spot  of  ground  for  the  onions  every  year;  for  onions,  unlike 
most  other  crops,  will  not  exhaust  the  soil,  and  they  will  grow  better  and  larger 
each  year,  if  but  a  little  richness  is  added,  and  if  the  ground  is  kept  free  from 
the  autumn  weeds. 

Phosphates  are  good  to  start  the  plants,  but  a  heavy  dose  may  ripen  the  crop 
too  early  in  the  season.  Liberal  and  continued  weeding  and  hoeing  during  the 
whole  season  of  growth  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  so  that  the  dry  weather  may 
not  hinder  the  growth. 

By  strict  attention,  the  largest  of  onions  can  thus  be  raised  the  first  year,  at 
double  the  profit  from  buttons  or  sets.  And  the  onions  thus  grown  are  sweeter, 
less  strong,  and  more  salable. 

RICH   LAND    FOR   ONIONS. 

Land  for  onions  should  be  excessively  rich.  First  a  good  broadcast  dressing 
of  barn-yard  manure.  Not  less  than  twenty-five  loads  per  acre  should  be  given 
it.  If  to  be  had,  a  dressing  of  ten  to  twenty  bushels  of  ashes  per  acre  will  bo 
found  very  advantageous;  superadded  to  these,  apply  five  hundred  pounds  each 


GARDEN  CULTURE. 


373 


of  cotton-seed  meal  and  acid  phosphate,  and  plow  and  harrow  all  in  lightly.  The 
land  is  supposed  to  lie  well  broken  before  their  application,  and  the  filial  plowing* 
and  harrowings  should  bring  it  into  the  finest  tilth.  This  done,  mark  off  shallow 
drills  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart,  and   put  the  sets  six  inches  apart  in  the 


At  the  Shoemaker's. 


drills,  pressing  them  very  lightly  in  the  soil.  In  very  rich  soils  they  may  be 
planted  still  nearer.  After  they  begin  to  grow,  light  surface  workings,  to  keep  a 
crust  from  forming  and  to  destroy  weeds,  is  all  that  is  necessary 


When  a  large 


374  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


market  is  convenient  a  portion  of  the  crop  may  be  gathered  when  the  bulbs  are 
an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  and  sold  in  bunches  in  the  green  state.  When  the 
tops  die  down,  the  whole  crop  is  ready  to  be  taken  up,  and  the  sooner  they  are 
disposed  of  the  better. 

SAVING   FARM   AND   GARDEN    SEEDS. 

J.  E.  Gale,  of  Vermont,  says  corn  for  seed  should  be  selected  when  husking. 
When  a  good-sized,  well-ripened  and  well-developed  ear  is  found,  pull  the  husks 
back,  but  not  altogether.  Spread  the  selected  ears  on  a  floor,  until  the  required 
quantity  has  been  saved,  where  they  will  not  heat.  Then  braid  it.  Commence  by 
taking  an  ear  with  plenty  of  husks,  part  them  so  as  to  make  two  strands,  place 
the  husks  of  the  second  ear  between  the  two  strands,  and  begin  to  braid. 
Every  time  the  left  hand  strand  is  brought  over,  add  the  husks  of  another 
ear.  Two  dozen  ears  are  enough  for  a  string.  Tie  the  end  with  twine  to 
prevent  unbraiding.  Stretch  a  telephone  or  fence  wire  between  the  rafters  or 
plates  of  the  corn-house  or  some  dry  shed;  hang  the  strings  of  corn  on  it,  and 
there  will  be  no  loss  by  rats,  mice,  or  squirrels;  and  the  seed  corn  will  keep  in 
perfect  condition  for  several  years.  A  few  hills  of  sweet  corn  should  be  allowed 
to  grow  for  seed  only.  When  the  seed  is  fully  ripe,  the  ears  should  be  braided 
and  hung  up  like  field  corn. 

Wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley  should  be  thoroughly  cured  and  dried  before 
being  put  in  the  barn.  Save  the  seed  at  threshing  time;  select  only  the  very 
best  part  of  the  crop,  and  keep  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 

Grass  seed  of  all  kinds  must  be  well  ripened  and  dried.  It  should  be  free 
from  spurious  grass  and  weed  seed.  Thrash  as  soon  as  dry.  If  pure  it  need  not 
be  winnowed,  unless  it  is  to  be  sold.    Keep  in  bags  or  barrels  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 

Peas  and  beans  should  be  left  on  the  vines  until  the  pods  are  well  wrinkled, 
when  they  should  be  picked  and  spread  until  they  are  quite  dry.  Small  quanti- 
ties may  be  shelled  by  hand;  large  crops  are  threshed  with  a  flail.  Keep  them  in 
a  dry  place. 

Melon,  cucumber, -squash  and  pumpkin  seeds  should  be  taken  only  from  ripe, 
perfect-shaped  specimens.  In  a  small  way  the  seeds  may  be  simply  taken  out, 
spread  on  plates  or  tins,  and  dried.  Larger  quantities  have  to  be  washed  before 
drying,  to  remove  the  slime  that  adheres  to  them.  When  the  seeds  are  thoroughly 
dried,  tie  them  in  bags,  and  keep  in  a  dry  place  secure  from  mice  and  rats. 

Beets,  parsnips,  turnips,  carrots,  onions,  cauliflower  and  cabbage  will  not 
produce  seed  until  the  second  year.  Set  out  in  early  May,  strong  well-matured 
plants  of  last  season's  crop.  When  the  seed  is  ripe,  cut  the  stalks  and  put  under 
cover  to  dry;  then  beat  out  the  seeds,  and  tie  in  paper  bags.  Seeds  of  all  kinds 
should  be  fully  ripe  when  gathered,  but  it  is  also  important  to  harvest  them  as 
soon  as  they  are  ripe.  For  keeping  small  quantities  of  seed,  paper  bags  are  pre- 
ferable to  cloth,  as  they  afford  better  protection  against  moisture  and  insects. 
Always  mark  each  package  with  the  name  of  the  seed  contained  in  it,  and  the 
year  in  which  it  grew.  Cold  does  not  injure  the  vitality  of  seeds,  but  moisture 
is  detrimental  to  all  kinds. 


Preparing  for  Grand  Sport. 


(375) 


376  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


THE    GEORGIA    WATERMELON. 

From  the  best  information  on  hand,  gathered  by  the  "Savannah  News"  from 
the  most  responsible  sources,  the  total  area  devoted  to  melons  in  South  Georgia, 
the  present  season  (1890)  is  19,000  acres.  This  crop,  on  account  of  its  bulk  and 
weight,  can  only  be  grown  within  easy  reach  of  transportation.  It  is  distributed 
upon  the  line  of  the  Central  system,  Savannah,  Florida,  and  Western  railway, 
Georgia  Southern  and  Florida  railway,  East  Tennessee,  Virginia  and  Georgia 
railway,  and  the  Covington  and  Macon  railway.  The  banner  melon  county  is 
Mitchell,  which,  the  melon  king,  J.  L.  Hand,  says,  has  3,000  acres  in  melons,  and 
will  ship  1 ,500  car-loads,  averaging  1 ,200  each,  during  the  present  season.  Pelham, 
in  this  county,  ships  more  melons  than  any  other  known  point  in  the  world.  She 
will  send  forth  this  season  seven  hundred  and  fifty  car-loads,  Camilla,  Baconton 
and  Hardaway  making  up  as  many  more. 

Mr.  J.  L.  Hand  is  the  largest  individual  melon  grower  in  the  State.  His 
crop  embraces  four  hundred  and  sixty-seven  acres.  He  is  an  opulent  merchant 
of  Pelham.  His  private  residence  is  a  veritable  palace.  He  has  devoted  much 
time  and  thought  to  the  subject  of  melon  growing.  He  says,  in  point  of  solidity, 
weight,  and  excellence,  the  yield  of  the  present  season  has  never  been  equaled. 
One  of  his  neighbors,  Mr.  J.  J.  Myers,  recently  shipped  six  hundred  melons,  the 
aggregate  weight  of  which  was  24,905  pounds,  making  an  average  of  forty-one 
and  one-half  pounds.  The  heaviestof  them  weighed  seventy-five  pounds  each.  In  no 
previous  season  have  there  been  such  fine  melons.  The  Kolb  variety  is  almost  cir- 
cular in  form,  and  is  preferred  for  market  on  account  of  the  toughness  of  its  rind. 
For  table  purposes,  however,  the  Jones  melon,  of  Baker  county,  and  the  Lawson  or 
Rattlesnake  variety,  of  Burke,  are  considered  the  most  delicate  and  palatable.  The 
crop  of  1890  will  exceed  by  twenty  per  cent,  any  that  has  preceded  it.  So  far  there 
have  been  no  rejections.  This  is  owing  to  the  precautions  and  judicious  distribu- 
tion of  the  fruit  by  the  Exchange.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact,  also,  that  since  the 
Exchange,  through  such  reliable  representatives  as  Mr.  Hand  and  others,  has 
explored  and  canvassed  all  Western,  Northern,  and  Eastern  points,  establishing 
reliable  agencies,  not  only  in  the  large  cities,  but  lesser  towns,  the  consumption 
of  melons  and  the  demand  for  them  have  greatly  increased.  Orders  for  car-loads 
of  melons  have  been  sent  from  villages  in  the  extreme  Northwest,  and  even  as 
far  as  Toronto,  Canada.  Indeed,  with  proper  encouragement  from  the  railroads, 
the  watermelon  territory  can  be  extended  almost  indefinitely,  and  this  new  indus- 
try be  made  to  take  rank  in  value  and  importance  with  the  great  staples  of  the 
country. 

See  what  has  already  been  accomplished.  Careful  estimates  place  the  actual 
net,  returns  the  present  season  to  melon  growers,  when  the  crop  is  gathered,  at 
the,  handsome  sum  of  $400,000.  To  this  must  be  added  over  $750,000  paid  to 
the  several  railroads,  thus  making  an  aggregate  of  about  $1,000,000  realized  in  a 
few  weeks  from  the  melon  industry,  which  is  still  in  its  infancy.  This  is  outside 
of  the  profits  of  the  seed  raisers.  Some  farmers  grow  melons  for  the  seed  alone, 
which  command  from  seventy-five  cents  to  one  dollar  per  pound  in  the  market. 

The  planting  season  begins  in  February  and  extends  into  the  early  days  of 
March.  The  ground  (a  sandy  loam  is  the  best)  having  been  previously  well  broken 
and  pulverized,  is  checked  off  in  squares,  ten  feet  each  way,  and  a  flat  hill  formed 


378  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


with  a  hoe  at  the  intersection  of  each  square.  In  this  hill  the  fertilizer  is  depos- 
ited, usually  one  pound  of  guano  (sometimes  supplemented  with  a  little  barn- 
yard manure),  equal  to  500  pounds  per  acre,  which  is  carefully  mixed  with  the 
soil.;*  Three  or  four  seeds  are  then  placed  on  one  side  of  the  hill,  and  when  about 
to  germinate,  the  opposite  side  is  also  seeded.  After  the  lapse  of  a  few  days  the 
third  side  is  planted,  and  with  still  the  interval  of  another  week  the  work  is 
completed  by  seeding  the  fourth  and  last  side.  This  is  done  to  guard  against  the 
late  frosts.  If  the  first  planting  is  killed  the  second  comes  forward,  and  if  that 
fails,  then  the  next  takes  place,  and  so  on  with  the  fourth  and  last  seeding.  Tims 
the  earliest  possible  stand  is  assured — a  matter  of  great  importance — without  the 
loss  of  a  single  day.  The  cultivation  consists  in  shallow  plowings  often  repeated, 
before  the  vines  cover  the  ground,  followed  usually  at  the  last  working  with  two 
rows  of  peas  dropped  in  the  centre  between  the  melon  hills. 

Can  the  melon  bo  raised  in  successive  years  on  the  same  land?  This  is  a 
question  which  has  finally  been  settled  by  hundreds  of  experiments.  The  answer 
is  an  emphatic  No.  Four  years  at  least  should  intervene  between  each  crop,  and 
many  think  that  seven  should  be  allowed  to  pass.  It  matters  not  how  rich  the 
soil  may  have  become  by  artificial  stimulants — other  crops  can  be  successfully 
grown  upon  it,  but  the  melon  never  two  years  in  succession.  This,  perhaps,  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  saccharine  elements  in  the  earth  have  been  exhausted  by 
the  draught  made  upon  it  to  produce  the  sweet  and  delicious  core  of  the  melon. 
The  fertilizers,  applied  however  liberally,  seem  to  lack  some  essential  ingredient 
not  contained  in  their  chemical  analysis.  Query:  Could  this  deficiency  be  reme- 
died by  a  dressing  of  sugar  or  diluted  syrup?  The  hint  is  simply  thrown  out  for 
what  it  is  Avorth. 

It  can  readily  be  seen  that  melon  production  will  always  be  necessarily 
restricted  in  volume  on  each  farm.  Only  a  certain  area  on  each  farm  lying  con- 
tiguous to  a  railroad  or  water  course  can  be  utilized  for  that  purpose,  and  this- 
should  and  certainly  must  enhance  the  demand  and  price  for  the  article.  When 
planted  in  succession  the  vines  become  diseased  and  rusty  and  yield  but  a 
scanty  return  of  inferior  fruit.  A  moderately  dry  season  is  the  best  for  melons. 
Heavy  and  continuous  rains  cause  the  vines  to  die  and  the  fruit  either  decays  or 
becomes  specked  and  unmerchantable. 

It  requires  about  five  months  to  grow  and  market  a  crop  of  melons.  The 
outlay  varies  with  the  price  of  labor.  In  some  sections  hands  are  contracted  for, 
at  $10  per  month  and  found,  to  the  close  of  the  season.  Generally,  however, 
especially  in  harvesting,  laborers  are  hired  by  the  day  at  from  seventy-five  conts- 
to  $1  each.  To  avoid  the  heat  the  melons  are  pulled  in  the  morning  and  after- 
noon. But  when  the  demand  is  active  the  work  is  continued  at  all  hours.  Indeed, 
those  gathered  at  noon  are  handled  easiest,  as  at  that  time  the  rinds  are  tougher 
and  more  flexible.  In  the  early  morn  they  are  brittle  and  break  open  at  the 
slightest  shock.  The  cost  of  picking,  hauling  and  loading  melons  on  the  cars 
varies  with  the  distance  from  the  station  and  the  scarcity  or  abundance  of  labor. 
In  Mitchell  county,  where  all  help  is  hired,  $10  is  the  average  price  for  loading, 
Avhile  Mr.  Thompson,  of  Smithville,  told  me  the  same  work  could  be  done  there 
for  $4  per  car-load. 

An  average  reduction  of  about  fifteen  per  cent,  in  freight  has  been  conceded 
the  present  year  on  nearly  all  of  the  railroads.     There  are  at  present  but  few  com- 


GARDEN  CULTURE. 


379 


I 


plaints  by  the  farmers  against  the  railroads.  The  latter  have  labored  diligently  to 
expedite  the  movement  of  the  melon  crop.  Empty  boxes  from  every  part  of  the 
Union  have  been  concentrated  at  all  tho  principal  shipping  points  to  meet  the 
demand  for  transportation.  Moreover,  these  boxes  have  almost  universally  \een 
provided  with  adequate  ventilation, which  accounts  for  the  fact  that  up  to  this  date 
(July  20, 1890)  the  shipments  have  nearly  all  been  received  in  good  order  and  sold 
at  fair  prices. 

The  percentage  of  the  crop-marketed  to  July  20,  1800,  we  learn  from  the  most 
intelligent  sources  to  be  as  follows:  On  the  line  of  the  Albany  and  Thomasvillc  rail* 
road,  over  two-fifths  ;  on 
the  Savannah,  Florida  and 
Western  Railway,  fully 
two-thirds;  on  the  upper 
portion  of  the  Georgia 
Southern  and  Florid;', 
road ,  about  one-  fourth . 
Other  portions  of  South- 
west  Georgia,  probably 
about  one-half.  The  ship- 
ments of  the  Savannah, 
Florida  and  Western  road 
amount  to  about  1,800  car- 
loads. It  was  impossible 
to  procure  accurate  esti- 
mates from  the  various 
other  lines.     The  area  on 


the  Georgia  Southern  and 
Florida,  as  ascertained 
after  diligent  investigation 
by  Traffic  Manager  A.  C. 
Knapp,  is  3,037  acres.  At 
last  accounts  received  from 
J.  T.  Hoge,.general  passen- 
ger agent,  over  200  car- 
loads had  passed  over  his 
line,  but  the  shipping  bu- 
siness had  just  fairly  com- 
menced. The  estimate  of 
yield  is  one  car-load  for 
every  two  acres.  This 
fluctuates,  however,  ac- 
cording to  the  seasons  and  i  ,,  - 
care  in  cultivation. 

Albeit  to  the  unpracticed  eye  of  the  stranger  a  melon  patch  seems  literally 
covered  with  the  tempting  fruit,  when  it  comes  to  be  gathered  experience  demon- 
strates that  the  merchantable  portion  dwindles  into  comparative  insignificar.ee. 
Thus,  when  subjected  to  the  standard  required  by  the  trade,  to  wit:  eighteen 
pounds  apiece,  it  is  found  that  the  average  yield  of  marketable  melons  is  enly 


380 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


three  melons  to  two  vines.  The  vast  remainder,  save  a  few  of  the  larger  _  ones, 
which  may  find  sale  at  some  price  in  the  home  markets,  is  left  to  rot  in  the 
fields.  Hogs  and  cattle  will  eat  them,  but  do  not,  it  is  said,  appear  to  derive  any 
nutriment  from  them. 


The  Flower  Girl. 


THE    FLOWER   GARDEN. 


"To  have  a  flower  garden,"  says  an  English  writer,  "is  to  have  many  friends 
continually  near."  And  it  is,  indeed,  wonderful  and  beautiful,  that  a  subtle 
sympathy  and  friendliness  seems  to  lean  out  of  flowers,  towards  those  who  love 
them  and  faithfully  take  care  of  them. 


CAKDFN  CULTURE.  .''.81 


To  have  a  bit  of  flower  garden  (says  Mr.  Leland  in  his  " Farm  Homes,") 

intelligently  cultivated  ''yields"  more  to  its  loving  possessor  than  any  other  fea- 
ture of  a  country  home;  for,  aside  from  its  beautiful  and  fragrant  blossoms,  it 
yields  the  tonic  of  sunlight  and  pure  air,  the  soothing  balms  of  sweet  and  faithful 
companionship,  and  the  inspiration  of  continually  unfolding  beauty. 

FLORICULTURE  AND   ITS  PLEASURES. 

There  is  no  occupation  that  affords  more  pleasure  than  the  culture  of  flowers; 
and,  in  fact,  there  is  no  occupation  that  has  so  many  varied  and  pleasing  recol- 
lections. Floriculture  is  the  jewel  and  diadem  of  rural  life.  What  a  bleak  and 
cold  appearance  a  residence  bas,  no  matter  how  fine  its  architecture  is,  without 
flowers  and  plants;  the  humblest  cottage,  with  its  vines  and  flowers  surrounding 
it,  has,  by  far,  more  charms  and  pleasure.  It  is  surprisingly  strange  in  this  civ- 
ilized age  that  there  are  not  more  flowers  and  plants  to  be  found  around  country 
residences.  It  cannot  be  that  these  gems  of  the  earth  are  too  costly  to  pur- 
chase; this  should  be  no  excuse;  our  woods  abound  with  hundreds  of  floral  beauties, 
and  the  only  cost  is  the  collecting  of  them  together.  We  think  the  true  cause  is 
the  want  of  cultivated  taste,  but  this  is.  no  high  accomplishment,  as  it  can  be  very 
easily  overcome  by  reading  books  and  papers  treating  on  flowers.  The  study  of 
botany  is  a  science  that  should  be  acquired  in  our  schools;  and  by  this  study  the 
knowledge  of  flowers  and  plants  can  be  readily  acquired.  The  Southern  forests 
have  a  large  variety  of  specimens  that  maybe  used  for  classification;  by  this 
means  the  structures  and  habits  of  each  flower  and  plant  could  be  known.  Besides, 
there  is  no  flower  or  plant  without  some  valuable  medicinal  properties,  as  the  most 
of  our  best  remedies  are  vegetable  extracts.  Botany  and  floriculture  should  be 
studied  by  all  young  persons.  It  is  a  fact  that  cannot  be  disputed  that  where 
plants  and  flowers  are  cultivated  health  is  promoted.  Flowers  seem  to  purify  the 
atmosphere  and  deprive  the  soil  of  its  poisonous  gases.  Cut  flowers  arranged 
with  taste  are  the  most  beautiful  ornaments  of  the  parlor  or  dining-room;  they 
have  a  mild  and  genial  effect  upon  the  invalid  in  the  sick-room.  The  double 
white  Camelia  Japonica  in  a  lady's  hair  looks  far  better  than  all  the  gaudy  trinkets 
the  fair  ones  wear.  Poets  have  been  profuse  in  the  praise  of  flowers,  as  the  fol- 
lowing lines  show: 

"  Bring  flowers  to  crown  the  cup  and  lute, 
Bring  flowers  the  bride  is  near, 
Bring  flowers  to  soothe  the  captive's  cell, 
Bring  flowers  to  strew  the  bier." 

HOW    TO    OROW    BEAN'S. 

Most  people  consider  that  it  is  easy  to  '"know  beans;"  but  the  Germantown 
Telegraph  gives  these  directions:  Choose  a  good  piece  of  land,  in  the  summer, 
manure  thirty  loads  to  the  acre,  plowed  in  in  August;  sow  to  rye  on  September 
1st,  crop  it  by  feeding  as  soon  as  it  is  high  enough  before  frost,  and  at  spells 
through  the  winter.  Keep  feeding  up  to  the  middle  or  last  of  May,  then  plow  it 
under  out  of  sight.  Plant  beans  in  drills  (Brush  variety)  June  1st;  cultivate 
the  weeds  out  when  there  is  no  dew  or  rain  on  the  leaves;  very  soon  the  crop 
will  cover  the  ground  and  stop  the  weeds.     If  any  get  too  large  hand  pull  them. 


382 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


When  the  crop  is  ripe,  pull  and  lay  in  rows  till  well  dried.  Next  build  a  platform 
of  rails  large  enough  to  hold  the  crop  in  a  pile  five  feet  high,  platform  high 
enough  to  keep  the  beans  off  the  ground.  Cap  the  stack  well  to  keep  out  wet. 
Thresh  the  beans  on  a  dry,  clear  day.     Winnow  and  sift  them,  hand  pick  if  neces- 

sary.  sack 
them  nicehy, 
and  you  will 
get  the  top 
price.  Use  the 
same  ground 
again  and 
again,  sow  rye 
every  fall,  pas- 
ture it  until 
May,  and  pro- 
ceed as  above. 
Here  are  two 
crops  a  year — 
pasture  and 
beans.  Both 
pay  well. 

PLANTING     T  O- 
MATOES. 

The  holes 
were  three  feet 
wide  and  two 
deep,  8  fee  t 
apart,  filled 
with  cow -lot 
and  horse -lot 
scrapings, 
mixed  with 
rotten  shucks 
and  charcoal 
dust,  half  bu- 
shel per  hill. 
The  plants 
were  the  small 
red,takenhere 
and  there    as 

found  in  the  garden  on  a  large  shovel  and  set  without  disturbing  the  growth.  Eight 
plants  were  set.  The  ground  was  raked  about  twice  per  week  until  blooming,  when 
five  stakes  eight  feet  long  were  set  around  each  plant  nearly  a  foot  from  it.  Four 
canes  were  allowed  to  grow  from  each  plant,  cutting  off  all  others  beyond  the 
clusters,  and  keeping  off  extra  suckers.  Splitting  the  top  of  one  stake,  a  Avild 
grape-vine  was  inserted  and  tied  two  or  three  together  until  long  enough  to  wind 


Mother's  Recreation. 


GARDEN  CULTURE.  383 


it  around  outside  tho  stakes  to  the  bottom.  The  ground  was  very  mellow  and 
rich  outside  the  stakes;  was  mulched  for  several  feet  from  them.  The  crop  was 
enormous.  When  in  full  bearing  from  one  to  three  bushels  were  gathered  in  a 
da}'.  Any  one  plant  would  supply  a  large  family.  They  grew  above  the  stake, 
fell  apart,  reached  the  ground  and  had  extended  a  yard  or  more  upon  it  when 
frost  came.     A  number  of  neighbors  who  saw  the  crop  can  testify  to  its  truth. 

CELERY     RAISING. 

Clean  culture  is  necessary  in  growing  celery,  especially  in  its  early  stages. 
"What  is  wanted  is  a  stocky  growth,  with  plenty  of  side  shoots.  Should  the  plants 
become  enveloped  in  weeds  the  growth  will  be  drawn  and  spindling,  and  upon 
the  removal  of  the  weeds  that  have  been  allowed  to  get  tall,  the  growth  of  the 
celery  will  be  checked  until  new  stocky  leaf-stocks  can  be  formed,  and  this  delay 
puts  it  back  very  much.  One  should  always  strive  for  a  short,  stocky  growth 
until  the  latter  end  of  August.  After  that  time  the  cool  nights  will  give  it  a  rapid 
start  and  the  banking  of  the  most  forward  plants  can  be  commenced  by  the  mid- 
dle of  September.  At  this  date  it  will  hardly  take  ten  days  to  complete  the 
bleaching. 

As  soon  as  the  early  crops  have  been  cleared  from  between  the  celery  rows,  a 
furrow  should  be  plowed  away  from  each  side  of  the  row  with  a  one-horse  plow; 
the  furrows  should  not  go  nearer  than  fifteen  inches  to  each  row.  After  plowing 
away,  turn  about  and  plow  back,  thus  filling  the  furrow  up  againg  and  continue 
to  plow  back  until  a  dead  furrow  is  made  in  the  blank  space  between  the  rows. 
This  operation  will  loosen  the  soil  that  the  roots  may  expand,  thus  making  a 
larger  growth  of  top. 

The  banking  of  celery  is  one  of  the  laborious  operations  of  the  gardener. 
To  render  the  soil  for  banking  more  easily  handled,  the  one-horse  plow  is  run 
between  the  rows.  Two  separate  bankings  will  be  required  to  complete  the  job. 
By  the  first  the  plants  should  be  covered  about  half  way  up,  and  an  interval  of 
six  clays  should  pass  before  the  second  banking.  The  object  of  the. first  banking 
will  be  to  run  the  hearts  of  the  stocks  up,  which  it  does,  as  they  try  to  get  to  the 
light  and  air.  Very  late  in  the  fall,  if  the  celery  is  to  remain  in  the  ground  until 
Thanksgiving,  a  third  banking  will  be  required  to  insure  that  the  tops  shall  not 
be  injured  by  hard  frosts.  Banking  can  be  best  performed  by  employing  three 
men  at  it.  One  straddles  the  row,  walking  backwards  as  he  gathers  together  the 
branches  or  stocks  of  each  individual  plant,  thusputing  it  in  an  upright  position. 
The  other  two  men,  one  on  each  side  of  the  row,  shovel  the  earth  around  the 
plants,  care  being  taken  that  it  does  not  get  into  the  centre  of  the  hearts. 

Gathering  and  preparing  celery  for  the  market  are  rather  slow  operations. 
The  first  move  is  to  plow  down  the  bankings  with  a  one-horse  plow.  This  hav- 
ing been  clone,  the  plow  is  run  under  the  row  of  plants,  lifting  them  from  the 
ground.  Most  of  the  green  leaves  are  then  pulled  off  the  plants,  the  blanched 
stocks  only  being  left.  The  fibrous  roots  are  next  trimmed  off  with  a  long-pointed 
shoe-knife;  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  trimming  lest  the  sprouts  should  be 
cut.  Two  large  wash-tubs,  such  as  iron-bound  hogsheads  sawed  in  two,  are  used 
for  washing  the  celery.  As  the  plants  are  trimmed,  all  the  adhering  dirt  is  washed 
off  with  the  hands  and  corn  brooms  in  tub  No.   1,  after  which  the  plants  are 


(384) 


Hiding  from  Mama. 


GARDEN  CULTURE.  ^85 


rinsed  in  tub  No.  2;  then  they  are  laid  upon  a  table  to  drain.  In  boxing,  the 
demands  of  the  market  are  that  three  dozen  bunches  should  fill  a  barrel  box  even 
full;  but  as  many  plants  will  not  count  one,  several  smaller  ones  are  pinned 
together  by  driving  an  eight-penny  board  nail  through  the  lower  stock  or  base  of 
the  root. 

The  pitting  of  celery  is  rarely  commenced  until  November  1st,  and  is  finished 
by  the  middle  of  the  month.  If  the  operation  is  performed  much  earlier,  there  is 
danger  that  the  mild  weather  will  rot  it.  Previous  to  that  date  it  keeps  much 
better  in  the  bankings,  but  these  should  be  Avell  built  to  prevent  a  possible  hard 
freeze  from  destroying  the  tops.  It  is  common  to  leave  in  the  bankings  all  thai 
can  be  conveniently  taken  care  of  and  sold  at  Thanksgiving  time;  but  there  is 
some  risk  in  leaving  it  out  so  late;  the  ground  sometimes  closes  in  just  previous 
to  that  date,  so  that  the  celery  cannot  be  got  out. 

For  late  keeping  in  the  winter,  celery  should  not  be  banked  long  previous  to 
pitting — the  greener  it  is  the  longer  it  can  be  kept.  If,  therefore,  one  commences 
banking  about  the  middle  of  October  he  will  be  about  right.  The  ground  at  that 
time  is  quite  cool  and  the  celery  bleaches  slowly,  therefore,  it  will  be  quite  green 
at  pitting  time.  Much  depends  upon  its  keeping  Avell  in  the  pit.  It  should  be 
kept  at  as  low  a  temperature  as  possible  without  risk  of  freezing;  but  should  we 
want  to  market  it  early  in  the  winter,  the  heat  can  be  increased  by  putting  on  the 
roof  of  the  pit  a  considerable  thickness  of  litter  or  covering;  otherwise  only  a  very 
light  covering  should  be  used  until  Christmas.  After  that  the  covering  should 
be  increased  to  about  one  foot  in  thickness.  Celery  when  green  will  stand  a  light 
freeze;  but  the  same  freeze  would  destroy  bleached  celery. 

The  pit  is  made  by  throwing  up  two  bankings  about  two  feet  high  from  the 
soil  between  them;  the  width  of  the  bankings  apart  will  depend  upon  the  length 
of  the  boards  that  are  to  cover  the  pit.  It  is  common  to  use  twelve  by  one  foot 
rough  pine  boards  for  the  roof.  A  ridge  pole  is  made  by  standing  along  the  cen- 
ter of  the  pit  posts  that  support  four  by  four  inch  joists.  The  ridge  pole  should 
be  about  four  feet  higher  than  the  top  of  the  bankings  and  as  the  twelve  foot 
boards  are  put  on  each  side  of  the  ridge  the  roof  will  have  pitch  enough  to  carry 
off  the  water.  The  ends  of  the  boards  should  extend  to  the  outer  sides  of  the 
bankings,  thus  preventing  the  rains  from  washing  them  down.  The  bankings  on 
top  should  be  eighteen  inches  broad,  which,  allowing  for  their  slant,  will  make  a 
pit  twenty  feet  wide  and  of  a  length  sufficient  to  hold  the  crop. 

In  pitting  celery  it  should  be  lifted  from  the  field  and  placed  in  the  pit  in  an 
upright  position  and  as  close  together  as  possible.  The  roots  should  be  covered  with 
soil.  All  decayed  leaves  must  be  removed,  otherwise  it  should  go  into  the  pit  as 
it  came  from  the  field. 

STRAAVBERRIES. 

From  the  first  of  August  to  the  middle  of  September  is  the  best  time  to  reset 
strawberries  to  secure  a  good  crop  the  following  year,  and  it  is  about  as  easy  to 
set  out  a  new  bed  on  good,  clean  ground  and  keep  them  clean  during  the  rest  of 
the  season  as  to  go  to  work  and  put  the  old  bed  in  good  shape  and  keep  it  so. 
We  have  a  better  chance  in  this  way  to  get  the  soil  in  a  proper  condition  for  the 
plants.  When  Ave  set  the  plants  at  this  time  it  is  necessary  to  procure  good  ones  to 
start  with.     If  we  have  them  in  our  old  beds,  select  the  most  thrifty,  and  it  is  an 


GARDEN  CULTURE.  387 


easy  matter  to  remove  them  to  the  new  ground  without  much  injury  to  their 
growth.  If  we  have  to  buy,  what  nurserymen  call  potted  plants  are  the  most 
desirable. 

The  great  trouble  with  people  who  grow  strawberries  in  a  small  garden  is 
planting  them  too  close.  The  rows  should  never  be  closer  than  thirty  inches,  and  the 
plants  from  twelve  to  fifteen,  which  will  leave  room  to  cultivate  the  plants. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  watch  for  a  small  shower;  we  usually  have  one  about  the 
middle  of  August,  when  we  can  remove  them  with  safety.  The  ground  should 
be  in  condition  so  that  the  work  can  be  done  on  a  few  minutes'  notice  when  the 
proper  time  comes  for  planting. 

If  the  original  ground  is  to  be  used,  it  is  advisable  to  dig  the  soil  between 
the  rows  and  thoroughly  fertilize  it,  which  can  be  done  by  getting  some  well- 
rotted  manure,  mixing  some  bone-dust  with  it,  and  spreading  along  the  rows 
before  digging.  When  enough  of  the  new  plants  have  started  to  make  a  good 
stand,  cut  the  runners  and  turn  the  old  plants  under  with  a  spade,  which  will 
leave  a  nice,  clean  bed  on  new  soil.  A  strawberry  bed  needs  renewing  every 
three  years  to  secure  a  good  yield  of  large,  fine-flavored  berries. 

ANOTHEIi    VIEW  , 

E.  W.  Reid,  in  the  "Ohio  Farmer,"  says:  Plant-growing  and  fruit-growing 
are  two  different  things.  When  one  goes  into  his  bed  to  dig  plants  he  takes  from 
it  the  best-producing  plants  in  the  bed.  It  is  a  difficult  task  to  have  a  bed  just 
as  one  would  want  it.  First,  you  want  the  row  three  and  a  half  to  four  feet  in 
width,  and  the  plants  that  are  to  produce  the  fruit  should  be  set  in  July  and 
August,  and  as  soon  as  the  first  set  is  made  the  end  of  the  runner  should  be  cut  so 
as  to  throw  all  the  strength  to  the  plant  made. 

The  habit  that  many  practice  is  pushing  the  runners  to  the  centre  of  the 
row  as  they  grow,  which  makes  the  root  growth  of  the  plants  poor,  also  the  fruit. 
To  produce  fine  fruit,  you  must  have  the  plants  thin  and  scattered  on  the  ground. 
When  let  run  to  a  matted  row  they  often  smother  plant  growth,  and  mildew  fruit 
and  bloom. 

This  is  one  important  point  in  strawberry  culture  which  many  overlook,  and 
to  convince  you  the  assertion  is  true  we  refer  you  to  where  the  finest  and  greatest 
portion  of  the  fruit  is  found. 

When  you  go  into  your  beds  and  want  a  fine  specimen  do  you  go  to  the 
largest  cluster  of  vines  and  look  in  the  centre  of  them?  If  so,  you  are  fooled. 
But  if  you  will  go  where  the  plants  are  thin  and  on  the  outside  vines  you  find 
the  most  fruit,  which  is  superior  in  flavor,  richer  in  color,  and  larger  in  size. 

Hence,  in  letting  your  plants  set,  you  want  them  thin  for  fruit,  and  the 
plants  that  set  in  July  and  August  are  the  best,  not  those  you  pushed  into  the 
centre  in  October,  which  are  on  the  outside  in  spring,  and  from  these  plants  you 
expect  your  best  fruit.  Not  so;  you  have  spoiled  your  best  plants  by  letting  those 
runners  grow  that  set  late  in  the  season. 

Such  varieties  as  Crescent,  Warfield,  and  Haverland,  which  are  free  runners, 
should  be  kept  cut  out  in  fall,  and  in  the  spring  you  should  take  the  hoes  and 
cut  from  the  middle  of  the  plant-row,  so  that  air  and  sunlight  could  pass  into 
the  fruit.     It  is  not  always  the  best  bed  of  vines  that  produces  the  most  fruit. 


• 


(388) 


Young  Artists. 


GARDEN  CULTURE.  389 


The  clover  sod  is  very  good,  provided  you  work  it  right.  With  us,  were  we 
to  plow  under  a  sod  we  would  want  it  worked  one  year  previous  in  potatoes  or 
corn,  for  grasses  or  low  crops,  such  as  cucumbers,  beans,  and  crops  of  this  kind, 
help  add  to  the  number  of  grubs.  Again,  our  ground  from  a  sod  would  be  too 
loose  to  grow  strawberries.  One  does  not  need  the  best  of  ground  for  this  crop. 
Do  not  understand  me  to  say  that  you  can  be  successful  on  poor  ground.  Not 
so,  but  Ave  would  rather  have  it  too  poor  than  too  rich.  We  can  grow  a  better  Cum- 
berland and  Wilson  on  poor  soil  than  rich,  but  this  soil  must  be  prepared,  and 
with  plenty  of  manure  worked  in  from  the  top.  Let  us  call  our  reader's  attention 
to  this  very  important  point,  that  of  the  waste  of  manure.  How  many  of  our  readers 
plow  their  manure  under,  and  think  the  deeper  they  plow  the  better.  Deep  plow- 
ing is  well  enough  in  its  place,  also  is  plowingunder;  but  here  isthe  point:  If  you 
plow  under  use  fresh  manure,  and  that  not  too  heavy.  Do  not  use  a  plow  that  will 
turn  your  soil  entirely  over,  but  one  that  stands  it  on  edge  or  throw  the  soil  up  hill ; 
then  take  well-rotted  fine  manure  and  scatter  on  the  surface,  and  work  in  with  culti- 
vator and  harrow.  In  many  cases  practiced  by  large  growers  they  do  not  receive 
returns  from  the  fertilizer  used,  and  in  many  cases  they  do  not  pay  cost.  To 
explain  more  fully  my  point,  I  will  give  my  reason.  How  many  growers,  when 
digging  plants  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  ever  found  the  roots  mingled  with  the 
manure  that  was  turned  to  the  bottom  of  a  nine-inch  furrow  ?  Not  many.  What 
is  wanted  is,  just  enough  to  keep  the  soil  in  nice  working  condition,  and  the 
balance  should  be  placed  in  reach  of  the  plant  roots.  It  not  only  acts  then  as  a 
fertilizer  but  as  a  mulch,  and  retains  the  moisture.  This  is  not  all;  grubs  will 
often  work  in  this  manure,  and  the  plants  are  not  disturbed. 

We  have  great  faith  in  stable  manure.  It  is  very  costly  to  us,  but  the  past  has 
been  our  teacher,  and  many  are  the  inquiries  that  come  to  us,  "  Why  is  it  that 
your  plants  have  such  large  roots?"  This  is  the  story:  We  use  plenty  of  fer- 
tilizer, and  keep  the  horse  hoe  going  all  the  time.  At  this  date,  August  12th,  we 
have  worked  all  our  old  strawberry  beds  over  for  the  third  time,  and  many  would 
not  know  them  from  beds  set  last  spring.  There  should  be  a  path  left  so  pickers 
could  get  through.  This  should  be  from  12  to  18  inches  wide,  and  should  have 
a  heavy  mulch  left  in  it  throughout  the  summer  to  hold  the  moisture.  Our  friends 
would  do  perfectly  right  to  keep  them  well  worked ;  nothing  will  pay  better 
than  good,  thorough  culture,  but  this  should  not  be  kept  up  after  September  1st. 
The  ground  should  then  be  allowed  to  settle  and  get  ready  for  winter  quarters. 
Should  weeds  make  their  appearance  after  that  date,  cut  or  pull  them. 

DKOUGHT. 

Prof.  B.  Puryear,  LL.  D.,  of  Richmond  College,  says:  Who  feels  like  work, 
who  can  work,  under  a  dead  September  heat?  Will  scientists  explain  why  the 
same  temperature  in  June  and  September  is  so  much  more  intolerable  in  the 
latter  case?  Is  the  September  heat  unpolarized  heat?  Certain  it  is  that  a  tem- 
perature which  we  can  easily  bear  in  June  is  grievously  distressing  in  September. 
Who  will  rise  to  explain  ? 

One  would  think  that,  having  been  accustomed  to  the  heat  of  summer,  we 
could  better  bear  a  high  temperature  in  September  than  in  the  early  summer,  but 
it  is  not  so. 


Evening  Walk. 


(390) 


GARDEN  CULTURE.  30 J 


But  wo  are  contending  not  with  heat  only,  but  often  with  a  severe  and  pro- 
tracted drought.  The  drought  is  severe,  because  the  atmosphere  is  extremely 
arid.  Droughts  occurring  at  the  same  seasons  in  different  years,  and  with  the 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere  the  same,  may  be  very  unequally  disastrous.  In 
one  case  the  blades  of  corn  may  twist  and  wilt  in  ten  days  after  the  drought  sits 
in;  in  another  case  not  for  three  weeks  or  more — perhaps  not  at  all.  Why?  We 
must  remember  that  seventy-five  per  cent.,  and  frequently  more,  of  living  vege- 
tation is  water,  and  .that  this  water  is  just  as  much  a  part  of  the  plant  as  the  con- 
densed solids  that  constitute  the  vegetable  skeleton.  Now,  water  is  always  pass- 
ing, by  evaporation,  from  the  leaves  of  plants,  and  the  rate  of  evaporation 
depends  chiefly  upon  the  hygrometric  condition  of  the  atmosphere.  When  the 
atmosphere  is  very  dry,  it  sucks  up  moisture  from  plants  rapidly;  when  the 
atmosphere  is  humid,  evaporation  takes  place  slowly,  and  is  arrested  altogether 
when  the  atmosphere  is  saturated  with  aqueous  vapor.  It  is  obvious  then  that 
evaporation  may  take  place  very  rapidly  during  a  drought,  making  the  drought 
disastrous;  or  very  slowly,  so  making  the  drought  comparatively  harmless.  For 
more  particular  illustration,  let  us  say  that  it  has  not  rained  for  two  weeks,  and 
that  the  atmosphere  is  very  dry.  In  such  a  case  plants  lose  water  by  evaporation 
rapidly,  and  immediate  and  serious  damage  ensues. 

But  if,  while  no  rains  falls,  the  atmosphere  all  the  time  is  humid,  evapora- 
tion will  take  place  slowly  and  plants  will  suffer  but  little,  if  at  all.  The  loss  of 
water  by  evaporation  from  the  leaves,  when  the  atmosphere  is  humid,  is  so  small 
that  it  is  supplied,  or  nearly  supplied,  by  the  water  constantly  introduced  by  the 
roots,  and  hence  the  drought  may  be  much  protracted  before  inflicting  serious 
detriment  on  growing  vegetation.  A  drought  then  of  a  given  length  and  with  a 
certain  temperature  may  be  disastrous.  In  another  year  and  at  the  same  season, 
another  drought  equally  long,  and  accompanied  by  the  same  temperature,  may 
occur  and  do  but  little  damage.  In  the  former  case  the  atmosphere  is  dry,  and 
evaporation  is  rapid;  in  the  latter  the  atmosphere  is  humid  and  evaporation  is 
slow. 

Have  Ave  any  remedy  against  droughts?  To  no  inconsiderable  extent  we 
have,  and  that  remedy  is  deep  plowing. 

1.  Deeply  plowed  lands  receive,  when  rains  are  abundant,  into  their  sub- 
stance all  or  nearly  all  the  water  that  falls;  none  or  little  runs  off  from  the 
surface.  Such  lands  have  therefore  a  larger  storehouse  of  water,  from  which 
plants  may  draw  their  supplies — crops  will  stand  a  drought  better  for  this  reason. 
But  the  farther  the  water  sinks  into  the  substance  of  the  soil,  the  smaller  is  the 
amount  which  the  hot  sun  of  summer  will  evaporate.  Twelve  inches  beneath 
the  surface,  the  soil  is  many  degrees  cooler  in  summer  than  the  surface,  and 
hence  if  the  soil  be  once  saturated  to  that  depth,  much  less  water  is  dissipated 
and  lost  by  solar  heat.  Deeply  plowed  lands,  therefore,  not  only  receive  into  their 
substance  more  water,  when  rains  are  copious,  but  hold  this  water  with  greater 
grip  and  tenacity. 

2.  A  deeply  pulverized  soil  is  permeable  by  the  atmosphere,  and  the  atmos- 
phere how  dry  soever,  always  contains  some  aqueous  vapor.  In  a  perfectly  dry 
atmosphere  our  bodies  would  shrivel  in  a  very  few  hours  into  mummies ;  all  plants 
would  wilt  and  die  in  a  day.  When  the  atmosphere  can  descend  deeply  into  the 
soil,  the  cool  soil  deprives  the  aqueous  vapor  of  heat,  and  so  converts  it  into  water 


GARDEN  CULTURE.  393 


and  deposits  it  just  where  it  is  most  needed,  about  the  rootlets  of  plants.  In 
other  words  in  deeply  plowed  lands  dew  is  being  deposited  in  varying  quantities 
all  the  time  about  the  roots.  Hero  is  another  reason  why  crops  stand  droughts 
better  in  deeply  plowed  lands. 

3.  Water  is  always  rising  from  below  by  the  capillarity  of  the  soil  but  it  rises 
slowly  through  a  hard  and  compact  soil — with  ease  through  a  deeply  pulverized 
•oil.  Hence  the  more  deeply  the  soil  is  plowed  the  larger  will  be  the  amount  of 
water  drawn  up  from  below  by  capillary  attraction. 

Can  philosophy  draw  comfort  from  a  drought?  When  the  fields  are  dry  and 
parchc:1,  when  the  water  courses  are  failing  and  our  domestic  animals  arepinched 
both  fc  food  and  water,  and  the  farmers  hopes  are  blasted — are  there  no  compen- 
sating idvantages?  We  think  there  are,  and  we  give  them  for  the  comfort  of  the 
despairing  and  the  despondent.  During  a  drought  the  soil  is  collecting  its  forces 
and  recuperating  its  energies  for  better  work  in  the  ensuing  season     Let  us  see. 

If  from  a  damp  cellar  we  take  a  cube  of  cut  sugar  and  touch  a  point  to  water 
the  water  will  strike  slowly  through  the  mass  of  sugar.  But  if  we  take  a  cube  of 
cut  sugar  made  perfectly  dry  by  exposure  to  the  hot  sun,  and  touch  it  to  water, 
the  water  in  a  moment  flashes  through  the  lump.  The  difference  with  which  the 
tAvo  lumps  receive  water  is  striking  and  obvious.  The  dry  lump  in  a  tenth  of  the 
time  will  receive  ten  times  as  much  water  into  its  substance  as  the  moist  lump. 
It  is  just  so  with  the  earth — the  dry  lump  of  sugar  represents  the  earth  in  drought; 
the  drier  the  soil,  the  stronger  is  the  tendency  of  Avater  to  rise  from  below  to  the 
surface,  A\There  it  is  evaporated.  But  Avater  never  comes  to  the  surface  simply  as 
water;  it  must  come  charged  AA'ith  all  the  soluble  material  Avhich  it  has  encoun- 
tered in  its  ascent  to  the  surface;  it  brings  with  it  the  nitrates,  the  sulphates,  the 
alkaline  salts  and  compounds,  Avhich  have  been  exposed  far  beloAV  to  its  solvent 
action.  When  a  solid  is  dissoh^ed  in  Avater,  it  is  no  longer  solid,  but  is  as  liquid 
as  water,  and  must  go  wherever  the  Water  goes.  It  can  part  company  with  the 
water  only  at  or  near  the  surface,  where  the  water  changes  its  form  and  becomes 
vapor.  But  the  salts  lately  dissolved  into  water  become  solid  again  Avhen  the 
water  is  lost  by  eAraporation.  The  more  severe  and  protracted  the  drought,  the 
greater  the  depth  from  A\rhich  the  Avater  will  rise,  and  hence  the  greater  its  oppor- 
tunity of  meeting  and  dissolving  the  solids  and  bringing  them  to  solution  to  the 
surface  Avhere  they  are  deposited  for  the  benefit  of  the  ensuing  crop.  During  a 
drought  then  that  mightiest  poAver  in  the  universe,  that  exhaustless  source  of  all 
power,  the  great  sun,  is  draAving  up  from  dej3ths  inaccessible  to  the  spade  and  the 
plow,  the  soluble  matter  of  the  earth,  and  putting  it  Avhere  it  is  most  useful  to  the 
farmer  in  the  surface  soil.  This  water  as  it  comes  up  brings  what  the  farmer 
needs,  and  only  Avhat  he  needs.  It  brings  up  only  soluble  matter,  and  it  is  only 
soluble  matter  in  the  soil  that  can  feed  the  groAving  plant.  The  substances  that 
the  plant  derives  from  the  soil  are  solids  ordinarily;  but  they  did  not  get  into  the 
plant  as  solids — all  come  up  into  the  vegetable  circulation  in  solution. 

Again,  no  mechanical  reduction  could  put  this  material,  brought  up  by  AA'ater, 
in  so  comminuted  a  condition.  It  Avas  lately  dissolved,  more  finely  divided  than 
could  be  effected  by  the  boasted  machinery  of  our  day.  When  the  Avater  leaves 
it,  it  is  therefore  in  the  best  possible  condition  for  solution  again.  It  is  fully  and 
freely  available  in  consequence  of  its  excessive  comminution,  far  more  so  than  if 


394  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


the  same  amount  of  the  same  fertilizing  material  had  been  ground  and  bolted  by 
the  most  perfect  machinery  at  our  command, 

A  year  of  hard  drought  is  sure  to  be  followed,  if  the  seasons  be  moderately 
favorable,  by  a  year  of  plenty.  The  crop  gets  the  advantage  of  all  the  soluble 
material  drawn  up  and  deposited  near  the  surface  during  the  drought  of  the  pre- 
ceding year. 

GUARD  AGAINST   DROUGTHS. 

We  cannot  prevent  scorching  winds  or  supply  the  moisture  that  should  come 
from  the  clouds,  but  by  heavy  manuring,  deep  and  frequent  cultivation,  and 
turning  under  of  vegetable  matter,  we  do  guard  against  many  of  the  injurious 
effects  of  drought.  Green  crops  turned  under  act  as  a  sponge,  retaining  muck 
moisture  in  the  soil,  that  otherwise  would  quickly  pass  through  it.  It  is  a  well 
known  fact  that  crops  on  heavily  manured  land  will  thrive  in  times  of  drougta 
when  similar  crops  on  adjoining  plats,  not  fertilized,  will  die  or  make  only  a  fee- 
ble growth. 

The  above  suggestions,  as  a  general  thing,  should  be  considered  as  decidedly 
valuable.  The  amount  of  tillage,  deep  or  shallow,  necessary  to  diffuse  and  retain 
moisture,  depends  very  much  upon  the  texture  and  nature  of  the  soil.  The  stiffest 
and  poorest  soils  are  rarely  over-cultivated.  In  a  wet  season  the  best  tilth  i» 
obtained  when  the  soil  is  in  a  stage  "twixt  wet  and  dry."  Mulching,  manuring, 
and  deep  stirring  and  pulverizing  the  soil  are  the  chief  means  to  guard  against 
droughts,  as  well  as  to  secure  suitable  conditions  for  remunerative  crops. 

DEW. 

The  deposit  of  dew  is  most  abundant  on  those  objects  that  need  it  most. 
By  another  wonderful  and  beneficent  arrangement,  the  deposit  is  most  abundant 
when  it  is  most  needed.  When  is  dew  most  needed?  We  answer  in  the  spring 
and  fall;  particularly,  in  this  latitude,  in  the  months  of  April  and  May,  and  Sep- 
tember and  October.  Why  ?  In  April  and  May,  seeds  are  planted  that  are  to  ' 
fructify  in  the  summer  and  autumn.  They  are  covered  slightly,  only  a  few  inches, 
sometimes  barely  one  or  two.  They  germinate  in  the  warm  and  humid  soil,  and 
soon  appear  above  the  surface.  But  the  young  rootlets  are  so  near  the  surface  at 
first  that  a  few  dry  days  would  so  exhaust  the  surface  soil  of  moisture  that  the 
plants  would  perish.  Before  the  roots  have  struck  down  deeply  into  the  perma- 
nently moist  soil,  and  when  they  must  rely  therefore  upon  the  first  few  inches  of 
surface  soil  for  a  scant  and  precarious  supply  of  water,  kindly  nature,  mindful  of 
the  situation,  every  night  gives  the  baby  plants  a  little  extra  pap  in  the  form  of 
dew. 

It  is  obvious  then  that  during  the  first  days  and  weeks  of  plant  life,  dew  is 
most  needed,  because  at  that  time  the  rootlets  must  get  their  supply  of  water 
from  near  the  surface,  which  is  liable  to  become  dry  by  only  a  day  or  two  of  hot, 
windy  weather.  A  supply  of  water,  extraneous  to  the  soil,  is  needed,  and  that 
supply  comes  every  night  from  the  condensation  of  the  the  aqueous  vapor  of  tne 
atmosphere.  That  the  supply  of  dew  is  vastly  more  abundant  in  the  spring  and 
fall,  when  it  is  most  needed,  than  it  is  in  midsummer,  when  the  need  is  far  lest 
imperative,  is  too  familiar  and  obvious  a  fact  to  have  escaped  the  notice  even  of 
the  least  observant. 


GARDEN  CULTURE.  39S 


Now,  let  us  look  into  the  cause  of  the  fact;  let  us  see  the  operation  of  these 
agencies,  which  give  us  abundant  deposits  of  dew  at  those  seasons  of  the  year 
when  vegetation  most  demands  it,  and  diminish  the  supply  when  the  demand  is 
diminished. 

Why  should  the  deposit  of  dew  he  so  much  more  abundant  in  April  and  May 
than  in  July  and  August?  We  Avill  recur  briefly  to  the  mode  of  the  formation  of 
dew.  Objects  to  have  dew  deposited  upon  them,  must  become  sufficiently  chilled 
at  night  by  the  radiation  of  heat,  to  condense  the  aqueous  vapor  of  the  atmos- 
phere. All  objects  must  be  reduced  in  temperature  to  the  dew  point.  This  is 
much  more  easily  accomplished  in  May  than  in  August  for  two  obvious  reasons. 
In  May  the  sun  is  not  so  hot,  nor  does  it  shine  so  long,  as  in  August.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  atmosphere  and  of  the  earth's  surface  is  not  so  much  elevated  in 
the  day  in  May  as  in  August.  To  get  clew  then  objects  have  to  sink  at  night  to 
the  dew  point  from  a  much  lower  temperature  in  May  than  in  August.  In  the 
latter  month,  they  must  sink  from  eighty  or  ninety  degrees,  in  the  former,  from 
sixty  or  seventy  degrees,  to  the  dew  point.  In  order  therefore  to  get  a  copious 
deposit  of  dew,  plants  have  less  work  to  do  in  spring  or  fall  than  in  summer;  but 
not  only  so,  thay  have  more  time  to  do  it  in.  In  May  and  September  the  nights 
are  longer  than  in  July  and  August,  and  hence  plants  have  more  time  to  radiate 
their  heat  into  space.  In  the  spring  and  fall,  plants,  in  order  to  get  dew,  have 
less  work  to  do  and  more  time  for  doing  it,  than  in  summer;  and  hence  the  abun- 
dant deposits  in  the  spring  and  fall,  and  the  scant  supply  in  midsummer. 

Why,  one  may  ask,  is  dew  less  needed  in  the  hot  months  of  summer  than  in 
the  spring  or  autumn?  For  an  obvious  reason.  As  the  season  advances,  the 
roots  are  striking  down  deeper  and  deeper  every  day.  In  summer  they  are  six, 
ten,  fourteen  or  even  twenty  inches  or  more  below  the  surface,  where  it  is  always 
comparatively  moist.  Rain  may  not  fall  for  weeks,  yet  they  are  getting  moisture 
from  below  all  the  time;  but  when  plants  have  just  completed  germination  and 
when  their  roots  are  near  the  surface,  a  drought  of  a  few  days  would  be  fatal  but 
for  the  nightly  deposits  of  dew. 

It  may  be  asked  again  what  is  the  necessity  of  the  heavy  dews  in  the  early 
fall,  when  the  crops  are  gathered  and  housed?  Precisely  the  same  as  in  the  early 
spring.  In  the  early  fall,  the  seeds  are  sown  which  are  to  fructify  the  next  year. 
Wheat  and  oats,  rye,  turnips,  the  grasses,  etc.,  need  the  autumnal,  as  the  already 
ripened  crops  needed  the  vernal,  dews. 

To  another  point  we  will  call  attention.  To  get  copious  deposits  of  dew,  plants 
must  be  chilled;  but  if  chilled  too  much',  the  dew  is  frozen  into  frosts,  and  vege- 
table vitality  is  destroyed.  To  secure  a  benefit,  a  danger  is  incurred;  but  in  the 
very  process  of  securing  the  benefit,  the  danger  is  weakened.  Vapor  is  water 
with  so  much  heat  in  it — heat  in  the  latent  state.  When  water  boils,  no  matter 
how  much  heat  we  add,  we  neither  make  it  nor  the  escaping  vapor  any  hotter. 
Both  have  the  common  temperature  of  212  degrees.  All  the  excess  of  heat  we 
add  is  simply  emploj^ed  in  causing  the  liquid  water  to  take  on  the  gaseous  form 
of  vapor.  Now  when  we  condense  this  vapor,  the  heat,  before  latent,  is  evolved 
or  given  out.  When  aqueous  vapor  is  in  the  process  of  condensation  into  dew, 
all  its  latent  heat — that  heat  which  made  it  vapor — is  evolved  on  the  surface 
where  the  condensation  takes  place.  Consider  a  fine  tobacco  field,  the  broad 
leaves  ripening  in  the  mild  September.     The  leaves  lose  heat  rapidly  by  radiation, 


396  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


they  become  chilled,  the  aqueous  vapor  is  condensed  into  dew,  but  in  the  act  its 
latent  heat  is  evolved,  and  so  warms  up  the  leaves,  and  thus  diminishes  the 
liability  to  injury  from  frost.  The  atmosphere  immediately  brooding  over  the 
leaves  is  sensibly  warmer  than  the  atmosphere  elseAvhere.  If  the  same  amount 
of  water  be  sprinkled  at  night-fall  upon  the  leaves,  the  cold  may  be  sufficient  to 
freeze  it;  but  not  sufficient  if  this  water  has  been  condensed  from  vapor,  for  the 
process  of  condensation  throws  out,  in  sensible  form,  the  latent  heat  of  the  vapor. 

The  process  of  aqueous  condensation,  or  dew  formation,  postpones  the 
appearance  of  frost.  Plants  must  become  chilled  to  form  dew,  but,  in  the  con- 
densation of  aqueous  vapor,  heat  is  thrown  out  to  prevent  frost.  This  battle  goes 
on  for  weeks,  until  at  last  the  increasing  length  and  coldness  of  the  nights  get  the 
advantage.  The  cold  is  too  great  to  be  counterbalanced  by  the  heat  evolved  from 
aqueous  condensation,  the  dew  freezes  as  it  forms,  and  the  plant  is  killed. 

We  have  shown  the  necessity  of  dew  in  the  early  fall  to  the  crops  that 
are  seeded  then,  which  are  to  live  and  grow  through  the  winter  and  mature  in 
the  next  summer.  But  some  crops,  already  ripening,  as  tobacco,  are  remarkably 
benefited  by  the  early  autumnal  clews.  Little  rain  and  copious  dews  in  the  early 
fall  make  tobacco  leaves  thick,  heavy,  and  oily.  Alike,  its  weight  is  increased 
and  its  quality  improved  by  comparatively  dry  weather  and  heavy  dews.  Dew 
then,  to  some  extent,  has  a  double  function,  furnishing  to  all  plants,  in  the  ear- 
liest stage  of  their  growth,  small  but  frequent  supplies  of  Avater,  when  the  supply 
from  the  soil  is  liable  to  be  scant,  and  enabling  others,  notably  tobacco,  to  attain, 
while  approaching  maturity,  their  highest  perfection. 

COUNTERACTING    DROUGHT. 

In  some  sections  there  is  often  but  little  rain  in  spring,  and  farmers  com- 
plain that  the  ground  is  very  dry  and  that  crops  suffer  in  some  degree  in  conse- 
quence. Now,  we  have  no  means  of  making  the  rain  descend  just  when  and 
where  we  wish,  and  we  have  no  general  system  of  irrigation.  Consequently  we 
cannot,  to  any  very  great  extent,  control  the  degree  of  moisture  which  our  crops 
shall  receive.  Still,  by  frequent  stirring  of  the  soil,  we  may  do  something  which 
shall  benefit  our  hoed  crops,  and  thus  save  them  from  utter  ruin  by  drought. 
By  frequent  loosening  of  the  soil  the  air  is  enabled  to  penetrate  it  to  a  greater 
extent,  and  coming  in  contact  with  the  cooler  earth,  some  of  the  moisture  which 
the  atmosphere  always  contains  is  condensed  and  deposited  in  the  soil  in  the 
form  of  clew.  By  repeating  this  process  often  enough,  the  soil  is  prevented  from 
getting  extremely  dry,  and  crops  can  frequently  be  kept  along  in  this  manner 
until  rain  comes.  In  the  garden  this  method  may  be  very  effectively  tried,  and 
in  very  dry  times  the  cultivator  should  very  often  be  used  in  the  field.  In  this 
manner  thorough  culture  of  the  crops  will  be  secured,  injury  from  drought  pre- 
vented, or  else  greatly  modified,  and  last,  but  perhaps  not  least,  a  great  mam- 
weeds  which  would  otherwise  fill  the  soil  will  be  destroyed.  A  great  part  of  the 
success  with  their  crops  which  some  farmers  so  constantly  obtain  is  due  to  their 
frequent  use  of  the  cultivator  and  hoe.  In  wet  weather  stirring  of  the  soil  is 
beneficial  to  the  crops  aud  destructive  to  weeds,  while  in  dry  weather  we  have. 
in  addition  to  these  valuable  results,  an  imperfect  but  still  our  most  effective 
counteractant  to  drought. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


Stioe  Stock  on  the  %raxm. 


BY    DR.    M.    (i.    ELLZEY. 


HOEVER  FARMS  must  use  and  keep  live  stock  either 
bought  or  home-bred.  Every  farmer  should  keep  only  the 
best  animals  he  can  obtain  of  the  best  breeds  for  his  special 
uses.  He  ought  to  know  how  to  breed,  or  buy,  use,  keep, 
and  sell  them  to  the  best  advantage.  No  good  can  come  of 
owning  the  best,  unless  treated  as  the  best  should  be.  To 
maltreat  any  animal  is  indeed  both  a  sin  and  a  shame;  but 
to  neglect,  starve,  overwork  and  leave  shelterless,  exposed 
to  storms,  a  valuable  animal  of  any  sort,  is  not  only  cruel 
_J^  and  wicked,  but  it  is  wasteful  and  foolish.  It  is  neither 
necessary  nor  wise  for  every  farmer  to  keep  only  expensive  pure  bred  animals  of 
fancy  sorts  which  possess  for  the  professional  breeder  fictitious  values. 

The  purpose  here  had  in  view  is  to  make  suggestions  helpful  to  the  farmer  in 
choosing,  breeding,  rearing, feeding,  breaking,  working,  and  marketing  the  increase 
of  such  live  stock  as  he  keeps;  in  a  word,  in  their 
general  care  and  treatment  in  health  and  disease. 
One  may  have  enjoyed  along  experience  on  a  farm, 
but  if  he  has  not  devoted  to  domestic  animals 
close,  patient,  and  thoughtful  study,  he  may  have 
much  yet  to  learn  about  them.  Many  thought- 
less years  spent  in  the  practice  of  vicious  and 
careless  methods  do  not  fit,  but  do  unfit,  any 
man  for  the  keeping  and  care  of  live  stock. 

In  choosing  the  farm  stock  our  first  sugges- 
tion is  this,  viz.:  do  not   tolerate  any  vicious, 
dangerous  beast  about  the  place;  do  not  keep 
even  a  fighting  cock  or  quarrelsome  dog.     The  animals  usually  kept  on  a  farm 
will  be  (besides  dogs  and  poultry)  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine. 


Old  Wayoi  Salting  Stock. 


THE   AGRICULTURAL   HORSE. 


There  has  been  much  discussion  about  the  best  breed  of  horses  for  the  farm, 
but  the  fact  is  the  average  specimen  of  no  one  of  the  pure  breeds  is  the  ideal 
farm  horse.  The  agricultural  horse  shovdd  not  exceed  fifteen  and  a  half  hands 
in  height,  nor  1,200  pounds  in  weight;  he  should  not  fall  below  fifteen  hands,  nor 
1,000  pounds.     A  horse  of  fifteen  and  a  half  hands,  weighing  1,200  pounds,  will 

397 


398 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


be  a  very  compact  and  powerfully  built  animal,  and  if  of  the  right  temper  and 
action  will  be  good  for  plow,  wagon,  or  carriage,  and  not  impossible  to  ride.  If 
under  ordinary  circumstances  the  farmer  requires  a  team  of  six  horses  to  do  his 
work,  he  may  very  well  keep  six  mares  which  may  be  bred  every  year  to  a  proper 
stallion;  averaging,  perhaps,  four  foals  every  year.  These  mares  will  do  the 
work  as  well  as  geldings,  and  produce,  each  of  them,  six  or  seven  colts  during  her 
breeding  life.  Select  all  the  mares  of  one  good  color  and  breed  them  to  a  stal- 
lion of  the  same  color,  and  there  will  frequently  be  a  matched  pair  of  stylish 
four-year  olds  to  sell,  capable  of  fetching  $800  or  $1,000.     A  mare  in  foal  may  be 

worked  until  within  a  couple  of  weeks  of  foaling 
with  advantage  to  herself  and  foal.  A  so-called 
trotting-bred  stallion  or  American  roadster  pos- 
sessing, as  the  best  of  these  do,  a  large  infusion 
of  the  blood  of  the  English  race-horse,  will  pro- 
duce the  best  agricultural  horses,  if  the  mares  are 
selected  right  and  the  horse  of  the  right  size  and 
temper.  Such  mares  bred  to  such  a  horse,  for 
example,  as  Hill's  old  Black  Hawk,  or  the  cele- 
brated Sam  Purdey,  would  scarcely  fail  to  pro- 
duce such  stock  as  would  sell  for  good  figures, 
singly  or  in  pairs ;  and  selections  of  young  mares 
being  made  from  those  so  bred  to  replace  the  old  farm  mares,  the  farming  stock 
could  be  cheaply  kept  up  and  improved. 


Patent  Salt  Feeder. 


THE    STABLES. 


All  stock  should  be  allowed  as  much  freedom  as  possible  when  not  in  actual 
use,  but  none  should  ever  be  kept  where  no  shelter  is  provided  against  inclem- 
ent weather,  blizzards  and  storms.  No  stable  should  be  built  less  than  eighteen 
feet  wide,  and  the  stalls  at  the  very  least  six  feet  from  center  to  center  of  posts, 
with  a  good  wide  well-hung  door  behind  the  dividing  post  of  every  other  stall. 
There  should  be  a  gallery  of  four  feet  in  front  of  the  manger,  for  feeding,  and 
good  glass  windows,  with  shutters,  facing  the  north,  sufficient  for  ample  light. 
Well  ventilated,  without  strong  drafts,  every  stable  must  be  fit  for  horses  to  occupy. 
Well-rammed  earth  makes  the  best  floor  and  if  pawed  out  of  shape  may  be  easily 
renewed  by  a  wheel-barrow  load  of  fresh  earth.  Manure  should  never  be  allowed 
to  lie  under  the  horses'  feet,  and  their  beds  should  be  taken  up  every  morning 
and  put  down  fresh  and  clean  at  night. 

The  feeding  of  horses  must  bo  proportioned  in  kind  and  quantity  to  age, 
weight  and  work,  and  if  the  stables  be,  as  described,  warm  and  comfortable,  and 
at  the  same  time  well  ventilated  and  lighted,  and  the  food  supply  be  clean,  sound 
and  wholesome,  there  will  seldom  be  a  blind,  lame  or  sick  horse  on  the  place, 
with  ordinary  kindness  and  good  sense  on  the  part  of  the  master.  From  eight  to 
twelve  good  sound  clean  ears  of  corn  at  a  feed,  three  times  a  day,  with  about  fifteen 
pounds  of  hay  in  the  twenty-four  hours  is  a  sufficient  working  ration  for  a  farm 
horse  of  the  model  above  described.  When  idle  the  same  horse  will  do  better  on 
one-fourth  less  rations.  A  better  mode  of  feeding  is  to  grind  the  corn  and  cut 
the  hay,  and  mix  the  meal  and  cut  hay  with  warm  water  sufficient  to  moisten 


400 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


the  whole,  but  if  the  corn  must  be  hauled  to  mill  and  pay  one-eighth  toll  for 
grinding,  and  go  again  to  mill  for  the  meal,  it  would  be  best  to  feed  the  corn  in 
the  ear,  and  let  the  horses  do  their  own  grinding.  Equal  weights  of  corn  meal 
and  bran  mixed  as  described,  with  cut  hay  and  a  small  portion  of  linseed  meal 
added,  makes  admirable  horse  feed  and  does  well  for  colts  and  mares  in  foal.  For 
growing  colts  oats  and  uncut  hay  is  the  best  ration  when  not  at  full  pasture. 


The  Trotter. 

Foals  should  be  handled  and  gentled  from  the  time  they  can  walk,  and  should  be 
broken  to  halter  at  weaning,  and  they  should  be  fed  liberally  from  the  time  they 
are  weaned.     It  will  pay. 

Farm  horses  managed  as  described  are  little  liable  to  disease.  Nine-tenths 
of  the  blindness  and  defective  vision  we  see  and  hear  of  in  horses  is  due  to  dark- 
ness and  pungent  fames  in  dirty,  dark,  crowded,  ill-ventilated  stables,  and  a  large 
part  of  the  other  tenth  is  due  to  blows  and  violences  of  ill-tempered  persons,  who 
certainly  lack  "  horse  sense."     We  may  give  in  this  phace  some  simple  sugges- 


1AVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM. 


■101 


Sited  bv  Tnl    a"agment  of  inJ™  and  diseases.     Get  '<  Youatt  on  the  Horse," 

■rhr^v  Adv    oV  ''  iT'  °nf  °f  She  bGSt  b00ks  ever  written>  aild  "  Law8's  Vet- 

ranvyon    ,    .;  ,   q  U    ;V  -rd'rand  m°re  m0dern'  both  written  ^such  language 

i  one?  I?  I     y  "nt  ertf  "cL  •  Iu  "y  serious  cas«>  e^ploy  a  veterinary  pnxcti- 

r;£     t!!        J"-1  Th°  1S  J  °aily  qUalifi6d-     If  ^u  have  t0  der-nd  on  your 
own  information  and  .judgment,  after  consulting  your  books  or  heed  the  sillv 

eS^fTbttTff  ^  rfhb0r,00d  "h°SS  ^cfor,"  depend  on  yourse\ri" 
annaren?  lit !!,/ ^3-  b°dy  •"  ^  eye'  0r  an  ^^niation  from  a  cause  not 
So  vou r  m-n  P  Tnr  f  besuaPMr«M  and  such  as  you  would  admit 
into  youi   own  eye  if  hurt  or  sore.     If  the  matter  be  obviously  not  serious,  and 


The  Draft  Horse 


£2£?2  col^W^  ^simple 

and  m-ventnate^?Lov7lhfcauSe  25  if  tntt  ^iT  da-n'  dirty'  Clwded> 
teamster  or  groom  remove  Sm  '  1  I  T°  be  ai}  Matured,  violent 
grace  to  the^r) « HL  ^^ttoS^ZT^  °r  ^^  ^ 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM. 


403 


accumulation  of  them  take  a  pocket  knife  and  scrape  the  eggs  off  the  flank  and 
legs  as  a  man  would  in  shaving.  This  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  If  a  horse  have 
•colic  or  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  keep  a  syringe  of  half  a  gallon  capacity; 
inject  a  couple  of  syringefuls  of  warm  soap  suds,  which  may  be  followed  by 
expulsion  of  wind  and  dung,  also  by  urine;  then, 
if  not  relieved,  administer  two  ounces  of  lauda- 
num in  warm  water,  by  the  mouth.  If  the  symp- 
toms are  still  violent,  bleed  until  the  horse 
staggers;  and  if  the  bowels  remain  obstinately 
locked,  take  about  two  ounces  of  tobacco,  make 
of  it  an  infusion  in  half  a  gallon  of  hot  water, 
and  when  cool  enough  to  bear  inject  into  the 
bowel.  This  will  almost  certainly  be  followed 
by  ejections  from  the  bowels. 

If  a  horse  or  other  animal  suffer  a  sprain 
or  severe  bruise,  apply  at  once  and  continuously  01d  styleof  Grooming. 

until  relief  is  evident,  quantities  of  water  as  hot  as  can  be  borne,  which  follow 
by  cloths  wrung  out  of  hot  water  and  steeped  in  equal  parts  of  laudanum  and 
tincture  of  arnica. 

"When  colts  are  to  be  castrated,  let  it  be  done  in  the  month  of  May,  when 
about  two  years  old.     It  is  best  to  employ  an  experienced  and  successful  person, 
but  every  fai'mer  should  learn  to  castrate  and  spay,  and  to  caponize  fowls  as  well. 
_«=-*-  These  operations  are  very  simple,  and  easily  per- 

formed after  a  few  lessons  by  a  competent  oper- 
ator. 

Obviously  this  is  not  the  place  for  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  numerous  breeds  of  horses  afid  their 
special  excellences.  In  relation  to  brood  mares, 
let  them  have  the  stallion  at  three  years  old. 
They  make  better  milkers,  and  consequently 
better  mothers,  than  if  allowed  to  go  longer  un- 
served. Afterwards  have  them  served  every 
year,  and  never  later  than  the  eighth  or  ninth 
day  after  foaling.  We  knew  of  a  mare  belong- 
ing to  an  old  farmer  which  got  first  with  foal  at  two  years,  and  thereafter,  in 
fourteen  successive  years,  produced  fourteen  foals  that  sold  for  over  $2,500,  and 
she  did  as  much  work  as  any  horse  on  the  place  besides,  but  she  was  always  well 
and  kindly  treated. 

CATTLE    ON   THE    FARM. 


'is^M^r^CT-^:: — : 


Patent  Oruuuiu 


Of  course  the  farmer  must  have  milch  cows  and  a  good  yoke  of  oxen  and  a 
bull,  and  of  what  sort  shall  they  be?  shall  they  be  scrubs  or  some  improved  breed? 
The  selection  of  cattle  for  the  farm  will  depend  upon  a  great  variety  of  considera- 
tions, such  as  the  locality  with  reference  to  market  and  to  soil  and  climate ;  the 
size  of  the  farm;  the  lay  of  the  land;  whether  level  or  steep;  the  nature  of  the 
pasture;  whether  the  purpose  be  butcher's  meat  or  dairy  products;  butter  or 
milk,  and  other  obvious  considerations.  We  may,  therefore,  run  over  the  charac- 
ters of  the  various  breeds  in  connection  with  the  various  purposes  for  which  they 


LIYK  STOCK  ON  THE   I'AKM. 


405 


are  best  adapted.  A  very  serious  mistake  is  quite  commonly  made  by  keeping  a 
breed  of  cattle  of  great  excellence  in  localities  which  suit  them,  or  on  farms 
or  in  localities  wholly  unsuited  to  them.  This  applies  to  all  live  stock, 
and  is  a  consideration  of  very  great  importance.  The  commonest  and  most 
serious  error  is  in  selecting  breeds  of  stock  too  heavy  for  the  pastures. 
Farmers  generally  admire  bigness  in  animals  and  very  many  times  fail  to  reflect 
that  scant  pastures  and  big  beasts  are  very  ill  assorted.  Southdowns  Avill  fatten 
on  pastures  where  ponderous  long  wools  can  scarcely  live.  Devons  will  thrive 
on  pastures  that  will  not  support  heavy  Short-Horns.  Clydesdales  or  Percheron 
Normans,  or  other  ponderous  draught  horses,  could  not  possibly  live  where  Beach 
Ponies  fatten  and  thrive  and  multiply. 

Where  lands  are  level  and  fertile  and  blue  grass  makes  heavy  and  permanent 
pastures,  Short   Horns   are  the  best  and   most    profitable   cattle,  but  it  wouldbe 


Short-Horn  Bull. 


utterly  useless  to  try  to  keep  these  superb  beasts  in  the  pine  barren  regions  of  the 
South  Atlantic  states.  Equally  out  of  place  is  the  Jersey,  the  Ayrshire,  the 
Devon,  in  the  blue  grass  country.  We  are  not  in  this  place  addressing  the  pro- 
fessional dairyman,  nor  the  great  grazier  or  feeder,  but  the  general  farmer,  who 
pursues  a  mixed  husbandry.  If  the  object-  be  merely  the  production  of  milk,  no 
cattle  equal  the  Holsteins;  if  butter  is  wanted,  the  Jersey  stands  first;  if  the 
farmer  wants  to  breed  the  best  cattle  for  the  yoke  he  must  have  Devons;  if  he 
wants  a  cow  or  two  to  give  milk  for  his  table,  scouring  pine  thickets  for  pasture, 
and  wintering  under  the  lea  of  a  straw-rick,  "scrubs"  are  the  cattle  he  is  looking 
for. 

It  will  very  often  happen  that  the  best  and  wisest  plan  for  the  farmer  wili  be 
to  get  grade  cows  of  the  breed  best  adapted  to  his  wants  and  to  keep  a  thorough- 
bred bull.  In  the  great  beef-producing  region  of  Southwest  Virginia,  the  average 
farmer  keeps  grade  Short-Horn  cows  and  a  thoroughbred  bull,  or  gets  the  service 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM. 


407 


of  one  from  his  neighbor,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  wisdom  of  so  doing. 
The  grade  Short-Horn  cows  of  that  region  are  rarely  surpassed  at  the  pail,  and 
their  calves,  both  spayed  heifers  and  steers,  are  sold  as  yearlings  past  or  two-year 
olds  past,  to  tbe  graziers  at  very  high  figures.  The  farmer  who  keeps  six  or  more 
cows  does  not  have  to  seek  his  market;  the  purchaser  comes  to  the  farm  and  buys 
and  drives  away  the  young  cattle.  It  would  certainly  be  most  unwise  for  the 
farmers  of  that  section  to  give  up  their  Short-Horns  for  any  other  cattle  whatever. 
In  Tidewater  Virginia,  on  the  other  hand,  a  worse  breed  of  cattle  could  not  well  be 
selected  than  the  Short-Horns,  for  perfectly  obvious  reasons  already  mentioned 
and  which  need  scarcely  be  repeated.  Small  breeds,  and  small  breeds  only,  can 
be  kept  profitably  in  that  country,  not  only  of  cattle  but  of  all  sorts  of  live  stock. 
This  general  principle  may  be  relied  upon  with  full  confidence.  This  is  true  of 
all  the  coastwise  region  from  Hell  Gate  to  Dry  Tortugas,  and  of  all  similar  regions 
in  the  world  wherever  found.     The  Devon,  the  Ayrshire,  the  Jersey,  the  Red  Poll, 


,x"«t  <l/kvffi«i*»i»te*^ st^' 


SSSSj^'OU-a*" 


rue  Ayrshire  Cow. 


are  breeds  suited  to  this  section.  Of  the  latter  breed  the  choice  should  be  of  tha 
smaller  specimens.  The  Brahmin  which  crosses  readily  with  the  common  cow 
affords  promise  of  a  cross-breed  which  would  possess  valuable  qualities  in  that 
region.  Using  the  Brahmin  bull  on  the  native  cow  and  recrossing  to  obtain  three- 
eights  Brahmin,  five-eights  native,  and  then  interbreeding  to  fix  the  type  of  the 
new  breed,  would  probably  result  in  producing  a  valuable  new  sort,  both  for  milk 
and  beef,  and  also  excellent  for  the  yoke,  and  what  is  well  adapted  to  the 
climate.  The  Devon  is  a  most  beautiful  and  hardly  race,  excellent  for  beef  and 
milk,  and  unequaled  for  the  yoke,  and  experience  seems  to  show  that  they  are 
acclimated  to  the  more  Southern  States  with  less  loss  than  perhaps  any  other 
breed  especially  when  bred  not  too  far  north — not  north  of  Maryland  or  Virginia. 
Fredericksburg,  Va.,  is  a  well  known  and  central  point  for  this  region.  Where 
(or  near  there)  ha,ve  been  established  by  the  Messrs.  Rowe  admirable  herds  of 


408 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Jerseys  and  Devons  from  which  large  and  valuable  distributions  have  been  made 
southward.  Messrs.  Pierson  Bros,  have  established  a  herd  of  Red  Polls,  from 
which  those  desiring  that  sort  may  obtain  foundation  stock. 

From  Fairfax  county  southward  is  a  race  of  scrubs  or  natives  without  horns, 
wonderfully  good  milkers  for  their  opportunities.  Selections  from  these  cows, 
topped  by  pure  Red  Poll  bulls,  would  doubtless  produce  an  extremely  valuable 
breed,  the  absence  of  the  horns  being  an  obvious  advantage.  The  finest  milch 
cow  the  writer  ever  saw  was  a  calf  of  ,a  Fairfax  foaled  scrub  by  one  of  Mr.  Rowe's 
Jersey  bulls.  The  Red  Polls  have  the  advantage  of  Jerseys  in  beef  and  in  quan- 
tity of  milk,  and  the  cross  with  the  native  foals  is  one  to  be  strongly  advised  and 
recommended.  A  race  so  bred  would  be  already  acclimated  and  accustomed  to 
the  usage  of  the  country — a  matter,  as  all  who  have  tried  to  introduce  improved 
breeds  South  well  know,  of  no  small  importance.  In  establishing  these  herds  of 
the  pure  breeds  adapted  to  the  region  near  Fredericksburg,  these  gentlemen 
builded,  perhaps,  wiser  than  they  knew,  and  afford  Southern  improvers  a  base  of 
supplies  which  they  cannot  wisely  neglect. 

DISEASES    OF    CATTLE. 


Unfortunately,  cattle  are  subject  to  destructive  epidemics.  Some  of  which 
have  been  imported,  and  through  the  inattention  of  the  people's  rej:>resentatives 
to  the  representations  of  competent  and  disinterested  authority,  have  become  so 
firmly  implanted  that  they  can  only  be  eradicated  by  years  of  patient  work  and 
great  expenditures  of  money. 

Texas  fever  is  a  native  malady,  sometimes  very  destructive.  But  the  most 
insidious  and  dangerous  of  bovine  plagues  is  the  imported  pleuro-pneumonia, 

which  has  been  deliberately  allowed  by  the  govern- 
ment to  spread  far  and  wide  in  spite  of  ample  in- 
formation  and   earnest   remonstrance  from  most 
trustworthy  sources,  of  the  calamitous  results  sure 
to  ensue  upon  failure  to  grapple  with  the  plague 
promptly  and  effectually.     The  writer  has  himself 
strongly  urged  this  matter  upon  the  dull,  cold  ear 
of  Congressional  committees,  and  members  indi- 
|  vidually,  and  has  heard  the  matter  urged  by  such 
5   men  as  Sam  Salmon,  backed  up  by  the  official 
prayers  and  bcseechings  of  Commissioners  Le  Due, 
■i ne  jersey  cow.  Loring  and  Coliuan.     Congress  nor  the  Executive 

can  plead  want  of  information.  If  agriculturists  mean  that  their  reasonable  and 
just  demands  upon  the  attention  of  the  politicians,  into  Avhose  hands  the  govern- 
ment has  fallen,  shall  be  respectfully  heard  and  promptly  heeded,  they  must 
organize  for  political  action  and  show  these  men  their  teeth. 

Neither  milch  cows  nor  beef  cattle  at  full  pasture  require  other  ration.  When 
the  pastures  burn  up  in  midsummer  drought,  or  in  winter  when  there  are  no 
pastures,  cows  must  be  liberally  fed,  or  it  will  be  best  not  to  expect  them  to  pay 
for  their  beef  and  the  trouble  of  milking.  If  cows  at  the  pail  are  to  pay  their 
way  they  must  be  always  full  fed.  In  winter  they  had  best  be  at  liberty  in  some 
convenient  field  or  lot,  at  least  during  the  day  time,  whenever  the  weather  is  not 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM. 


409 


inclement.  In  inclement  weather  and  .storms  they  should  have  shelter,  but  their 
stalls  must  be  comfortable,  well  ventilated,  roomy,  and  always  clean,  if  it  is 
expected  they  are  to  keep  healthy  and  pay  their  way  at  the  pad.  There  are  few 
places  so  nasty  as  foul  cow  stables;  few  objects  so  disgusting  as  a  nasty  cow. 

Ensilaged  corn  is  an  excellent  addition  to  the  winter  ration  of  cattle  and 
sheep,  and  it  is  really  very  cheap  food,  if  wisely  managed;  wholly  immature  green 
corn  stocks  make  ensilage  little  else  than  water  and  woody  fibre.  Corn  allowed 
to  stand  until  the  stalk  is  mature  and  there  are  ears  on  it  in  the  dough  state  form 
an  almost  complete  ration.  The  wholly  inaccurate  and  foolish  estimates  that 
have  been  made  of  it  have  been  like  all  such  stuff,  misleading  and  mischievous. 
The  best  ensilage  Weighs  forty-eight  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot;  average  quality 
forty-five  pounds.     It  is  very  easy  to  obtain  the  cubic  feet  of  the  mass  in  the  silo^ 


Polled  Angus  Cow. 


which  multiply  by  forty-five  and  divide  by  2,000  to  obtain  the  numoer  of  short 
tons.  Estimates  of  the  number  of  tons  in  a  silo  six  or  eight  times  too  high  have 
been  repeatedly  published,  whereby  a  good  thing  has  been  materially  prejudiced. 

The  question  has  been  much  argued  whether  beef  cattle  should  be  winter-fed 
in  barns  or  open  lots.  In  small  lots  it  pays  to  winter  suitable  cattle  in  stalls.  It 
never  pays  to  stall  wild  young  cattle  wholly  unaccustomed  to  restraint,  for  they 
will  lose  all  the  time,  it  matters  not  how  liberally  they  may  be  fed.  It  does  not 
pay  to  winter  very  large  lots  in  stalls.  The  extra  labor  of  hauling  feed  to  them, 
and  feeding  in  barns  and  keeping  the  stalls  clean,  and  hauling  and  scattering  the 
manure,  is  too  great  and  too  expensive. 

If  cattle  be  home-bred  and  reasonably  cared  for  they  are  scarcely  subject  to 
epidemic  disease,  and  but  little  liable  to  even  serious  sporadic  disorders.     Heifers 


410  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


should  be  bred  at  from  eighteen  months  to  two  years.  Short-Horns  especially,  if 
not  bred  early,  frequently  become  over  fat  at  pasture  and  difficult  thereafter  to  get  in 
calf,  if  they  do  not  become  permanently  barren.  In  the  large  breeds,  care  should 
be  taken  in  putting  the  cow  to  the  bull ;  serious  and  fatal  accidents  not  unfrequently 
then  occur.  The  writer  has  seen  several  valuable  cows  killed  outright,  and 
others  badly  crippled  by  the  service  of  immense  bulls. 

Abortion  frequently  prevails  epidemically  in  herds,  and  especially  among 
stabled  cows.  It  often  occurs  moreover  as  the  result  of  ergot  or  smut  poison,  the 
so  styled  Randall  grass  or  meadow  fescue  (festuca  elatior)  being  especially  dan- 
gerous from  that  cause  to  all  animals  carrying  young.  The  writer  has  satisfied 
himself  by  ample  personal  examination  and  observation  that  no  other  grass  or 
grain  produces  a  tenth  part  as  much  ergot  as  this.  According  to  the  writer's 
experience,  the  foetus  is  usually  cast  from  this  cause  in  the  first  few  weeks  ot 
pregnancy,  often  when  not  larger  than  a  field-mouse.  Very  rarely  a  cow  is  lost 
from  mal-position  of  the  calf,  which  could  only  be  remedied  by  a  skillful  person. 
Sometimes  after  calving  the  womb  inverts  or  turns  itself  inside  out,  and  is  at  the 
same  time  extruded  from  the  body.  This  accident,  commonly  called  in  the  farm- 
yard "wild  calves,"  very  commonly  causes  death  from  shock.  Sometimes  the 
womb  contracts  to  the  size  of  a  child's  head  and  remains  hanging  out  behind  the 
cow  a  disgusting  sight;  she  had  better  be  dead.  This  accident  is  very  difficult 
to  remedy  even  by  a  skilled  veterinarian.  After  the  organ  is  fully  contracted 
amputation  is  sometimes  successful  and  the  animal  may  be  fattened  for  the 
butcher.  Especially  when  grazing  on  young  clover  before  the  dew  is  off,  but 
sometimes  without  obvious  cause,  cattle  become  hoven  or  enormously  distended 
with  gas,  and  if  not  relieved  perish  in  great  agony.  The  paunch  should  be  cut 
open  and  the  imprisoned  gas  let  out.  Any  person  can  do  it.  Stab  the  most  pro- 
tuberant point  with  any  sharp  instrument  or  knife;  a  piece  of  some  sort  of  tube 
may  be  inserted,  such  as  a  piece  of  elder  with  the  pith  punched  out.  A  drench 
containing  two  or  three  ounces  of  spirits  of  turpentine  is  the  best  medicine. 
The  cut  in  the  paunch  left  to  itself  soon  closes.  Mercury  in  all  forms  is  poisonous 
to  cattle  and  more  so  to  horses.  Mercurial  ointment  freely  applied  to  the  surface 
of  the  body  will  certainly  kill  an  ox  or  cow.  A  sick  cow  generally  stops  chewing 
the  cud,  and  all  sorts  of  abnormal  remedies  are  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of 
restoring  the  cud.  Cure  the  animal  of  her  disorder,  or  allow  her  a  chance  to  get 
well,  and  she  will  presently  chew  the  cud  as  usual.  Space  can  not  here  be  spared 
to  expose  all  the  absurd  cruelties  of  the  ignorant  pretender  who  assumes  to  be  a 
cow  doctor.  This  is  a  safe  rule  of  practice:  when  in  doubt  what  to  do,  give  the 
cow  the  benefit  of  it,  and  let  her  have  a  chance  to  get  well. 

SHEEP. 

The  limits  assigned  this  article  leave  only  a  brief  space  to  consider  especially 
sheep  and  swine.  Sheep,  well  managed,  pay  better  for  the  amount  invested  than, 
any  other  live  stock.  Their  wool  and  lambs  bring  in  income  twice  a  year,  and 
at  times  when  other  farm  products  are  seldom  ready  for  market.  There  is  very 
much  land  all  over  our  whole  continent  from  which  an  income  could  be  obtained 
and  the  land  improved  by  means  of  sheep,  and  which  it  is  difficult  to  suggest  how 
else  to  derive  any  benefit  from.  Besides  this,  on  every  farm  a  moderate-sized  bunch. 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM. 


411 


The  South  Down. 


of  good,  common  ewes  and  a  thoroughbred  ram  of  some  improved  breed,  will  save 
several  hundred  dollars  without  in  the  least  diminishing  the  capacity  of  the  farm  for 
carrying  the  heavier  sorts  of  stock.  The  sheep  merely  pick  up  what  would  other- 
wise be  lost.  We  farmers  fill  the  land  with  a  clamor  against  sheep-stealing  curs, 
and  beset  the  legislatures  to  tax  the  dogs.  But  who  keeps  the  dogs?  The  farm- 
ers keep  them,  and  allow  them  kept  by  the  hired  help  in  cabins  about  our  premises 
and  other  cabins  which  we  most  unwisely  let  to  shiftless  negroes  and  other  such  like 
persons,  who  keep  numberless  curs,  which,  unfed  at  home,  prowl  the  neighbor- 
hood for  prey.  The  writer  has  bred  Southdowns  for  twenty  years,  and  never  lost 
one  by  dogs.  He  does  not  suffer  any  clog,  except  his  own,  kept  on  his  place,  and 
when  a  stray  dog  comes  prowling  around  he  is  severelv  stung  with  shot — a  dose 
which  seldom  requires  to  be  repeated.  Every  night 
the  sheep  are  put  into  dog-proof  lots  or  shelters, 
easily  made.  A  trained  sheep-dog  will  drive  them 
to  where  they  are  wanted.  The  writer's  sheep  will 
come  to  call,  and  very  generally  come  up  at  nightfall 
to  be  put  away,  like  fowls  going  to  roost.  The  gene- 
ral farmer,  pursuing  a  mixed  husbandry,  will  find 
that  a  flock  of  fifty  good  grade  ewes,  with  a  couple 
of  Southdown  rams,  will  pay  about  five  dollars  each  a 
year,  or  fully  one  hundred  per  cent,  on  their  value,  which  will  very  commonly  be 
the  convenient  sum  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  added  to  the  income  of  the 
farm  over  and  above  all 'that  would  be  derived  from  all  other  sources  without  the 

sheep.  Moreover,  an  occasional  fat  lamb  for  the 
farmer's  own  table  is  a  great  addition  to  his  "hog 
and  hominy."  It  is  the  most  digestible  of  meats, 
and  very  delicious,  if  properly  butchered  and  served. 
Even  with  "  free  wool  and  protected  blankets,"  no 
farmer  need  doubt  that  a  fair-sized  flock  of  sheep 
will  pay  for  at  erm  of  years  one  hundred  per  cent, 
annually  on  their  cost  and  value,  if  Avell  managed; 
and  if  there  be  anything  which  will  yield  a  profit, 
even  when  neglected,  sheep  will  come  as  near  it  as  anything  else.  Every  season 
about  one-third  of  the  best  ewe  lambs  should  be  reserved  to  take  the  place  of  a 
similar  number  of  old,  unsatisfactory  ewes  discard- 
ed from  the  flock  and  sent  to  the  butcher.  The 
rams  need  not  be  changed  until  too  old  for  service. 
There  should  be  at  least  one  ram  to  every  twenty- 
five  ewes.  No  sort  of  harm  will  result  from  breed- 
ing a  good  ram  to  grade  ewes  of  his  own  get;  but  if 
any  one  is  prejudiced,  it  is  easy  to  avoid  this  where 
two  rams  or  more  are  kept.  The  tail  of  every  lamb 
dropped  should  be  docked  the  second  day  after 
birth — cut  to  within  one  inch  of  the  body.  The 
hemorrhage  is  commonly  trifling,  it  may  be  entirely 
prevented  by  tying  a  ligature  of  thread  or  twine  close  to  the  point  where  the  tail 
is  to  be  divided,  tight  enough  to  stop  the  circulation,  which  ligature  should  be 
removed  after  five  or  six  hours.     It  does  harm  rather  than  good  to  castrate  lambs 


The  Cots-wold. 


The  Merino. 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM,  413 


intended  for  early  market.  If  intended  to  bo  fed  to  a  year  old  or  so  they  must  be 
castrated.  This  operation  is  best  done  as  soon  as  tbe  docked  tail  is  fairly  healed 
over.  If  done  at  this  time  by  a  skillful  person  very  few  will  be  lost.  Ewes  occa- 
sionally require  assistance  in  lambing,  and  the  person  who  undertakes  to  render 
it  must  be  patient,  deliberate,  and  gentle,  avoiding  all  jerking  or  tearing  force. 
Ewes  should  all  have  their  lambs  weaned,  and  taken  away  if  not  sold,  on  a  given 
day  from  six  weeks  to  two  months  before  they  are  to  have  the  bucks.  If  there  is 
one  ram  to  twenty-five  ewes,  the  whole  flock  will  be  impregnated  within  a  short 
period,  and  the  lambing  period  will  be  correspondingly  short,  the  lambs  will  bo 
an  even  attractive  lot,  and  sell  well.  Such  details  in  the  management  of  sheep 
make  the  difference  between  heavy  losses  and  large  profits. 

A  sick  sheep,  it  must  be  confessed,  is  a  bad  patient.  Their  diseases  are  diffi- 
cult of  diagnosis,  and  apt  to  be  fatal  in  spite  of  treatment.  Prevention  is  better 
than  cure.  Weed  out  the  defective  sheep  from  the  flock,  keep  them  dry  and  clean, 
and  they  will  seldom  be  sick.  On  low,  undrained,  marshy,  and  water-logged 
soils,  it  is  best  not  to  attempt  to  graze  sheep.  Dog-proof  enclosures  for  sheep 
ranges  are  easily  constructed  of  barbed  wire  or  the  combination  wire  and  picket 
fence,  which  is  cheaply  made.  In  Loudoun  and  some  other  counties  in  Virginia 
dogs  are  taxed,  and  the  money  so  raised  set  apart  as  a  "sheep  fund"  to  pay  for 
sheep  destroyed  by  dogs;  a  very  good  plan,  but  prevention  is  the  better  remedy— 
dog-proof  fences  and  barn-lots,  and  doses  of  small  shot,  to  wit. 

SWIXE. 

The  one  great  drawback  to  the  Keeping  of  swine  is  the  so-styled  hog  cholera. 
In  this  matter  the  Federal  authority  has  been  wholly  remiss.  There  seems  to  bo 
little  doubt  that  this  disease  could  be  arrested  by 
innoculation.  and  the  government  ought  to  under- 
take the  work  of  discovering  a  practical  method  of 
providing  and  distributing  the  virus.  What  are 
those  so-styled  experimental  stations  worth?  What 
are  they  for?  Certainly  not  places  for  unfortunate 
gentlemen  out  of  employment  seeking  a  place  at  the 
hands  of  "the  party."  "  The  chestet  white. 

The  general  farmer  who  keeps  swine  should  select  a  boar  of  the  thoroughbred 
sort  best  suited  to  his  views,  and  grade  up  the  herd  from  a  strong,  healthy,  native 
and  acclimated  stock.  Young  pure  bred  boars,  fit  for  service,  are  now  to  be  had 
at  very  moderate  prices  from  the  professional  breeders. 

If  it  be  true,  as  doubtless  it  is,  that  the  rearing  and  management  of  live  stock 
is  the  most  agreeable  and  profitable  branch  of  modern  farming,  then  certainly  he 
is  the  best  farmer  who  best  understands  this  branch  of  the  business  in  all  its 
scientific  and  practical  details.  Again,  we  say,  what  are  our  "Agricultural  Col- 
leges" for?  What  are  they  worth?  They  seem  to  proceed  upon  the  idea  that 
scientific  agriculture  is  a  kind  of  chemistry — a  mere  matter  of  analyses  and 
recipes.  Compared  with  the  average  "Professor  of  Agriculture"  the  average 
"cow-boy"  is  a  learned  doctor. 

Once  we  knew  a  "Professor  of  Agriculture,"  a  distinguished  graduate  of  a 
very  famous  university,  being  a  prize  scholar  and  star  graduate  of  their  "scientific 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM.  415 


school,"  having  a  magnificent  set  of  testimonials  as  standing  in  "University  cir- 
cles" as  high  as  the  highest.  But  he  was  a  stranger  to  the  farm-yard,  poor  gen- 
tleman, and  he  actually  delivered  a  lecture  on  a  Guernsey  hull  as  a  typical  Short 
Horn.  If  there  is  any  one  thing  of  which  nothing  is  known  in  "University  cir- 
cles" it  is  agriculture,  either  as  the  greatest  of  modern  sciences,  as  the  most 
important  of  practical  arts,  or  as  the  most  essential,  the  most  ancient,  and  the 
most  illustrious  of  human  pursuits. 

MULE    RAISING. 

The  use  of  mules  in  the  Southern  States  is  much  more  common  than  in  the 
Northern  and  New  England  States.  Many  are  raised  in  Virginia,  but  the  largest 
and  finest  are  brought  here,  and  further  South,  from  Kentucky,  and  from  other 
Western  States.  We  do  not  see  why  Southern  farmers  cannot  supply  themselves 
with  those  "to  the  manor  born"  more  cheaply.  For  many  purposes,  and  less 
costly  food,  endurance  and  longevity,  they  are  superior  to  the  horse;  and  accord- 
ing to  size  and  weight,- they  are  superior  as  Avork  animals.  Below  Ave  give  some 
excellent  vieAvs  in  regard  to  mule  raising. 

Chester,  in  "Planter  and  Farmer,"  says:  We  haA'e  never  seen  or  heard  any 
estimate  of  the  amount  of  money  annually  paid  by  Virginia  to  other  States  for 
mules,  but  any  one  at  all  acquainted  with  the  subject  knoAvs  that  the  purchase  of 
these  necessary  animals  makes  no  inconsiderable  draught  upon  the  finances  of 
our  farmers. 

Under  the  old  dispensation,  Avhen  our  crops  Avere  cultivated  by  compulsoiy 
labor,  and  the  care  of  stock  Avas  deputed  to  those  not  directly  interested  in  its 
Avelfare,  it  Avas  perhaps  more  satisfactory,  and  in  some  cases  more  economical,  to 
purchase  mature  animals  ready  to  put  to  labor  than  to  rear  them  upon  the  farm. 
But  this  is  now  changed.  As  a  general  rule,  the  owner  of  the  stock  has  the  feed- 
ing and  care  of  it  in  his  oavii  hands,  and  a  very  large  number  of  our  farmers  are 
performing  their  own  farm  labor,  with  only  a  little  hired  assistance.  Under  these 
circumstances  Ave  lnvve  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  mules  can  be  economically  and 
profitably  raised.  It  is  useless  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  relatiA*e  merits  of 
horses  and  mules  for  farming  purposes.  It  is  a  question  which  every  farmer 
decides  for  himself,  and  the  fact  that  the  larger  portion  of  the  labor  of  the  South- 
ern States  is  performed  by  them  justifies  the  belief  that  the  farmers  believe  them 
better  suited  to  their  wants  than  any  other  animal.  Be  this  as  it  may,  Ave  have 
the  fact  that  mules  are  always  in  demand  at  apparently  high  prices,  and  this  alone 
will  justify  the  inquiry  AAdiether  Ave  can  raise  them  for  ourseh'es,  or  be  still  com- 
pelled to  purchase  them  from  others.  AVe  meet  the  inquiry  with  the  assertion 
that  the  most  of  our  farmers  are  in  the  exact  condition  of  those  in  other 
States  who  breed  by  far  the  larger  number  of  the  mules  that  supply  the  Southern 
States.  Mules  are  generally  bred  by  farmers  Avho  do  their  OAvn  work  with  the 
mares  which  produce  the  mule  foals.  In  those  States  where  mules  are  extensiArely 
bred  almost  eArery  farmer  has  one  or  more  mares,  which  perform  their  regular 
share  of  the  farm  work  and  produce  annually  a  mule  foal.  Some  farmers  Avork 
mares  exclusively  and  breed  them  regularly,  realizing  thus  a  considerable  addi- 
tional profit  for  their  animals. 

But  Ave  must  hasten  to  the  practical  part  of  our  subject — i.  e.,  hoAV  Southern 


410  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


farmers  may  raise  their  own  mules.  It  is  well  known  that  the  mule  is  a  hybrid 
between  the  male  ass  and  the  mare  (or  female)  horse.  The  best  jack  for  the  pro- 
duction of  mules  is  the  Spanish,  being  in  almost  every  particular  superior  to  the 
Maltese,  and  giving  more  sprightliness,  activity,  and  earlier  maturity  to  his 
progeny.  He  should  be  from  fourteen  to  fifteen  hands  high,  have  great  length 
of  body,  round  barrel,  and  broad,  deep  chest.  He  should  have  heavy,  flat-boned 
limbs,  a  long,  thin  face,  and  fine,  thin  jaw-bone.  His  ears  should  be  carried 
upright,  and  be  large,  but  thin  and  Velvety. 

Mares  for  mule-raising  should  have  large,  lengthy  bodies,  on  short,  broad  and 
flat  limbs.  If  she  has  a  dash  of  blood,  so  much  the  better,  as  the  mule  will 
undoubtedly  show  it  in  his  style  and  action.  Mares  go  about  eleven  months  in 
foal,  and  should  be  bred  early  in  the  spring,  so  as  to  be  sure  to  have  her  in  foal, 
that  the  colt  may  come  before  hot  weather.  March  is  perhaps  the  best  month 
for  mares  used  on  the  farm  to  drop  their  foals.  When  the  time  approaches,  the 
mare  should  be  put  by  herself  in  a  good,  comfortable,  roomy  stable,  where  she 
can  be  noticed  and  cared  for  in  case  of  accident,  though  there  is  very  little  danger 
of  this,  especially  in  case  of  mule  foals,  as  they  are  usually  smaller  than  other 
colts.  After  the  colt  is  a  week  or  two  old,  the  mare  may  be  put  to  work;  and  by 
the  time  corn  is  up,  so  that  he  would  injure  it  by  running  over  it,  he  may  be 
safely  left  in  the  stable  or  a  small  grass  lot  from  morning  till  noon  without  suffer- 
ing for  food.  They  are  not  so  much  disposed  to  follow  their  dams  as  colts,  and 
are  frequently  so  indifferent  as  to  be  really  troublesome  when  it  is  desired  that 
they  should  follow.  Where  there  is  more  than  one  mule  colt,  they  will  be  per- 
fectly satisfied  without  their  dams,  unless  they  are  hungry;  but  it  is  not  a  good 
plan  to  put  horse  and  mule  colts  in  the  same  stable,  as  the  mules  kick  so  badly 
as  frequently  to  injure  the  colts.  After  it  is  a  month  old,  the  mule  should  have 
constant  access  to  grass,  or  have  nice,  fine  hay  or  cut-oats  and  bran  in  a  trough 
to  itself.  It  will  soon  learn  to  eat,  and  by  the  time  it  is  five  or  six  months  old 
will  be  able  to  make  a  living  independent  of  its  dam.  In  weaning,  there  is  very 
little  trouble  if  the  mule  has  been  kept  regularly  from  its  dam;  but  it  is  best  for 
both  that  it  should  be  removed  entirely  out  of  hearing.  It  should  be  well  fed  on 
oats,  bran,  and  hay,  and  freshly-pulled  corn  blades  are  excellent  food  for  weaning 
colts.  The  great  aim  should  be  to  make  the  colt  comfortable,  and  supply  all  his 
wants,  and  he  will  soon  be  weaned.  Great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  colt 
does  not  lose  condition  at  this  time,  as  he  ought  to  be  in  good  order  to  commence 
the  winter.  The  first  winter  of  a  colt's  life  it  is  important  to  give  him  good 
attention.  Clover-hay,  fodder,  oats,  and  a  very  little  corn,  may  be  given.  He 
should  have  access  at  all  times  to  a  good,  dry  shed,  protected  from  driving  storms 
of  wind,  rain,  or  snow.  If  possible,  an  old  sod  pasture  or  rye  field,  or,  in  lieu  of 
these,  ruta  bagas  or  carrots  should  supply  his  craving  for  green  food.  In  the 
spring  he  may  never  lose  condition.  Mules  will  browse  a  great  deal,  and  do 
exceedingly  well  in  woods-pasture' through  the  spring  and  early  summer.  Even 
supplied  with  the  best  pasturage,  they  will  spend  an  hour  or  two  of  every  day  in 
any  little  thicket  of  brushwood  they  can  get  to.  busily  picking  buds  and  peeling 
off  bark.  The  second  winter  the  colt  may  be  fed  with  stalk-fodder,  with  a  little 
grain,  and  the  ensuing  summer  lie  treated  as  in  the  last.  The  fall  after  he  is  two 
years  old,  a  mule,  if  well-grown,  may  be  put  to  work;  and  at  three  or  three  and; 
a-half  years  old  will  perform  his  share  of  the  ordinary  duties  of  the  farm. 


A  Friend  in  Need. 


(417) 


418  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


THE    COW  S    ODDER. 

The  cow's  udder,  with  its  teats,  is  not  a  mere  vessel  with  pipes  for  outlets,  but 
a  mass  of  intricate  ducts,  which  run  together  very  much  like  those  of  a  sponge. 
The  skin  of  the  teat  is  turned  back,  and  under  it,  at  the  extremity,  the  fibrous 
tissue  of  which  the  sphincter  muscle  is  formed.  This  muscle  is  a  voluntary  one, 
and  subject  to  the  cow's  will,  by  which  she  contracts  it,  and  so  closes  the  outlet 
of  the  teat  and  prevents  the  escape  of  the  milk.  It  is  (says  Mr.  Henry  Stewart 
in  the  "  Rural  New-Yorker")  by  the  contraction  of  this  muscle,  as  well  as  by  the 
contraction  of  the  whole  of  the  udder,  that  the  cow  holds  up  her  milk  when  so 
disposed,  and  one  may  see,  when  a  cow  is  thus  engaged  in  thwarting  the  desires 
of  the  milker,  how  she  will  lift  up  the  udder  and  contract  it,  and  so  draw  together 
the  sponge-like  mass  of  ducts  and  cause  it  to  retain  the  milk. 

The  structure  of  the  teat  may  be  thus  explained:  In  the  centre  are  the  lactife- 
rous ducts  which  run  into  each  other  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  the  cells  of 

a  sponge;  around  these  ducts  and  holding  them,  as 
it  were,  in  place,  is  a  fibrous  tissue  which  is  extreme- 
ly elastic,  which  is  a  part  of  the  fibrous  structure 
of  the  udder.  Around  this  mass  of  tissue  and  the 
connecting  ducts  which  ramify  through  it,  is  a  layer 
of  glandular  tissue  which  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
udder.  These  glands  are  made  up  of  vesicles  clus- 
tered upon  fine  tubular  ducts,  like  grapes  upon  their 
stalks,  secreting  the  milk  which  flows  through  the 
fine  ducts  into  the  larger  ducts,  where  the  milk  se- 
creted from  these  glands  meets  the  milk  which  flows 
down  from  the  udder,  so  that  the  teat  is  realty  a  part 
of  the  udder,  and  does  its  part  in  producing  milk, 
.„,.,„„„         „  and  is  not  a  mere  channel  for  its  passage  from  the 

udder.  A  section  of  the  udder,  in  fact,  shows  a  very 
similar  structure,  in  each  of  the  glands  or  quarters,  to  that  of  the  teat,  and  the 
teat  really  differs  from  the  udder  in  its  structure  only  at  its  extremity,  where  the 
real  channel  for  the  escape  of  the  milk  is  very  short  and  no  longer  than  the  thick- 
ness of  the  muscular  covering. 

For  these  reasons  one  should  be  very  cautious  about  interfering  with  the  ope- 
ration of  the  teat,  and  especially  in  trying  to  push  anything  into  it.  At  times  it 
is  necessary  to  do  this,  but  quills  and  straws  are  extremely  objectionable.  But 
every  one  who  owns  a  cow  should  have  and  keep  a  silver  tube  expressly  for  this 
purpose,  as  he  may  never  know  the  day  when  he  will  want  to  use  it. 


I 


THE    SCIENCE  AND    A11T   OF    MILKING. 

When  the  teats  are  first  touched,  either  by  the  milker  or  the  calf,  the  first  ( 
effort  of  the  cow  is  to  draw  up  the  tendons  tighter  than  ordinary,  causing  a  con- 
traction that  gives  to  her  bag  a  hardness  that  makes  it  seem  as  if  caked,  and  the 
milker  can  at  first  only  get  the  little  milk  which,  from  being  crowded,  had  oozed 
through  the  orifices  into  the  teats.  Presently,  if  all  is  quiet  and  peaceable,  she 
gives  a  full  relaxation  of  the  strictures  which  hold  back  her  milk,  and  her  teats 
are  not  only  filled  but  crowded,  and  the  whole  contents  of  her  udder  are  placed 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE   FARM. 


4  It) 


at  the  disposal  of  calf  or  milker.  If  now  duo  expedition  is  used  in  drawing  the 
milk,  it  can  all  be  obtained.  Usually  this  effort  at  relaxation  does  not  long  con- 
tinue. Whether  the  milk  is  all  drawn  or  not,  cows  soon  tire  of  keeping  up  the 
relaxation,  and  allow  the  cords  to  assume  their  natural  contracted  position,  and 
thus  shut  off  the  flow.  This  makes  it  important  to  milk  speedily.  The  linger- 
ing milker  never  gets  the  whole  of  the  mess.  Neither  does  he  who  allows  the 
process  to  be  interrupted.  Hence  the  milking  should  be  continuous.  <  !ows  enjoy 
the  sense  of  relief  when  a  crowded  udder  is  being  emptied,  and  they  will  continue 
the  relaxation  which  opens  the  milk  ducts  as  long  as  they  feel  that  relief  taking 
effect;  but  let  the  milker  stop  and  the  relaxation  will  stop,  and  it  can  rarely  bo 

Quiet  and  comfort  are  also 


induced  again  before  the  time  for  another  milking, 
essential  to  obtaining  all  the  milk. 


CAREFUL    MILKING. 

The  manner  of  milking  has  a  more  powerful  and  lasting  influence  on  the 
productiveness  of  the  cow  than  most  farmers  are  aware  of.  That  a  slow  and  care- 
less milker  soon  dries  up  the  best  cows,  every  practical  farmer  and  dairyman 
knows.  The  first  requisite  for  a  good  milker  is,  of  course,  utter  cleanliness. 
Without  this,  the  milk  is  unendurable.  The  udder  should,  therefore,  be  carefully 
cleaned  before  the  milking  commences.  The  milker 
may  begin  gradually  and  gently,  but  should  steadily 
increase  the  rapidity  of  the  operation  till  the  udder  is 
emptied,  using  a  pail  large  enough  to  hold  all,  without - 
the  necessity  of  changing.  Cows  are  very  sensitive, 
and  the  pail  cannot  be  changed,  nor  can  the  milker 
stop  or  rise  during  the  process  of  milking,  without  lead- 
ing the  cow  more  or  less  to  withhold  her  milk.  The 
utmost  care  should  be  taken  to  strip  the  last  drop,  and , 
do  it  rapidly,  and  not  in  a  slow  and  negligent  man- 
ner, which  is  sure  to  have  its  effect  on  the  yield  of  the 
cow.  If  any  milk  is  left,  it  is  reabsorbed  into  the  sys- 
tem, or  else  becomes  caked,  and  diminishes  the  ten- 
dency to  secrete  a  full  quantity  afterward.  If  gen- 
tle and  mild  treatment  is  observed  and  persevered  in,  the  operation  of 
milking  appears  to  be  one  of  pleasure  to  the  animal,  as  it  undoubtedly  is; 
but  if  an  opposite  course  is  pursued — if,  at  every  restless  moment,  caused, 
perhaps,  by  pressing  a  sore  teat,  the  animal  is  harshly  spoken  to — she  will  be 
likely  to  kick  as  a  habit,  and  it  will  be  difficult  to  overcome  it  afterward.  To 
induce  quiet,  and  readiness  to  give  down  the  milk  freely,  it  is  better  that  the  cow 
should  be  fed  at  milking  time  with  cut  food,  or  roots,  placed  within  her  easy 
reach.  The  same  person  should  milk  the  same  cow  regularly,  and  not  change 
from  one  to  another  unless  there  is  special  reason  for  it. 


U.  S,  Patent  Vacuum  Milker,  A.  D.  1883. 


PROFESSOR    L.    B.    ARNOLD  S    SEVEN    POINTS    IN    MANAGING    MILK. 

1.  To  make  the  finest  flavored  and  longest  keeping  butter  the  cream  muse 
undergo  a  ripening  process  by  exposure  to  the  oxygen  of  the  air  while  it  is  rising. 
The  ripening  is  very  tardy  when  the  temperature  is  low. 


420 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


2.  After  cream  becomes  sour,  the  more  ripening  the  more  it  depreciates. 
The  sooner  it  is  then  skimmed  and  churned  the  better,  but  it  should  not  be 
churned  while  too  new.  The  best  time  for  skimming  and  churning  is  just  before 
acidity  becomes  apparent. 

3.  Cream  makes  better  butter  to  rise  in  cold  air  than  to  rise  in  cold  water, 
but  it  will  rise  sooner  in  cold  water,  and  the  milk  will  keep  sweet  longer. 

4.  The  deeper  milk  is  set  the  less  airing  the  cream  gets  while  rising. 

5.  The  depth  of  setting  should  vary  with 
the  temperature;  the  lower  it  is  the  deeper 
milk  may  be  set;  the  higher,  the  shallower 
it  should  be. 

6.  While  milk  is  standing  for  cream  to 
rise,  the  purity  of  the  cream,  and  conse- 
quently the  fine  flavor  and  keeping  of  the 
butter,  will  be  injured  if  the  surface  of  the 
cream  is  exposed  freely  to  air  much  warmer 
than  the  cream. 

7.  When  cream  is  colder  than  the  sur- 
rounding air,  it  takes  up  moisture  and  im- 
purities from  the  air.  When  the  air  is  colder 
than  the  cream,  it  takes  up  moisture  and 

escapes  from  the  cream.     In  the  former  case  the  cream  purifies  the 
air;  in   the  latter  case,  the  air  helps  to   purify   the   cream.     Th« 
selection  of  a  creamer  should  hinge  on  what  is  most  desired — highest  quality,  or 
greatest  convenience  and  economy  in  time,  space  and  labor. 


Primitive  Scythian  Churn. 


whatever 
surrounding 


TEMPERATURE    FOR    CHURNING. 


In  winter  sixty  degrees,  and  in  summer  fifty-six  degrees  is  a  good  tempera- 
ture at  which  to  churn  cream.  In  twenty-five  minutes  the  butter  grains  should  be 
forthcoming.  If  the  temperature  of  the  cream  is  eighty  degrees  the  churning 
will  take  seven  or  eight  minutes  and  the  butter  be  little  better  than  grease;  if  it 
is  forty-five  degrees  the  churning  will  take  more  than  two  hours.  Canon  Bagot 
thinks  thermometers  are  cheap  enough  to  be  in  every  dairy. 

One  of  the  reasons,  says  an  exchange,  why  so  much  poor  butter  is  made  in 
private  dairies  is,  that  farmers  often  begrudge  their  wives  and  daughters  the  most 
improved  appliances  for  household  work.  They  biry  reapers,  threshing  machines, 
feed  cutters,  grinding  mills,  seed  drills  and  sulky  plows;  but  when  it  comes  to  a 
revolving  churn,  a  butter-worker,  or  a  creamer,  there  is  no  money  for  "such  new- 


fangled things.' 


KEEPING   MILK    SWEET. 


A  correspondent  of  Colman's  "Rural  World"  gives  what  we  conceive  a  very 
practical  and  valuable  hint  in  relation  to  preserving  milk  sweet  during  warm 
weather.  His  plan  is  to  place  little  blocks  of  wood  about  two  inches  square  and 
one  inch  thick  under  the  pans,  so  as  to  admit  a  free  circulation  of  air  beneath  as 
well  as  around  them.  He  keeps  the  windows  of  his  dairy  open  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, having  frames  made  the  size  to  fit  the  windows,  and  covered  with  wire  cloth 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM. 


421 


to  keep  out  cats,  &c.     By  these  means  he  keeps  his  milk  cool  in  tho  wannest 
weather,  and  preserves  it  sweet  and  nice  as  long  as  desired. 

He  gives  another  hint  to  those  about  to  build  a  new  dairy  which  wo  think  is 
a  good  one.  Instead  of  making  the  shelves  of  solid  boards,  he  constructs  them 
of  two  strips,  about  two  inches  wide,  and  placed  just  far  enough  apart  to  nold  tho 
pans  from  tipping  over.  This  method,  besides  taking  less  lumber,  admits  a  freer 
circulation  of  air,  and  tends  to  keep  the  milk  cooler. 


Primitive  Grecian  Chum. 


RATION    FOR    MILK. 

A  correspondent  of  the  New  York  "Tribune"  says  wo  all  want  a  cow  to  do 
her  best.  What  is  her  best  ?  Is  it  to  consume  nearly  a  dollar's  worth  of  feed  a 
day,  to  secure  an  increase  of  a  few  ounces 
of  butter?  No.  Should  we  not  consider 
her  as  doing  her  best  when  she  is  fed  eco- 
nomically enough  to  enable  her  to  hold  her 
own  and  give  most  profit  to  her  owner? 
But  cows  differ  in  so  many  ways  that  no^ 
universal  ration  can  be  recommended,  not 
even  one  proportioned  to  the  live  weight.  =g~ 
When  upon  grass  or  good  hay  they  mayl|" 
vary  the  amount  of  what  they  eat  accord-  *^ 
ing  to  the  demands  of  the  system,  but  as  it  •  " 
is  well  known  that  while  for  a  deer  or  wild 
cow  the  varied  herbage  of  the  hillside 
may  be  a  perfect  ration,  for  a  cow  bred  for  1,000  years  to  give  more  milk  and 
butter  than  any  natural  wild  cow  gives  to  her  calf,  the  ration  of  grass  alone  is  not 
sufficient  to  supply  all  the  wants  of  a  cow  giving  a  large  quantity  of  rich  milk- 
It  should  be  supplemented  by  grain  and  phosphatic  salts. 

After  giving  the  subject  considerable  thought,  I  have  come  to  think  that  one 
and  a-half  per  cent,  of  a  cow's  live  weight  may  always  be  safely  given  to  a  healthy 
cow,  provided  one-third  of  it  be  bran.  We  need  bran  for  the  phosphates.  Thus 
a  1,000-pound  cow  would  receive  daily  ten  pounds  of  rich  grain  feed  (say  equal 
parts  corn  meal,  ground  oats,  and  pea  meal)  and  five  pounds  of  bran.  She  might 
eat  less  grain,  but  this  amount  would  probably  produce  a  greater  quantity  of 
butter,  enough  to  pay  for  the  additional  feed,  and  more,  too.  It  is  certain  that  in 
testing  cows  to  show  their  value  as  economical  milk  and  butter  producers,  we 
do  not  want  to  force  them  or  to  train  them  to  eat  more  than  they  can  perfectly 
digest. 

The  enormous  tests  made  by  some  Jersey  breeders  have  done  injury  to  the 
breeds  by  unsettling  the  faith  of  some  breeders  in  tests,  and  by  causing  other 
people  to  feel  as  if  phenomenal  tests  were  the  only  ones  to  strive  for.  Hence,  as 
they  will  not  take  the  risk  of  high  feeding  of  their  cows,  they  make  no  tests  at 
all.  The  "grass  only"  tests  have,  however,  been  numerous,  and  some  of  them 
excellent.  The  most  satisfactory  tests  have  been  made  with  grass  and  a  few 
quarts  of  meal  or  bran,  such  as  I  have  indicated. 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM.  42 


TESTS   OF    DAIRY    COWS. 


•  > 


At  the  Ontario  (Canada)  Agricultural  College  grounds,  ten  different  breeds  of 
cows  have  been  tested  as  regards  the  value  of  the  milk,  cream,  butter  and  cheese 
made  by  them.  The  results  of  these  experiments  have  been  reported  upon  by 
Prof.  Brown,  and  while  these  may  not  bo  conclusive  they  are  of  general  interest. 
According  to  Prof.  Brown's  report,  the  Jersey  is  far  ahead  as  a  producer  of  cream 
or  of  butter,  with  the  Ayrshire  next.  The  Ayrshire,  in  the  same  report,  stands 
first  where  the  milk  is  to  be  sold  or  cheese  made;  the  Devons  rank  next  for  the 
cheese-maker,  and  the  Short-Horn  grade  comes  close  after. 

In  the  lists  referred  to,  Prof.  Brown  calculates  the  values  on  a  basis  of  three- 
fourths  of  a  cent  per  pound  for  milk,  five  cents  a  pound  for  cream,  ten  cents  a 
pound  for  cheese,  and  20  cents  for  butter.  The  Short-Horn,  with  an  average 
weight  per  head  of  1,570  pounds,  yielded,  by  his  calculation,  $19  worth  of  milk, 
from  which  the  cream  would  have  amounted  to  only  $11.  The  cream  made  butter 
to  the  value  of  $22,  or  $30  worth  of  cheese  could  have  been  made  from  the  milk. 
This  breed  averaged  giving  milk  170  days  in  the  season.  The  Short-Horn  grade, 
which  averaged  in  weight  1,450  pounds  each,  proved  better,  as  they  produced 
milk  220  days  in  the  season  to  the  value  of  $30,  but  the  cream  was  valued  at  $10 
only,  and  would  make  but  $18  in  butter,  though  it  yielded  $42  worth  of  cheese. 

The  Devons  give  milk  200  clays;  its  value  was  set  at  $21;  the  cream,  at 
$11.25;  and  they  averaged  $19  worth  of  butter,  or  $45  worth  of  cheese.  The 
Devons  made  an  average  weight  of  1,050  pounds  each. 

The  Ayrshires  weighed  1,000  pounds  each  and  gave  milk  210  days,  valued  at 
$39;  the  cream  was  worth  $21,  and  it  made  $35  in  butter,  while  the  cheese  from 
the  milk  was  worth  $58. 

The  Jerseys  averaged  a  weight  of  740  pounds  per  head  and  gave  milk  20<> 
days,  which  was  valued  at  $19.  The  cream  on  it  was  valued  at  $57.  According 
to  some  tests  made  in  which  100  pounds  of  cream  made  44  pounds  of  butter,  the 
butter  amounted  to  $88,  without  any  allowance  for  extra  quality  of  butter. 

In  drawing  conclusions,  another  point  made  for  Jerseys  and  Ayrshires  was 
their  light  weight,  taken  in  connection  with  the  fact  that  a  cow  requires  food  very 
nearly  in  proportion  to  her  weight. 


RAISING    CALVES. 


The  "  National  Live  Stock  Journal"  says  :  As  many  farmers  want  the  milk 
of  their  cows  for  making  butter  they  cannot  afford  to  raise  the  calves  on  it,  and 
by  raising  combinations  of  other  foods  they  can  grow  them  with  less  expense. 
If  the  milk  of  the  dairy  is  made  into  cheese,  then  the  whey  may  be  profitably 
fed  to  calves,  provided  it  is  mixed  with  other  food  that  will  supply  what  has  been 
taken  from  the  milk  in  making  cheese.  Whey  is  simply  the  sugar  of  milk,  and 
is  a  very  important  element  of  food,  but  should  no  more  be  fed  alone  to  calve^ 
or  hogs  than  sugar  should  be  made  the  diet  of  man.  Whey,  before  it  undergoes 
too  much  fermentation,  is  a  valuable  fattening  food,  possessing  the  elements  of 
fat  in  a  soluble  and  digestible  condition;  but  as  fat  is  only  one  constituent  of  the 
animal  body,  life  and  growth  cannot  be  supported  for  any  considerable  length  of 
time  upon  a  food  that  lays  on  only  fat.     Muscle-forming  food  should  be  mixed  with 


424 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


the  whey  to  compensate  for  the  cheese  that  has  been  taken  from  it.  This  may 
be  found  in  oil  meal,  oat,  barley,  or  pea  meal,  or  wheat  middlings.  Oil  meal  is 
one  of  the  best  foods  to  mix  with  whey,  as  it  possesses  twenty-five  per  cent,  of 


muscle-forming  food,  with  ten  per 
elements.     Pea  meal  is  very  similar 


cent,  of  oil  and  is  rich  in  bone-building 
except  its  lack  of  oil.  The  former  is  a  laxa- 
tive and  the  latter  a  constipating  food,  and, 
therefore,  they  are  excellent  to  feed  together. 
The  pea  meal  should  be  cooked  to  render 
it  easily  digested,  and  oil  meal  should  be 
dissolved  in  hot  water  before  mixing  with 
the  whey.     Wheat  middlings  should  also  be 


3f  cooked  before  mixing  with  whey,  to  produce 


the  best  result.  The  feeder  should  begin 
with  only  two  tablespoonfuls  of  oil  meal 
uj  ^§S8§L  Per  day  to  a  calf,  but  may  use  more  of  the 
:  other  additional  foods.  After  the  calf  is  a 
_V-  month  old,  then  use  four  ounces  of  oil  meal 
-/■'■^—i^-^''  -— V— ■  \  anc{  the  same  quantity  of  pea  meal  or  mid- 
vibrating  chum,  a.  d.  1808.  cllings  per  gallon  of  whey,  and  have  all 
well  mixed  together  when  given  to  the  calf.  Upon  this  diet  and  grass  we  have 
raised  very  fine  calves — heifers  that  would  weigh  400  pounds  at  six  months,  and 
by  keeping  them  well  afterwards  would  weigh  as  much  as  a  common  cow  and 
come  in  at  two  years  old.  Such  heifers  are  worth  $50  at  two  years  old,  while 
those  kept  on  the  pinch  and  starve  system  are  not  worth  half  the  money. 

If  the  milk  is  made  into  butter,  then  skimmed  milk  can  be  fed  to  the  calves, 
which  is  much  more  valuable  than  whey.  Skimmed  milk  is  only  deprived  of  its 
oil,  and  yet  contains  its  most  valuable  elements  as  a  food — the  casein  or  cheese 
to  lay  on  muscle,  and  the  phosphate  of  lime  to  form  the  bones  and  frame  of  the 
calf.  It  also  contains  the  whey,  and  is,  therefore,  almost  a  perfect  food  for  the 
young  animal.  Judicious  feeding  with  skimmed  milk  will  raise  a  calf  with  fine 
development  of  frame  and  muscle,  even 
better  than  a  food  of  greater  fattening 
quality.  If  the  quantity  of  milk  is  small, 
use  a  little  oil  meal  or  wheat  middlings 
with  it;  the  latter  is  excellent  for  that 
purpose,  and  is  generally  the  cheapest. 
Corn  meal,  unless  thoroughly  cooked, 
should  not  be  fed  to  calves,  as  it  usually 
produces  scours. 

Farmers  are  apt  to  be  too  careless 
about  raising  good  stock — begrudge  a 
small  extra  expense  in  food  and  care,  and 
thus  have  animals  not  worth  even  what  Duten  Mode  cramming. 

they  cost.  Twenty  or  thirty  per  cent,  added  to  ordinary  food  and  care  will  double 
the  value  of  the  young  animal,  and  this  slight  additional  cost  will  produce  a  profit 
on  the  whole  expenditure.  One-third  added  to  the  weight  of  an  animal  increases 
the  value  of  its  whole  weight  fifty  per  cent,  on  account  of  quality.  Farmers 
must  strive  for  early  maturity  of  their  animals,  and  this  can  only  be  accom- 
plished by  intelligent  feeding  and  good  care. 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM. 


425 


CALVES  AND  YOUNG  CATTLE. 


Working  Body  Churn,  A.  D.  1872. 


The  calf  soon  after  it  is  dropped  should  bo  able  to  stand  and  get  milk  without 
aid;  but  if  it  is  unable  to  do  so,  it  should  be  raised  up  and  held  to  the  cow  until 
it  gets  a  sufficient  supply  of  milk,  and,  for  several  days  at  least,  it  should  stay 
"with  the  cow  and  supply  its  wants  in  the  natural  way.  The  cow  should  also  be 
milked  by  hand  and  what  is  left  in  the  udder 
taken  away.  If  the  calf  is  for  veal  it  should 
have  all  the  milk  it  will  take,  and  if  not 
enough  it  will  soon  learn  to  take  small 
quantities  of  meal,  which  is  better  if  cooked. 
In  case  the  young  calf  is  intended  to  be 
raised,  it  is  usual  to  take  it  from  the  cow  at 
the  end  of  five  or  six  days  and  keep  it  in  a 
stall.  It  will  soon  learn  to  drink  water  or 
milk,  but  for  two  or  three  weeks  new,  warm 
milk  should  be  liberally  given.  In  cold 
weather,  the  calf  should  be  kept  in  a  dry, 
warm  stall  under  shelter.  During  the  first 
year  or  two  the  calf  should  not  be  kept  en- 
closed with  large  cattle.  It  is  usual  to  allow  several  calves  to  run  together,  or  in 
the  same  lot  or  pasture.  When  over  two  years  old  they  may  run  in  the  same 
pasture  with  the  other  cattle. 

Stall-Feeding. — The  business  of  stall-feeding  cattle  will,  I  am  confident, 
increase  east  of  the  great  grazing  plains  during  the  coming  years,  along  with 
dairying.  In  this  respect,  we  must  follow  the  course  of  the  English,  Scotch  and 
European  farmers.  Grain  will  be  grown  in  the  rich  Northwestern  Territories  and 
in  California,  where  land  is  cheap  and  mixed  farming  is  not  suitable  on  account 
of  the  climate.  Grain  cannot  well  be  grown  to  pay  in  the  East — and, by  East,  I 
mean  all  the  states  east  of  the  Missouri  river — unless  stock  is  stall-fed  to 
make  manure.  Rich  feeding  stuffs,  as  oil-cakes,  bran  from  the  great  Western 
mills,  and  corn  from  the  prairie  states,  which  can  be  bought  more  cheaply  than 

it  can  be  raised,  must  take  the  place  of  farm 
grown  coarse  grain;  and  fodder  crops  and 
roots  will  be  produced  in  abundance  for  the 
cattle.  A  farm  of  100  acres  will  have  its 
feeding  sheds  where  from  twenty  to  fifty  head 
of  beeves  or  200  or  300  sheep  will  be  fattened 
every  winter,  and  larger  farms  will  feed  more 
in  proportion  we  cannot  see  how  this  can  be 
helped.  Calves  that  are  now  butchered  or 
sold  for  a  few  dollars,  and  lean  cattle  from  the 
West,  will  be  bought  up  for  feeding.  The  land 
can  be  made  rich  enough  for  profitable  farm- 
ing only  in  this  way,  and  by  dairying,  and 
dvery  farm  cannot  be  a  dairy,  because  there  is  a  limit  to  the  demand  of 
butter  and  cheese,  and  the  great  cities  and  foreign  countries  must  have  beef  and 
mutton.     In  this  case  properly  arranged  barns  for  feeding  must  be  provided. 


Patent  Rotary  Churn. 


420 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Labor  must  be  reduced  to  a  minimum 
or  the  profit  Avill  be  small,  and  labor  is 
reduced  by  convenient  arrangements  for 
feeding. 

One  man  is  able  to  feed  and  care 
for  fifty  head  of  cattle  when  everything 
is  well  arranged  with  suitable  buildings. 
This  will  cost  about  two  cents  a  day  for 
attention  and  care,  which  is  about  as 
cheap  as,  I  think,  it  can  be  done.  If 
the  cattle  are  fed  for  four  months,  and 
two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  only  is 
added  to  the  weight  of  each  in  that 
time,  the  cost  for  labor  will  be  less  than 
one  cent  per  pound  of  this  increase. 
The  great  profit  in  feeding  cattle,  how- 
ever, is  not  in  the  increased  weights,  but 
in  the  increased  value  of  the  whole  ani- 
mal from  its  better  quality.  A  fat  steer 
can  be  easily  made  worth  one  cent  a 
pound  of  live  weight  more  than  its  cost 
when  it  was  thin;  thus,  a  1,600-pound 
animal  will  have  at  least  $16  added  to 
its  value  in  this  way  in  addition  to  the 
value  of  the  added  weight.  Those  farm- 
ers who  do  not  understand  this  fact 
lose  sight  of  the  most  important  part  of 
the  business. 

Cattle  Sheds. — A  cattle  shed  should 
be  roomy,  both  to  give  the  animals  plenty 
of  fresh  air,  and  to  afford  convenience 
in  feeding  them  and  removing  the  ma- 
nure. The  pens  should  be  made  in 
ranges,  having  a  feeding-passage  large 
enough  for  a  cart  to  be  taken  through 
with  roots,  hay,  straw,  and  feed,  and  an 
alley  as  large,  for  the  purpose  of  taking 
out  the  manure.  It  is  a  good  plan,  when 
there  is  abundance  of  straw  for  litter,  to 
fill  up  the  pens  once  a  day,  and  let  the 
manure  collect  for  a  month,  or,  in  fact, 
for  the  whole  feeding  season,  as  it  is 
kept  hard-trodden,  and  is  not  at  all  dis- 
agreeable. In  this  case,  the  stalls  are 
enclosed,  and  made  large  enough  for 
the  cattle  to  turn  around,  and  the  ani- 
mals are  left  loose.  This  plan  is  very 
common   on  the  large  cattle    farms    in 


LIVE  STOCK"  ON  THE  FARM.  427 


England.     The  plans  of  these  sheds  afford  plenty  of  room,  and  are  very  con- 
venient. 

Enclosures. — Wire  fences  are  now  used,  and  they  may  he  of  plain  and  barbed 
wire,  with  a  narrow  board  in  place  of  the  top  strand  to  enable  the  animals  to  see 
the  fence,  and  escape  danger  of  being  injured.  The  common  post  and  rail  and 
post  and  board  fence  make  suitable  enclosures  for  all  stock.  For  cattle  and  horses, 
three  rails  or  three  boards  will  generally  be  sufficient.  It  is  important  that 
enclosures  be  kept  in  good  order,  as  shackling  fences  not  only  cause  loss  in  crops, 
but  enable  stock  to  learn  how  to  jump  and  get  over  them;  and  this  kind  of  edu- 
cation is  never  forgotten. 

WOOL   AND    SHEEP   AGAINST   TOBACCO. 

William  Holman  says  the  object  of  this  paper  is  to  call  the  attention  of  the 
farmers  of  the  tobacco  growing  regions  to  the  value  and  importance  of  sheep 
raising  and  wool  as  compared  with  tobacco. 

Every  Southern  State  is  well  adapted  to  sheep  raising,  and  nowhere  else 
can  they  be  raised  so  cheaply  and  so  profitably.  There  are  in  each  Southern 
State  vast  quantities  of  open  lands  too  much  impoverished  to  be  profitably 
cultivated,  usually  called  old-field  lands,  which  can  be  purchased  at  from  $3 
to  $5  an  acre ;  sheep  thrive  upon  these  lands  in  the  most  wonderful  man- 
ner. They  are  mostly  elevated  and  dry,  but  abundantly  supplied  with  water  from 
creeks  and  branches.  Sheep  delight  in  a  dry  soil  and  a  dry  climate,  and  hence 
the  great  adaptation  of  such  land  to  sheep  husbandry.  Sheep  require  very  little 
feeding  here,  and  I  have  known  them  to  subsist  the  whole  year  round  without 
any  feeding  whatever. 

In  order  to  show  how  well  sheep  pay  here,  the  writer  will  take  the  liberty  of 
giving  an  item  in  his  own  experience,  and  that  of  one  of  his  neighbors.  He 
commenced  the  last  season  with  thirty -two  old  sheep.  From  these  he  raised 
thirty-eight  lambs  and  160  pounds  of  wool.  Putting  the  lambs  at  $3  each  and  the 
wool  at  25  cents  per  pound,  we  have  the  gross  product  of  $154.  Deduct  from  this 
the  cost  of  raising — say  $40,  and  $114  is  left  as  the  net  profit  on  thirty-two  sheep. 
My  neighbor  has  done  even  better  than  this.  From  twenty-four  old  sheep  he 
raised  thirty-three  lambs  and  120  pounds  of  wool,  valued  at  $129.  Deduct  the 
cost  of  raising,  which  he  puts  at  $25,  leaves  a  net  profit  of  $104.  My  neighbor 
says  that  all  the  feeding  he  has  given  his  sheep  was  a  few  ears  of  corn  occasion- 
ally when  the  weather  was  bad,  and  yet  his  flock  is  in  fine  condition.  These  are 
not  exceptional  cases.  It  is  the  usual  result  with  all  who  give  their  flocks  proper 
attention,  and  do  not  allow  them  to  become  too  large.  It  must  be  acknowledged 
that  they  do  not  do  so  well  in  large  flocks.  There  is  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that 
wool  may  be  made  a  great  and  most  profitable  industry  in  Virginia. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  show  how  much  more  profitable  sheep  are  than  tobacco. 
There  are  forty-three  counties  in  Virginia  that  raise  tobacco,  and  the  tobacco  pro- 
duct may  be  estimated  at  50,000,000  pounds.  Putting  the  average  value  of  this  at 
eight  cents  per  pound,  we  have  an  aggregate  value  of  $4,000,000.  The  cost  of 
production  is  estimated  at  six  cents  per  pound,  equal  to  $3,000,000,  leaving  a  net 
profit  of  $1,000,000. 

Now,  take  sheep.     In  these  forty-three  tobacco  counties  there  are  about  61,774 
farms;  allowing  the  very  moderate  number  of  twenty-five  sheep  to  be  raised  on 


42> 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


each  of  these  farms,  we  have  an  aggregate  of  1,544,350  sheep;  estimating  the  clip 
of  each  at  5  pounds,  we  have  a  wool  product  of  7,721,750  pounds,  which,  valued 
at  25  cents  per  pound,  makes  the  aggregate  value  of  the  wool  crop  $1,930,437. 
Add  to  this  amount  the  value  of  the  lambs  raised  (allowing  one  to  each  ewe), 


Nothing  like  this  at  the  South. 


equal  to  1,544,350  lambs,  which  at  $2.50  each,  make  $3,860,875.  We  have  as  th« 
aggregate  gross  product  of  lambs  and  wool  the  sum  of  $5,791,016.  Deduct  from 
this  the  cost  of  raising  (yearly) — say  $1  each,  the  sum  of  $4,246,962  remains  as 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM.  429 


the  net  profit,  as  against  $1,000,000  on  the  tobacco  crop.  Now  the  excellence  of 
this  result  is  that  it  can  be  reached  without  any  or  very  little  additional  labor, 
whilst  the  planter  can  keep  on  making  tobacco  as  usual,  except  that  he  should 
curtail  his  crop  somewhat,  which  he  ought  to  do  anyhow,  and  what  he  does  culti- 
rate  make  better. 

But  the  poor  innocent  sheep  has  two  very  formidable  enemies  Avhich  deter 
many  from  raising  them.  One  is  the  dog,  and  the  other  is  the  sheep-stealer. 
These  obstacles,  with  a  little  care  and  attention,  may  be  overcome  in  a  great  measure 
by  having  the  sheep  at  night  in  an  enclosure  as  near  the  homestead  as  possible, 
and  by  putting  bells  on  a  few  of  the  sheep. 

The  writer  has  been  doing  this  for  several  years,  and  he  has  not  lost  a  single 
sheep  from  these  causes  as  long  as  he  kept  it  up  strictly.  Other  advantages  result 
from  this  practice.  They  are  made  and  kept  gentle,  and  the  owner  can  see  them 
every  day,  and  thus  readily  discover  when  anything  is  the  matter. 

Notwithstanding  these  facts,  not  more  than  about  one-third  of  the  farmers  in 
the  South  raise  sheep  at  all.  All  could  and  should  do  it,  for  it  would  make 
a  valuable  addition  to  the  income  of  the  farm,  whilst  it  would  involve  but  little 
additional  cost  or  labor. 

VIEWS    ON    SHEEP   HUSBANDRY. 

A  writer  in  the  "Home  and  Farm"  sajTs:  We  have  long  been  of  the  opinion 
that  the  cheapest,  quickest,  and  best  way  to  renovate  the  worn-out  lands  in 
Georgia,  and  indeed  of  all  the  Southern  States,  is  to  convert  them  into  sheep- 
walks  for  a  few  years.  "We  are  glad  to  see  that  others  are  of  our  way  of  thinking, 
and  that  the  "Home  and  Farm,"  and  other  agricultural  journals  of  influence  are 
giving  to  the  subject  the  prominence  it  deserves.  We  hold  that  no  land  is  worth 
cultivating,  that  is  will  pay  expenses  and  yield  any  revenue,  which  is  not  fertile 
enough  to  produce  ten  bushels  of  corn,  eight  bushels  of  wheat,  or  between  300 
and  400  pounds  of  seed-cotton  per  acre.  In  the  present  condition  of  agriculture, 
and  with  the  present  system  of  labor,  it  is  wiser  to  throw  out  all  such  land,  if  we 
cannot  do  anything  else  with  it  than  to  try  to  raise  corn  and  cotton. 

But  our  experience  and  observation  satisfies  us  that  lands  of  this  sort, 
or  even  poorer,  may  in  a  few  years  be  restored  to  a  high  state  of  fertility,  and 
produce,  in  the  meantime,  a  good  interest  on  the  capital  invested,  by  converting 
them  into  sheep-walks. 

Now  we  hear  our  farming  friends  who  have  raised  cotton  and  corn  time  out 
of  mind,  say:  "  What  do  you  mean  by  sheep-walks  ?  Tell  us  what  you  mean,  and 
how  you  propose  to  do  all  you  say."  In  anticipation  of  these  natural  inquiries, 
we  crave  space  to  make  a  succinct  statement  of  our  plan  of  sheep-husbandry. 

Let  us  suppose  a  plantation  of  1,000  acres,  well  fenced,  and  supplied  with 
everything  needed,  except  the  sheep.  We  would  divide  into  three  parts,  two  of 
which  should,  be  set  apart  for  grazing,  and  the  third,  including  woods,  house-lots, 
etc.,  should  have  from  100  to  150  of  arable  land  for  cultivation  and  renovation. 
In  February  and  the  early  part  of  March,  having  previously  repaired  and  built 
all  the  requisite  fences,  we  would  prepare  well  from  forty  to  fifty  acres,  half  of 
which  we  would  sow  in  oats  in  the  end  of  February,  and  plant  the  rest  in  corn  in 
March.     Having  done  this,  we  would  then  sow  eight  or  ten  acres  more  in  oats  on 


430 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


which  we  would  fold  the  sheep  at  night  during  the  summer  and  fall,  in  pens  enclos- 
ing about  half  an  acre. 


3 
u 


The  sheep  should  bo  bought  in   April  or  May;  500  will  do  to  begin  with. 
increasinc;  until  the  number  is  1,000. 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM.  431 


The  folding  the  sheep  is  the  source  of  improvement  and  profit,  and  should 
therefore  be  looked  after  with  the  utmost  care.  They  should  never  be  put  up  in 
pens  until  after  sun-down  and  turned  out  before  sun-rise,  and  if  cattle  are  penned 
with,  them,  will  not  suffer  with  disease  and  they  will  be  protected  from  dogs. 

The  first  half-acre  will  be  sufficiently  manured  in  ten  days,  and  then  the  pen 
should  be  removed,  and  the  manured  ground  thoroughly  plowed,  and  sowed  in 
oats  and  rata  baga  turnips;  and  the  same  process  should  bo  followed  with  each 
successive  pen  until  the  beginning  of  August,  care  being  taken  to  plow  under  all 
that  part  of  the  land  set  apart  for  folding  on  which  the  oats  have  ripened,  before 
the  folds  have  reached  them. 

In  the  beginning  of  August  the  sheep  ought  to  be  divided  into  two  flocks, 
one  consisting  of  the  breeding  ewes  and  stock  wethers,  and  the  others  of  the 
lambs,  and  such  of  the  old  ewes  and  wethers  as  may  be  intended  to  prepare  for 
market.  The  folds  may  now  be  brought  back  to  the  ground  first  penned  and 
sown  in  oats  and  turnips,  now  covered  with  a  fine  growth  of  both  for  the  second 
folding.  In  this  second  folding  there  should  be  two  pens  for  the  two  flocks,  the 
lambs  and  fattening  sheep  being  allowed  to  occupy  each  pen  for  three  or  four 
days  before  the  stock  sheep,  and  allowing  the  latter  to  remain  for  four  or  five  days 
before  removal. 

The  land  folded  before  the  middle  of  September  may  be  plowed  and  sown  in 
turnips  for  the  use  of  the  sheep  in  winter  and  spring,  and  the  subsequent  pens 
can  be  sown  in  rye  and  wheat,  or  any  other  quick  growing  crop  for  spring  grazing. 

When  winter  comes  the  fat  sheep  should  be  disposed  of  as  soon  as  possible, 
the  breeding  ewes  put  in  one  field  to  themselves,  and  the  rest  of  the  flock  in  the 
other.  They  should  be  brought  up  at  night  and  put  in  separate  lots,  provided  with 
good  sheds  for  shelter,  and  fed  night  and  morning  on  hay  or  fodder  and  turnips. 
When  the  ewes  begin  to  drop  their  lambs  in  March,  they  should  be  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  flock,  fed  twice  a  day  on  chopped  sheaf  oats,  and  allowed  to 
run  on  land  prepared  for  them  the  previous  fall. 

The  work  of  each  succeeding  year  differs  only  from  that  of  the  first  in  that 
instead  of  breaking  new  ground  for  oats,  they  shall  be  sown  in  the  twenty  or 
twenty-five  acres  of  corn  land,  and  the  ten  acres  of  manured  land  should  at  the 
same  time  be  seeded  heavily  in  clover  and  grass.  Thus  ten  acres  of  clover  and 
grass  land  would  be  added  each  year  to  the  resources  of  the  farm.  When  the  100 
or  150  acres  first  set  aside  for  cultivation  have  been  by  this  process  converted 
into  clover  and  grass  pastures,  fifty  acres  may  be  taken  in  from  each  of  the  pasture 
fields  first  set  aside,  and  the  same  system  pursued  until  they  are  redeemed.  Thus 
in  a  few  years  the  whole  farm  will  be  raised  to  a  very  high  state  of  fertility,  and 
the  increase  and  sales  of  the  sheep  Avill  yield  a  good  revenue  with  very  small 
expenses  of  labor.  An  experienced  shepherd  and  a  couple  of  smart  boys  are  all 
the  labor  permanently  required.  In  shearing  time  and  harvest  extra  labor  would 
be  necessary  for  a  few  days. 

We  have  no  doubt  that  by  the  adoption  of  a  system  such  as  we  have  indicated 
above,  or  one  substantially  like  it,  our  poor  red  hills  may  be  reclaimed,  the 
comfort  and  prosperity  of  the  people  promoted,  and  the  value  of  the  real  property 
of  the  State  immensel}r  increased. 

Farmers  in  England  appear  to  be  making  more  money  on  their  sheep  than 
any  other  animals.     It  pays  well  to  keep  them  in  narrow  quarters,  as  pigs  are 


432 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


often  raised  and  fattened  for  meat;  feed  them  cut  grass,  clover,  oats,  and  corn. 
Large  English  sheep  are  healthy  in  confinement.  Good  wool  for  combing  and 
worsted  purposes  always  sells  for  a  remunerative  price. 


THE   REMEDY    FOR   SHEEP-KILLING   DOGS. 


A  friend  to  sheep  and  birds  writes:  "No  complaint  is  more  common  among 
farmers  than  the  difficulty  of  raising  cheep,  owing  to  the  ravages  of  worthless 
dogs.     Many  dog  laws  have  been  enacted  but  none  ever  enforced,  and  the  sheep 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM.  433 


are  killed  and  "worried  as  much  as  ever.  Indeed,  in  the  neighborhood  of  towns 
the  keeping  of  sheep  has  been  almost  abandoned.  Yet  it  seems  strange  that 
farmers  should  so  quietly  surrender  to  the  dogs  and  their  keepers  when  each  man 
can  remedy  the  matter  in  his  own  neighborhood.  Years  ago  the  writer  cultivated 
a  farm  on  the  outskirts  of  a  Maryland  town,  and  as  usual  in  Maryland,  this  town 
was  overrun  with  dogs.  "We  kept  no  sheep,  but  the  injury  done  by  the  dogs  in 
other  ways  was  fully  as  exasperating.  Forbearance  having  ceased  to  be  a  virtue, 
we  inserted  a  notice  in  the  county  papers  that  after  a  certain  date  named,  out- 
place would  prove  unhealthy  for  dogs,  and  advised  those  who  valued  their  curs  to 
keep  them  home.  The  date  having  expired,  an  epidemic  broke  out  among  the 
dogs,  and  in  a  short  time  we  had  thirty  dogs  in  the  compost  heap.  One  beef 
head  and  an  ounce  vial  of  strychnia  did  the  work.  There  was  a  howl  for  a  little 
while,  but  after  that  we  could  have  raised  a  field  full  of  kittens  without  the  dread 
of  dogs.  Therefore,  I  say  that  farmers  have  the  remedy  in  their  own  hands,  and 
if  they  allow  worthless  dogs  to  drive  them  out  of  the  most  profitable  part  of  stock- 
raising  it  is  their  own  fault.  If  farmers  who  keep  sheep  would  poison  every 
dog  which  trespasses  on  their  land  the  keeping  of  those  worthless  curs  would  soon 
cease,  and  profitable  sheep  take  their  place.  But,  says  one,  you  might  kill  some 
'valuable  bird  dogs.'  Well,  I  have  yet  to  see  a  bird  dog  that  was  of  real  value; 
in  fact,  I  think  the  birds  are  of  more  value  to  the  farmer  than  any  bird  dog  or 
the  idle  fellows  that  follow  them  over  the  fields,  and  a  poisoned  field  would  be 
relieved  of  both  dogs  and  gunners,  and  the  sheep  and  birds  both  would  be  happy. 
Dog  compost,  I  assure  you,  is  very  good  manure,  and  the  only  good  use  to  which 
the  average  dog  can  be  put." 

IN    PRAISE    OP    MUTTON. 

The  demand  for  mutton  always  increases  as  a  community  increases  in  age 
and  wealth.  Old  butchers  in  this  city  state  that  the  demand  for  mutton,  as  com- 
pared with  beef,  increases  every  year.  At  present  mutton  retails  at  a  higher 
price  than  beef.  As  to  spring  lamb,  it  is  a  dainty  that  always  commands  a  fancy 
price.  A  farmer  who  has  the  conveniences  for  raising  very  early  lambs  has  a 
source  of  income  superior  to  anything  involving  the  same  amount  of  capital.  In 
this,  as  in  almost  everything  else  depends  the  season,  the  earlier  in  the  season  the 
higher  the  price. 

Sheep  are  better  adapted  to  furnishing  meat  for  a  farmer's  family  than  any 
animal  he  raises.  The  carcass  being  small,  it  can  generally  be  eaten  fresh  with- 
out any  of  it  being  liable  to  injury.  Mutton  can  be  kept  much  longer  than  beef 
under  the  same  circumstances,  and  its  flavor  is  improved  by  being  kept  a  rea- 
sonable length  of  time.  No  meat  is  the  superior  of  mutton  when  cured  with 
salt,  boiled,  and  eaten  with  vegetables.  Cold,  roast  mutton  is  superior  to  beef, 
owing  to  its  fine  flavor  and  excellent  keeping  qualities.  A  nice  mutton  chop  is 
the  finest  breakfast  dish  that  can  be  found  for  the  same  cost. 

The  health  and  bill  of  fare  of  farmers  would  both  be  better  if  fresh  mutton 
more  generally  took  the  place  of  salt  pork.  It  is  an  easy  thing  for  farmers  to 
provide  themselves  with  a  constant  supply  of  the  most  delicious  meat.  And  the 
animal  may  be  ready  to  slaughter  at  any  time.  Any  farmer  can  learn  to  properly 
dress  sheep,  and  the  operation  requires  no  appliances.  Sheep  pelts  always  bring 
cash,  and  can  generally  be  sold  at  good  prices. 

28 


434  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Sheep  raising  has  had  its  tips  and  downs  like  almost  every  kind  of  business, 
but  it  is  a  question  if  any  business  has  paid  better  for  a  series  of  years.  The 
rapid  increase  of  sheep  is  very  favorable  to  farmers  of  small  means  who  wish  to 
engage  in  wool-growing.  Sheep  raising  is  too  much  neglected  by  farmers  gene- 
rally. The  animal  that  furnishes  clothing,  food,  and  light,  which  eats  what  other 
animals  reject,  which  crops  hillsides  too  steep  for  other  creatures  to  ascend,  is 
entitled  to  vastly  more  credit  than  it  receives. 

HOW    TO    MAKE    SHEEP-RAISING    PROFITABLE. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  Avhile  many  farmers  in  this  country  give  but 
little  attention  to  the  sheep,  in  England  it  is  styled  "the  animal  that  pays  the 
rent."  By  comparing  the  methods  practiced  in  both  countries  it  will  be  noticed, 
in  the  first  place,  that  we  give  greater  attention  to  wool  than  to  carcass,  which  is 
quite  the  reverse  of  the  method  practiced  by  the  English  farmers.  The  English 
farmer  breeds  principally  for  mutton,  making  wool  a  secondary  consideration; 
but  in  raising  sheep  he  makes  a  small  area  produce  a  large  amount  of  choice, 
high-priced  meat.  He  possesses  no  advantage  over  our  farmers,  but  pursues  an 
altogether  different  method. 

The  common  practice  in  America  is  to  turn  the  sheep  out  on  pasture,  feeding 
gram  whenever  necessary.  As  but  few  special  crops  are  grown  for  their  benefit, 
the  sheep  are  allowed  ample  range  and  are  expected  to  forage  over  a  large  surface, 
which  necessarily  compels  our  farmers  to  devote  more  space  to  each  sheep  than 
many  of  them  can  afford.  In  England  the  pastures  are  considered  too  valuable 
to  be  devoted  to  sheep  without  some  method  of  restriction,  and  they  are  hurdled 
on  small  areas.  Nor  does  the  English  farmer  depend  upon  his  pasture  entirely 
for  sheep,  as  he  is  compelled  to  secure  a  crop  of  winter  hay.  He  sows  turnips 
on  a  plot,  turns  in  the  sheep  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  large  enough,  and  while  they 
are  supplying  themselves  he  has  another  crop  growing  to  which  he  removes  the 
sheep  as  the  first  crop  is  eaten.  In  this  way  he  continually  grows  quickly- 
maturing  crops  and  changes  his  movable  hurdles  frequently.  Large  numbers  of 
cabbage  are  also  grown  for  sheep.  Rye  is  used  as  an  early  grass  in  the  spring,  and 
wheat,  barley,  and  oats  are  also  sown  for  the  sheep  to  graze  upon. 

We  have  greater  advantages  for  hurdling  sheep  in  this  country  than  are  pos- 
sessed by  the  English  farmer.  If  our  farmers  will  practice  the  English  system 
of  hurdling  they  can  pasture  on  rye  early  in  the  spring,  which  should  be  sown  in 
the  fall  for  that  purpose.  Oats  may  follow,  and  next  peas.  As  the  season  ad- 
vances Hungarian  grass  and  Indian  corn  may  be  sown,  to  which  the  sheep  should 
be  allowed  access  as  soon  as  the  crops  are  a  few  inches  high,  as  sheep  prefer  short 
grazing.  When  the  sheep  have  cleared  off  one  piece  and  are  changed  to  another, 
the  plot  from  which  they  are  removed  may  be  sown  to  something  else. 

TESTIMONY    FOR    SHEEP 

A  prominent  London  journal  recently  stated  that,  amid  all  the  crushing  fall 
of  prices  for  nearly  all  descriptions  of  British  agricultural  produce,  safe  footing 
seems  to  be  found  only  in  high-class  sheep.  This  testimony,  coming  from  a 
source  so  reliable,  especially  emphasizes  what  has  been  so  frequently  asserted — 
that  sheep  husbandry  is  the  sheet-anchor  of  British  agriculture.      The    sheep, 


LTVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM. 


435 


with  its  contribution  to  the  fertility  of  lands  —  by  its  continuous  droppings — 
has  steadily  and  generally  arrested  the  attention  of  the  farmers  of  Great  Britain, 
who  have  yearly  been  compelled  to  an  increasing  regard  for  economies  as  yet 
ignored  by  tbeir  American  cousins.  Close  students  years  ago  asserted  that  sheep 
husbandry  is  a  necessity  to  the  permanency  of  English  agriculture,  and  the  appre- 
ciative breeders  of  that  country,  recognizing  this  fact,  early  devoted  themselves 
to  the  work  of  developing  sheep  of  especial  merit,  characterized  by  their  pecu- 
liarities of  form,  size,  precocity,  covering,  etc.,  to  the  end  that  with  animals,  as 
with  the  yield  from  the  land,  there  should  be  the  least  possible  loss,  the  greatest 
possible  return  for  the  food  consumed  and  the  care  bestowed.  Efforts  in  this 
direction  have  been  so  far  successful  that  at  the  present  time  throughout  the 


Dangerous  Neighbors  for  Sheep. 

kingdom  are  to  be  found  types  of  sheep  peculiarly  fitted  to  their  surroundings — 
the  hardy  Black-faces  and  Cheviots  on  the  mountains  of  Scotland,  the  famed 
Southdown  on  the  chalky  hills  of  Sussex  and  Surry,  the  heavier-bodied  Cots- 
wold,  and  Leicester  and  Lincoln  on  the  more  fertile  lands  from  which  bountiful 
pasturage  is  a  certainty,  and  a  number  of  cross-bred  types  between  these. 

The  time  will  come  when  something  like  the  attention  bestowed  upon  the 
sheep  by  the  English  farmers  will  be  recognized  as  a  necessity  by  the  farmers  of 
this  country. 

SHEEP    HUSBANDRY. 

The  following,  correspondence  has  been  sent  to  us  for  publication.  We  will- 
ingly give  it  space,  as  it  expresses  the  views  of  one  of  our  most  progressive  and 
enlightened  farmers  on  this  most  important  question: 


436 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Chicago,  III.,  July  9,  1890. 

Messrs.  Stebbins  &  Lawson,  South  Boston,  Va. : 

Gentlemen:  I  take  the  liberty  of  writing  you  for  information,  your  names  hav- 
ing been  given  me  as  dealers  in  wool.  I  am  interested  in  a  large  tract  of  land  in 
your  county,  and  in  communication  with  some  other  parties  have  had  an  idea  of 

establishing  a  sheep 
farm  on  a  large  scale. 
The  affair  is  in  an  in- 
definite form  as  yet,  but 
if  you  can  kindly  give 
me  the  information  I 
desire,  perhaps  it  will 
benefit  you  later  on. 

I  would  like  to 
know  if  sheep  raising 
is  seemingly  prosperous 
in  your  section  ?  If  the 
climate,  pasturage,  etc., 
seem  suitable?  If  foot- 
rot  or  other  disease  is 
common  ?  About  how 
many  months  in  the 
year  is  it  necessary  to 
feed  in  enclosed  pas- 
ture? Assuming  that 
one  desired  to  stock  a 
placo  fully,  about  how 
many  sheep  to  the  acre 
will  average  pasturage 
stand?  About  what  is 
the  average  price  of  corn 
and  hay  ?  Is  there  gen- 
erally plenty  in  the  mar- 
ket which  may  be  pur- 
chased at  market  price? 
Are  the  ''bottom 
lands"  of  the  Dan  and 
Staunton  rivers  liable 
to  overflow?  I  refer  to 
the  cultivated  lands 
along  the  river  edge.  * 
*  *  About  how  much 
are  good  ewes,  from  two  to  five  years  old,  worth?  And  about  what  is  the 
average  weight  of  fleece,  and  at  about  what  price  do  your  farmers  sell  their  wool? 
Do  the  sheep  run  to  coarse,  medium  or  fine  wool?  Do  you  think  2,000  selected 
ewes  could  be  picked  up,  without  too  much  trouble,  b}r  going  through  the  county? 


In  Distress 


LIVE  STUCK  UN  THE  FARM.  4:57 


I  hope  you  Avill  pardon  me  for  asking  so   many  questions,  but  if  you  will 
kindly  take  a  few  minutes  to  reply,  it  will  be  greatly  appreciated. 


Chicago,  Illinois. 


Very  truly  yours, 

E.  J.  Hulikg,  Jr. 


Iivco,  Va.,  July  15,  1890. 
Messrs.  Stebbins  &  Lawson,  South  Boston.  Va. : 

Dear  Sirs:  Yours  of  the  12th  instant,  enclosing  a  letter  of  inquiry  to  you 
from  Mr.  Hiding,  of  Chicago,  is  received,  and  at  your  request.  I  will  essay  to 
reply  to  his  inquiries. 

I  will  premise  by  saying  that  I  can  conceive  of  no  better  branch  of  farming  on 
our  large  river  plantations  than  sheep  raising  on  a  large  scale,  managed  by  compe- 
tent flock-masters.  AVe  certainly  cannot  compete  with  the  West  in  raising  grain 
under  the  present  low  transportation  charges,  and  you  know  that  tobacco,  of  the 
•export  type,  for  which  our  river  farms  were  once  so  admirably  adapted,  and  on  which 
it  was  so  successfully  grown,  "has  gone  out  of  fashion,"  and  ceased  to  pay  the  cost 
of  production.  But  mutton  and  wool  can  never  go  out  of  fashion,  so  long  as 
mankind's  taste  for  tender  lamb  and  succulent  mutton  holds,  and  his  needs  for 
warm,  comfortable  clothing  are  felt,  or  better  substitutes  are  found,  which  thou- 
sands of  years  have  not  yet  developed. 

If  I  owned  such  lands — river-side  farms — I  would  set  red  top  (herds  grass) 
on  all  the  lowest  flats,  because  it  is  not  easily  killed  by  overflow,  and  succeeds 
better  on  wet  soils  than  any  other  grass  for  grazing  and  hay,  and  set  the  higher,  or 
"  second  low-grounds,"  in  timothy  and  clover,  and  go  into  sheep  raising,  commenc- 
ing with  grade  Southdowns,  or  a  cross  of  Southdown  and  CotsAvold  ewes,  using 
thoroughbred  bucks,  and  breed  upward  instead  of  downward.  I  would  eschew 
altogether  the  diminutive,  slender-bodied,  spindle-legged,  hairy-bellied  natives 
now  roaming  over  our  woods  and  old  fields  like  deer  in  search  of  a  bite  of  grass, 
for  there  is  nothing  but  disappointment, loss,  and  dissatisfaction  in  handling  such 
animals. 

Sheep  husbandry  in  Middle  Virginia,  properly  conducted,  will  pay,  and  pay 
handsomely  under  right  management.  As  evidence  of  this  assertion,  do  you 
know  of  a  single  failure  in  the  sheep  business  in  Halifax  county  on  any  fairly 
good  farm  by  a  competent  sheep-raising  farmer?  Never  a  single  instance  of  the 
kind  has  ever  come  to  my  knowledge.  But  I  have  known  flocks  of  our  native 
scrub  sheep  to  pay  their  owners  better  than  any  other  stock  kept  on  the  farm, 
and  better  than  any  crops  raised  thereon. 

The  climate,  pasturage,  and  topography  of  Middle  Virginia  are  well  adapted 
to  sheep  raising,  and,  as  you  are  doubtless  well  aware,  some  of  the  best  sheep  ever 
raised  in  Virginia,  and  exhibited  at  our  fairs,  went  from  Middle  Virginia. 

During  an  experience  of  forty  years  in  farming,  I  have  never  known  but  one 
flock  in  this  county  infected  with  foot-rot,  rarely  ever  saw  a  case  of  scab,  and, 
moreover,  during  an  experience  of  over  twenty  years  as  Stock  and  Crop  Reporter 
to  the  National  Department  of  Agriculture,  assisted  from  time  to  time  by  some  of 
•our  best  farmers,  Ave  haAre  invariably  all  the  Avhile  reported  sheep  "  the  healthiest 
of  all  our  farm  animals."  as  thev  surerv  are. 


I  138) 


Heed  the  Advice  OF  the  Wise. 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM.  439 


Sheep  require  less  feeding  than  any  other  farm  stock.  Many  flocks  went 
through  the  past  winter  without  being  once  fed.  It  is  safe  to  calculate  on  not 
feeding  sheep  more  than  eight  or  ten  weeks  during  average  winters,  and  then 
only  during  snowy,  rainy,  and  coldest  weather.  Aery  little  grain  is  ever  fed  to 
sheep  here,  possibly  not  enough  to  keep  them  in  the  best  condition  for  profit. 

Our  open  lands  unimproved  will  carry  from  three  to  four  sheep  per  acre  on 
sedge  and  the  natural  grasses,  and  more  where  Lespideza  (Japan  clover)  covers 
the  land,  and  this  is  being  rapidly  done  all  over  this  county.  Lands  in  good  con- 
dition sown  in  grass  will  carry  twice  the  number  above  specified,  and  in  better 
condition.  Much  depends,  however,  on  the  character  of  the  land,  for  some  farms 
will  naturally,  and  improved,  carry  twice  the  number  of  sheep  that  can  subsist 
on  farms  adjoining  or  hear  by. 

The  average  price  of  corn  during  the  past  five  years  on  the  farm  varies  but 
little  from  fifty  cents  per  bushel,  possibly  a  little  lower  at  husking  time.  The 
price  of  corn  here  is  largely  governed  by  the  price  in  the  surplus  corn-growing 
States  "West.  Hay  sells  at  from  $10  to  $12  per  ton  on  the  farms;  very  little  hay 
raised  here  for  market. 

Transportation  facilities  are  exceptionally  good  in  every  portion  of  the 
county,  which  is  intersected  by  three  separate  lines  of  railroad  running  North, 
South,  East  and  West;  in  fact,  no  section  of  the  State  can  show  better  facilities 
for  shipping  inward  or  outward. 

The  low-grounds  along  the  margins  of  the  Dan,  Staunton,  Bannister  and 
Hyco  rivers  are  all  admirably  adapted  to  the  production  of  corn  and  oats,  and 
also  for  hay  and  grazing.  Only  a  few  years  ago  the  value  of  the  corn  sent  from 
the  county,  mainly  shipped  South,  was  greater  than  the  value  of  the  tobacco 
shipped  during  the  same  year,  showing  that  our  county  is  capable  of  being  self- 
sustaining  during  ordinary  seasons,  so  far  as  bread  and  forage  stuffs  are  con- 
cerned. But  we  are  always  greatly  behind  in  meats.  Mutton  is  the  surest  and 
the  verv  cheapest  meat  raised  here,  and  the  supply  falls  far  short  of  the  demand. 

I  do  not  believe  that  2,000  selected  ewes,  suited  for  breeding,  could  be  easily, 
if  at  ah,  found  in  all  this  county.  Therefore,  parties  intending  to  embark  in  the 
sheep  business  will  do  well  to  select  breeding  stock  where  such  can  be  had  to  the 
best  advantage.  There  are  fine  flocks  of  grades  and  thoroughbreds  in  the  State 
which  can  be  purchased  on  terms  fully  as  well  and  of  quality  fully  as  good  as  can 
be  found  West — -already  acclimated,  too,  and  at  a  saving  in  transportation. 

So  far  as  my  observation  and  limited  experience  enables  me  to  judge,  the 
Southdown  breed  seems  to  thrive  best  in  this  county.  The  Downs  crossed  on  the 
Cotswold  also  make  good  sheep,  and  by  crossing  thoroughbred  bucks  of  the 
Downs  on  our  native  sheep,  flocks  are  greatly  improved. 

Our  common  wool,  as  you  doubtless  know,  runs  from  1\  to  5  pounds  per 
fleece,  and  you  know  present  prices  better  than  I  can  tell  you.  I  have  sheared 
grade  Downs  weighing  from  10  to  16  pounds  per  fleece,  and.  sold  lambs  from  $3 
to  $5  each,  and  breeding  ewes  from  $3  to  $4  each.     Natives  sell  for  less. 

Sheep-raising  is  a  profitable  coming  industry  for  Southside  Middle  Virginia, 
and  to  one  who  comes  among  us  thoroughly  equipped  and  expert  in  the  business 
there  is  big  money  in  supplying  a  demand  for  breeding  stock,  and  a  cordial  wel- 
come to  our  agricultural  ranks. 


440 


PROF1TA BLE  FARMING. 


When  Mr.  Huling  comes  to  the  county  and  examines  carefully  into  the  cajxi- 
hilities  of  his  farms  for  sheep-raising,  I  doubt  not  he  Avill  concur  with  me  in  the 
belief  that  they  can  be  most  profitably  utilized  in  converting  them  into  sheep 
ranches.  Yours  very  truly,  R.  L.  Ragland. 

P.  S. — The  following  paragraph,  taken  from  the  "  Baltimore  Sun  "  of  July 
19th,  demonstrates  what  is  heing  done  in  sheep-raising  in  Virginia  by  a  compe- 
tent flock-master.  R.  L.  R. 


I,nst  ! 


"C.  H.  Paxton,  of  Rockbridge  county,  kept  last  winter  for  breeding  purposes 
150  ewes.  He  has  realized  from  the  sale  of  their  wool  and  lambs  $1,027  and 
still  has  the  ewes — a  gross  profit  of  nearly  $7  per  head." 


LIVE  STUCK  ON  THE  FARM. 


441 


THE    RAISING    AND    FATTENING    OF    llOUS. 


Prof.  B.  Puiyear,  in  "American  Farmer"  says:  We  believe  that  it  is  the 
true  policy  of  farmers  to  raise  all  the  food  products  demanded  for  the  support  of 
their  families,  and  as  large  an  excess  for  sale  as  circumstances  will  allow.  It 
seems  a  bald  absurdity  for  a  farmer  to  buy  meat  for  his  family  and  hands.  It  is 
his  business,  his  alone  and  exclusively,  to  raise  meat  for  the  non-producing  class. 
The  financial  wreck  of  thousands  upon  thousands,  who  raise  cotton  well  nigh 
exclusively,  and  rely  upon  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  their  crop  for  the  purchase 
of  food  products,  wofully  attests  the  impolicy  of  the  plan.  The  same  disastrous 
results  follow  paramount  attention  to  tobacco,  but  not  in  so  marked  a  way,  only 
because  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  has  never  been  so  exclusive  as  the  cultivation 
of  cotton.  The  temptation,  when  a  great  staple  is  high,  to  devote  exclusive  atten- 
tion to  it  is  almost  irresistible:  but  when  prices  fall  or  the  crop  fails,  then  calamity 
comes  swift  and  sure.  There  are  times  when  a  farmer  can  say  that  it  is  cheaper 
to  buy  meat  and  bread  than  to  raise  them,  but  it  is  never  true  in  the  long  run  or 
on  the  general  average.  Particularly  is 
it  incumbent  on  the  farmer  now,  when  all 
the  products  of  his  fields  are  so  distress- 
ingly low,  to  make  money  by  saving  it. 
He  can  hold  his  own  and  tide  over  the  bad 
time  only  by  raising  on  his  farm  every- 
thing he  can  that  will  contribute  to  the 
support,  to  the  comfort,  health,  pleasure 
and  happiness  of  his  family.  Let  his  farm 
be  his  chief  resource  alike  for  the  support 
of  life  and  for  the  enjoyment  of  life.  Let 
him  pay  more  attention  to  his  garden,  his 
poultry,  his  flock  of  sheep,  his  cattle,  his 
horses  and  his  hogs.  Fewer  dollars  may 
find  lodgment  in  his  pocket,  but,  perhaps, 
the  difference  may  be  made  up  in  the  fewer 
going  out  and  in  the  increased  pleasure 
and  bounty  of  his  board. 

But  in  this  article  we  wish  to  direct  special  attention  only  to  a  single  point, 
the  raising  of  hogs.  Every  farmer,  however  profitable  his  staple  crops  may  be, 
should  raise  a  plenty  of  pork  for  his  own  family  and  employees,  and  should  have 
bacon  for  sale  all  the  year  round.  Nothing  is  more  salable  than  good  bacon,  so 
much  so,  indeed,  that  it  is  almost  equivalent  to  cash.  It  is  easily  exchangeable 
for  labor  and  for  almost  anything  the  farmer  needs.  And,  as  when  properly 
cured,  there  is  no  clanger  of  loss,  he  can  hold  it  as  long  as  he  pleases,  selling 
when  the  price  is  high  and  when  it  suits  his  convenience.  The  ready  money  thus 
coining  at  odd  times  into  his  hands  will  never  be  found  inopportune  or  inconve- 
nient. 

With  little  attention  and  a  little  forethought  it  is  easy  for  the  farmer  to 
accomplish  the  results  we  have  indicated.  Let  him  see  that  his  pigs  are  pushed 
from  the  start,  so  that  they  will  be  ready  for  the  knife  at  from  ten  to  sixteen 
months  old.     At  these  ages,  if  they  have  been  properly  treated,  the  hogs,  even 


Primitive  Scalding. 


442 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


of  the  common  breed,  will  weigh  from  140  to  240  pounds.  They  should  neither 
be  turned  on  tbe  commons  nor  confined  in  houses  or  pens.  Let  them  have  a  lot 
of  sufficient  size,  and  not  far  from  the  house,  where  they  can  be  kept  clean,  be 
healthy  and  grow  rapidly.  Clover  and  corn  should  be  cultivated  for  them,  and  cut 
and  fed  to  them  in  sufficient  quantity.  Where  much  butter  is  produced,  no  better 
use  can  bo  made  of  the  buttermilk.  All  the  slops  and  garbage  of  the  kitchen  and 
garden  can  be  best  utilized  in  this  way.  With  such  and  similar  food,  together 
with  but  a  small  quantity  of  grain,  they  can  be  kept  thriving  and  growing  until 
the  fall.  And  now  comes  the  time  when  they  can  be  fed  more  cheaply  and  will 
grow  more  rapidly  than  at  any  former  period.  In  May,  June,  and  July  peas 
should  be  sowed  for  them,  and  they  should  be  turned  on  these  fields  as  the  pea 

pods  begin  to  brown.  As  one  field  be- 
comes pretty  well  exhausted  let  them  be 
turned  on  another  sowed  later,  and  so  on 
until  fattening  time.  Here  is  a  food,  the 
best  possible  for  the  growing  hog,  that  costs 
the  farmer  absolutely  less  than  nothing. 
Let  us  see:  Tbe  fields  of  peas  depastured 
by  the  hogs  are  so  much  better  for  a  crop 
next  year  as  to  pay  for  the  cost  of  sowing 
the  peas.  The  land  will  plow  better  from 
the  mutilation  and  partial  removal  of  the 
pea  vines  and  pods  by  the  hogs,  and  will 
be  enriched  also  by  their  excrements  uni- 
formly  distributed  over  the  whole  area. 
If  this  be  so,  and  it  certainly  is,  tbe  hogs 
have  had  the  best  food  for  two  or  three 
months    absolutely    without    cost    to   the 

Catching  and  Suspending,  A.  D.  1881.  farmer 

On  nothing  will  the  young  hog  grow  so  rapidly  as  on  peas.  Peas  contain  24 
per  cent,  of  gluten,  or  muscle-forming  material,  while  corn  contains  only  10  per 
cent.  Hence  the  fact,  so  well  attested  by  experience,  that  no  better  feed  can  be 
given  the  growing  hog  than  peas,  particularly  when  they  are  on  the  vines,  fresh 
and  soft. 

On  the  other  hand  the  fattening  power  of  corn  is  much  greater  than  that  of 
peas.  Corn  contains  about  10  per  cent,  of  oily  matter;  peas  only  2  per  cent. 
While  the  muscle-forming  power  of  peas  is  li  times  greater  than  that  of  corn, 
the  fattening  power  of  corn  is  five  times  greater  than  that  of  peas.  Hence,  when 
the  hogs  are  through  with  peas,  which  have  largely  developed  the  muscular  sys- 
tem, we  have  only  to  feed  them  a  few  Aveeks  on  corn  to  engorge  their  adipose  tis- 
sues with  fat.  I  once  had  a  parcel  of  hogs  that  were  about  ten  months  old  which 
were  not  well  grown,  but  which  I  wished  to  fatten.  I  wanted  them  to  grow  and 
fatten  at  equal  pace.  To  do  this  I  combined  the  two  ideas  on  which  I  have  been 
insisting.  I  boiled  the  peas  in  large  pots  until  they  were  soft,  and  then  thick- 
ened the  boiling  mass  with  corn  meal.  The  result  was  exactly  as  1  anticipated. 
Each  hog  averaged,  according  to  my  best  calculation,  again  of  90  pounds  over  the 
weights  I  had  hitherto  been  obtaining  by  feeding  on  corn  alone.  The  richness  of 
the  peas  in  gluten  caused  a  large  development  of  muscle;  the  richness  of  the  corn  in 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM. 


443 


oily  matter  produced  a  rapid  assimilation  of  fat;  the  growing  and  the  fattening 
went  on  together.  No  doubt,  also,  the  result  was  in  a  smaller  measure  due  to  the 
mechanical  reduction  and  the  cooking  of  the  food,  so  that  there  was  the  mini- 
mum of  waste. 

Another  point,  sometimes  overlooked,  is  of  vast  importance.  The  proper 
time  of  fattening  hogs  is  in  the  fall,  not  the  winter.  The  aim  should  be  to  have 
them  ready  for  slaughter  as  soon  as  the  first  good  cold  spell  comes.  A  bushel  of 
corn  when  the  thermometer  is  sixty  degrees,  will  increase  the  weight  as  much  as 
two  bushels  when  the  thermometer  is  thirty  degrees  or  lower.  The  reason  is 
obvious.  The  temperature  of  the  animal-hody  must  be  maintained  at  the  normal 
point  of  ninety-eight  degrees.  The  food  of  the  animal  is  his  fuel  also.  Its  com- 
bustion in  the  capillary  system  develops 
animal  heat.  But  if  the  loss  of  heat  from 
the  body  is  very  rapid,  as  must  alwa}rs  be 
the  case  when  the  animal  is  exposed  to  i 
extreme  cold,  a  correspondingly  greater 
amount  of  food  must  be  consumed  in  the 
capillaries  to  offset  the  large  amount  of  heat 
removed  by  contact  with  the  cold  atmos- 
phere. If  for  any  cause  we  are  compelled ! 
to  fatten  hogs  or  other  animals  in  the  dead  j 

of  winter,  we  must  provide  them  with  warm,  »*       ,  i  >.fi    ■] 

comfortable  quarters.     To  do  otherwise  is 
simply  to  burn  grain  for  fuel. 


PORK    RAISING    AT   THE    SOUTH. 


Can  it  be  made  profitable?     We  think 
it  can,  but  not  in  the  way  that  it  is  raised  u.  s.  patent sauaing,  a.  d.  issa. 

here.  Ours  is  not  near  so  good  a  corn  country  as  Ohio  and  Illinois,  and  if 
we  rely  on  corn  for  hog  feeding  as  exclusively  as  do  the  people  of  those  States, 
our  pork  will  cost  us  very  dearly,  more  perhaps  than  it  would  in  money  to  buy  in 
St.  Louis  or  Cincinnati,  with  transportion  added;  while  the  prevailing  plan  of 
allowing  hogs  to  shift  for  themselves  in  the  woods,  and  fatten  such  of  them  as 
survive  till  two  years  old  on  corn  is  little  less  if  not  more  unprofitable. 

The  next  question  is,  then,  what  is  a  cheap  plan  of  making  pork  at  the 
South? 

Answer. — Have  woods,  lots  or  other  pastures  of  perennial  grasses,  such  as 
Red  top  and  Timothy  on  the  parts  inclining  to  be  wet,  and  orchard  grass,  tall 
Meadow  oat,  Mesquit,  Terrel,  Bermuda,  and  White  Clover  on  dry  lands  with 
plenty  of  shade  and  good  water  accessible.  Such  pasturage  is  for  the  breeding 
sows  and  sucking  pigs  only,  and  the  sows  are  to  have  their  noses  rung  to  prevent 
rooting.  It  is  likewise  important  to  have  enough  portable  fence  to  confine  the 
sows  to  such  a  part  of  the  pasture  only  as  they  can  feed  off  in  the  course  of  a 
month,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  hogs  should  be  turned  on  a  fresh  portion  of 
the  pasture  for  a  like  period  and  so  on,  by  which  means  with  the  grasses  named, 
grazing  can  be  furnished  the  year  round;  and  Essex  and,  perhaps,  improved  Berk- 
shire sows  will  keep  as  fat  thereon  as  they  ought  to  be  for  breeding,  without  other 


i 

o 


IJVE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM. 


1 15 


feed  except  in  mid-winter  or  while  suckling.  The  pigs  from  the  time  they  are  old 
enough  to  eat  till  weaned,  in  addition  to  the  pasturage  and  sow's  milk,  should  be 
fed — in  a  pen  having  an  entrance  large  enough  to  admit  them  but  nottho  sows — 
all  they  will  eat  twice  a  day  of  cooked  grain — never  feed  soured  or  raw  corn — the 
latter  has  exactly  the  same  effect,  though  not  always  in  thesamo  degree,  as  cotton 
seed  fed  to  pigs  under  three  months  old.  The  sows  should  have  enough  concen- 
trated feed  to  prevent  them  from 
becoming  low  in  flesh,  the  amount 
of  course  depending  on  the  breed, 
the  season,  the  number  of  pigs  suck- 
led, etc.,  but  the  young  pigs  ought 
to  have  all  they  will  eat  up  clean 
twice  a  day,  as  a  good  start  is  very 
important.  Any  kind  of  grain,  peas, 
peanuts  or  a  mixture  of  wheat  bran 
and  sweet  potatoes  will  be  excellent 
cooked  food  for  young  pigs,  and  an 
occasional  change  from  one  to  an- 
other will  be  advantageous,  not 
omitting  to  add  salt  in  small  quan- 
tities often  ami  regularly. 

Hogs  other  than  the  breeding 
stock  and  suckling  pigs,  and  such 
as  are  too  young  to  kill,  should  be 
kept  from  after  the  first  white  frost, 
till  killing  time  or  until  March,  in 
afield  containing  ungathered  crops 
(raised  the  previous  summer  and 
fall)  of  Jerusalem  Artichokes,  Tory 
Peas,  Sweet  Potatoes,  and  Peanuts, 
alternating  with  each  other  in  nar- 
row strips  across  the  field,  so  that 
when  the  hogs  are  confined  to  one 
portion  at  a  time  (as  they  should  be 
by  a  portable  fence,  until  such  por- 
tion is  eaten  out)  they  may  not 
lack  in  variety  of  aliment.  Those  designed  for  early  killing  should  precede  the 
others  in  feeding  off  a  portion  of  the  field,  the  smaller  ones  being  turned  in  to 
glean  after  those  removed  to  a  fresh  portion.  Hogs  of  a  good  breed  will  be  as 
fat  as  butter  on  this  treatment  at  Christmas  without  any  other  feed  than  they 
thus  gather  themselves  as  we  know  from  experience. 


Shall  we  Raise  Him  or  Not? 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


Poultry. 


BY    J.    W.    FITZ. 


NE  OF  THE  GREAT  MISTAKES  made  by  poultry  breeders 
.is  that  they  follow  the  advice  of  Northern  breeders  and  write 
I  too  much.     The  methods  that  are  required  in  the  South  differ 
(entirely  from  those  at  the  North,  and  also  the  treatment  for  the 
[diseases  we  are  subject  to  here,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary 
that  we  should  have  different  advice  and  guides  to  go  by;  con- 
sequently this  article  may  help  those  just  beginning  one  of  the 
most  remunerative  occupations  in  the  United  States — that  of 
poultry-raising.     We  will  try  to  give  our  experience,  and  will 
rely  only  on  experience  and  not  on  theory,  as  a  great  many 
writers  on  this  and  other  subjects  do. 

There  is  a  great  field  open  in  the  South  for  this  branch  of 
business,  and  Ave  hope  soon  to  see  it  well  filled  and  the  supplies  in  this  line 
raised  at  home.  We  read  an  article  lately  about  New  England  as  the 
greatest  poultry-raising  States  in  the  United  States,  of  which  we 
have  no  doubt,  but  wonder  at  the  fact  when  the  South  has  such  great 
advantages  over  its  leader.  Here  we  have  none  of  the  difficulties  of 
the  cold  winters,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  South  grain  is  as  cheap 
as  in  the  North.  Prices  are  always  much  higher  for  several  reasons, 
which  would  take  several  years  to  overcome.  The  great  fault  here 
is  that  we  have  not  enough  breeders  to  supply  the  demand,  and  Ave 
do  not  think  there  will  be  for  a  long  time  to  come,  for  as  the  supply 
increases  so  will  the  demand.  Many  that  are  not  in  the  habit  of 
eating  much  poultry  Avill  acquire  a  taste  and  appetite  for  the  most 
delicious  of  all  meats,  and  the  increased  production  Avill  only  pre- 
cede the  increased  demand. 

EGGS    AND    CHICKENS. 

No  farmer  can  afford  to  be  without  eggs  and  chickens,  and  if 
he  had  to  buy  Ave  fear  the  good  Avife  would  come  short  sometimes,  fi^^g? 
eggs  being  used  in  so  many  Avays  about  the  kitchen,  and  a  plump  fei^^t- 
foAv]  is  so  handy  for  a  meal.     Poultry  and  eggs  are  a  Avholesome  IffizEgs^-^.- 
diet  Avhich  every  one  likes,  and  at  times  when  fresh  meat  is  not        Poultry. 
on  hand  they   fully  supply  its  place.     And  when  raised  for  market  they  are 
generally  quite  remunerative,  especially  in   the  fall  and  Avinter  seasons.     Mr. 

(448) 


POULTRY. 


447 


Read,  in  "  Farming  for  Profit,"  says  :  Hens  are  kept  upon  almost  every  farm,  and 
may  be  made  to  pay  well  ;  but  in  order  to  be  profitable  tbey  sbould  receive  some 
attention.  If  exposed  to  cold  and  storms,  and  kept  half  starved,  they  can  neither 
take  on  flesh  nor  produce  eggs.     They  should  have  a  good  house,  which  should 

be  kept  very  clean.  In  it  (or  near  by)  feeding- 
troughs  and  drinking-pans  shonld  be  placed.  These 
should  be  so  arranged  that  while  the  fowls  can  eat 
and  drink  freely,  they  cannot  get  into  the  vessels. 
The  roosting  places  should  all  be  placed  on  a  level. 
This  is  much  better  than  the  old  method,  one  above 
another.  When  perches  are  of  different  heights 
too  many  hens  will  try  to  get  upon  the  highest 
one,  the  weaker  ones  will  fall  or  be  crowded  off,  and 
in  falling  may  be  seriously  injured.  The  perches 
should  be  of  small  poles  of  sassafras  or  wild  cherry 
when  they  can  be  obtained.  Let  the  hens  have 
a  good  range ;  they  like  to  be  on  the  grass.  The 
The  pijiuoain  Kock.  orchard  is  a  good  place  for  hens;  they  will  go  for 

worms  and  bugs,  and  in  that  way  benefit  the  orchard  very  much. 

FACTS   AXD    FIGURES    ABOUT   THE  POULTRY   BUSINESS. 

That  well-known  and  very  successful  poultry  breeder,  Fanny  Field,  writes  as 
follows  to  the  "  Poultry  Raiser  " : 

Several,  months  ago  two  women  who  contem- 
plated going  into  the  market  business  wrote  me: 
We  wish  you  would  give  us  some  facts  and  figures 
about  the  profit  on  poultry.  We  want  to  know 
what  ordinary  people  have  done  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  and  not  what  a  few  have  done  by 
selling  eggs  and  fowls  at  fancy  prices.  It  immedi- 
ately struck  me  that  a  good  many  people  were  hun- 
gry for  the  kind  of  reading  asked  for  by  my  corre- 
spondents, and  I  at  once  set  about  the  task  of  gath- 
ering "facts  and  figures"  from  farmers'  wives  and 
others  who  kent  poultry  under  ordinary  conditions. 


n  Lcjrhorne. 


The  first  account  comes  from  a  young  woman 

Mi  O 

who  kept  100  fowls.  She  says:  This  is  my  fourth 
year  in  the  poultry  business.  The  first  year  I 
kept  twenty  fowls  and  cleared  about  $15  in  cash 
and  a  good  deal  in  experience.  The  second  year 
I  kept  fifty  fowls  and  made  $46.  Last  year  I  kept 
an  even  100  fowls,  and  cleared  $140  from  the  sale 
of  the  eggs  alone.  The  highest  price  obtained  for 
eggs  was  35  cents  a  dozen,  the  lowest  15  cents.  The 
hens  are  grade  Plymouth  Rocks,  and  averaged  121 
eggs  apiece  in  the  year.  I  paid  my  father  the  mar- 
wiitte  licgnOTisr  ket  price  for  all  the  feed  used  except  the  scraps 

from  the  table  and  an  occasional  pan  of  sour  milk,  and  I  offset  that  against  the 


44<S 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


value  of  the  poultry  manure  which  he  used.     I  only  raised  chickens  enough  to- 

get  what  pullets  I  wanted  to  keep.     The  cockerels  and  the  old  hens  that  I  did  not 

want  to  keep  over  were  used  in  the  family,  and  1  made  no  account  of  them. 

Told  father  I  would  turn  them  in  to  pay  for  rent 

of  the  poultry-house  and  yard  and  the  little  work 

he  did  for  me.     Only  kept  one  rooster  through  the 

breeding  season;  mated  him  with  ten  of  my  best 

old  hens  and  used  their  eggs  for  hatching.     Except 

while  the  breeding  stock  was  kept  separate  from  the 

rest  of  the  flock  my  fowls  had  full  range.     I  did 

all  the  work  except  a  little  of  the  heaviest,  and  I  en- 
joyed it,  too.     The  poultry -house  is  a  very  good  one, 

but  nothing  extra.     No  artificial  heat  in  winter;  in 

cold  weather  they  had  a  breakfast  of  the  table  scraps 

scalded  with  hot  water  and  mixed  with  a  stiff  dough 

with  wheat  bran  and  about  two  quarts  of  ground 

beef  scraps.     About  the  middle  of  the  forenoon  I 

scattered  some  oats,  sunflower  seed  and  sometimes 

a  little  buckwheat  or  corn  in  the  litter  which  covered 

the  floor  in  one  part  of  the  house;  that  kept  them 

scratching  most  of  the  time  until  night,  when  they 

had  a  meal   of  whole   corn.     Of  course  they  had 

Avater,   gravel,   lime,    etc.,    and   green   food  nearly 

every  day.  The  green  food 
was  anything  I  could  get — 
trimmings  from  vegetables 
that  were  prepared  for  the 
table,  apples  and  rowen.  The 
warm  weather  food  was 
chiefly  oats  and  bran  dough. 
Resides  caring  for  my  fowls 
[  gave  music  lessons  and  did 
about  half  of  the  housework 
and  sewing  for  a  family  of 
six. 

The  next  report  is  from 
a  farmer's  wife  who  keeps 
about  forty  fowls,  and  raises 
fortv  or  fifty  chickens  each 
year.  Bhe  writes:  My  hus- 
band charges  me  for  all  feed 
used,  and  pays  me  market 
price  for  all  eggs  and  chick- 
ens used  in  the  family.  We 
made  arrangement  five  years 
ago  to  find  out  whether  fowls 
as  ordinarily  kept  by  farm- 
1 1; ,„„:.h.  ers  paid  anything  more  than 


POULTRY.  449 


the  cost  of  keeping.  For  the  five  years  the  fowls  have  paid  a  profit  of  a  little 
over  $1  per  head,  and  I  call  that  good  enough  pay  for  the  time  I  spent  with 
them.  Our  fowls  are  wintered  in  a  barn  cellar,  and  although  they  have  plenty  of 
food  they  do  not  often  get  a  warm  breakfast.  Feed  but  little  in  warm  weather. 
Average  price  of  eggs  sold  20  cents  per  dozen;  chickens,  10  cents  per  pound. 

Another  woman  made  $73.81  from  seventy  common  hens.  Her  fowls  were 
kept  in  a  sod-house  in  winter,  but  she  gave  no  particulars  in  regard  to  food  and 
care.  From  others  I  obtained  figures  which  showed  a  profit  of  75  cents  to  $2 
per  head  on  each  adult  fowl  kept.  And  among  my  old  poultry  accounts  I  found 
one  which  showed  a  profit  of  $26.86  in  one  year  from  a  dozen  Partridge  Cochins. 
Everything  was  sold  at  market  prices. 

There  is  a  moral  to  these  facts  and  figures,  but  you  can  dig  it  out  for  your- 
selves. 

POULTRY    FOR   THE    ORDINARY    FAMILY. 

There  are  very  few  families  in  the  country  or  in  suburban  villages  who  are 
situated  so  that  they  cannot  keep  a  few  fowls.  In  almost  every  village  contigu- 
ous to  American  cities,  the  mechanic,  clerk,  or  toAvn  salesman  who  resides  in  the 
suburbs  for  economy's  sake,  nowadays,  has  upon  the  rear  of  his  house  or  little 
garden  patch,  his  hennery,  small  or  large.  And  the  number  of  these  poulterers 
in  a  small  way,  in  the  aggregates  is  very  large. 

Go  where  you  may  in  the  country  villages  around  our  Atlantic  cities,  for 
example,  and  you  will  find  among  a  majority  of  the  classes  of  city  business  men 
above  mentioned  there  are  kept  a  trio  or  two,  or  as  many  dozen  good  chickens; 
the  care  of  which  serves  to  render  their  leisure  hours  agreeable,  and  from  which 
the  good  housewife  is  furnished  with  many  a  score  of  fresh  eggs  in  the  course  of 
the  season. 

The  cost  of  keeping  a  dozen  or  two  of  good  chickens  is  very  trifling.  The 
scraps  from  the  table,  daily,  a  quart  or  two  of  cracked  corn  and  oats,  a  little 
granulated  bone,  and  pounded  oyster  shells,  clean  gravel  and  fresh  water,  with 
cleanliness  and  good  air  in  the  coops,  will  be  about  all  that  is  needed  for  a  few 
fowls.  If  they  can  have  a  dry  run  upon  the  lawn  or  walks  also,  so  much  the 
better. 

Thus,  fifteen  or  twenty  hens  may  be  kept  without  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to 
the  household,  from  which  may  be  had  in  a  twelve-month  a  hundred  or  more 
dozens  of  nice  fresh  eggs,  two  or  three  scores  of  chickens  for  broiling,  at  least 
twenty  nice  pullets  to  carry  over  the  winter  for  next  season's  use,  and  so  on 
annually. 

Why  should  not  every  mechanic,  clerk,  or  city  business  man  residing  in  the 
suburbs  avail  himself  of  this  economical  plan,  and  by  this  means  furnish  himself 
with  pleasant  recreation  for  his  leisure,  as  well  as  profit  in  the  undertaking? 

" G.  O.  B."  says:  The  above  reminds  us  of  a  gentleman  in  this  city,  who 
has  a  yard  about  fifteen  by  forty  feet,  in  which  he  has  sixty-nine  varieties  of 
plants  and  flowers,  and  also  keeps  twelve  hens.  During  our  conversation,  poultry 
came  up  as  one  of  the  themes,  and  he  remarked  he  had  up  to  the  present  time 
received  570  eggs  from  his  hens  since  January  1st,  and  their  principal  feed  had 
been  table  scraps,  hardly  any  grain  had  been  purchased  for  them,  and  they  laid 
well  the  coldest  winter  weather.     We  find  that,  to  average  the  price  of  eggs  during 

29 


450 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


the  time  specified,  the  eggs  would  average  twenty  cents  per  dozen,  consequently, 
each  hen  has  so  far  laid  seventy  cents  worth  of  eggs,  and  has  nearly  eight  months 
before  the  year  is  completed  to  add  to  her  record.  The  gentleman  keeps  an 
account,  so  this  is  neither  theory  nor  guess-work.  There  are  thousands  of  people, 
situated  far  more  favorably,  who  might  do  even  better  than  this,  and  at  this 
season  smack  their  lips  with  satisfaction  over  nice  fresh  eggs,  instead  of  finding 
them  with  very  small  spring  chicks  inside.  We  also  recently  visited  a  young  man , 
who  eomes  to  the  city  every  morning  from  a  distance  of  five  miles,  leaving  his 
home  before  6  A.  M.,  and  returning  after  7  P.  M.,  who  has  kept  a  large  flock  of 
fowls  which  not  only  has  paid  their  board  in  eggs,  but  proved  a  profit  besides, 


Tho  Farmer  Feedeth  Them  All ! ' 


and  he  always  has  a  number  of  young  chicks  running  around  hearty  and  thrifty, 
reared  on  a  home-made  brooder.  This  is  not  only  enterprise,  but  pluck — and 
success  of  course  crowns  such  efforts.  Now,  if  under  such  adverse  circumstances, 
where  fowls  kept  in  limited  ranges  can  be  made  profitable,  how  much  more  so 
could  they  be  if  kept  on  farms  where  they  can  have  an  unlimited  range.  The 
sooner  farmers  disabuse  their  minds  of  the  ancient  belief  that  poultry  needs  no 
attention  or  care,  the  better  for  them.  If  some  of  the  doubting  Thomases  would 
let  their  wives  manage  the  poultry  and  have  all  the  money  they  could  make  from 
them,  their  eyes  would  be  opened  as  they  wondered  where  all  the  new  dry-goods, 


I 

( 


POULTRY.  451 


etc.,  came  from,  while  the  frequent  calls  on  their  pocket-book  for  paying  for 
groceries,  tobacco,  etc.,  would  soon  convince  them  there  is  "suthin  in  hens." 
Why  not  give  the  idea  a  business-like  trial  ? 

FATTENING    FOWLS. 

An  excellent  plan  is  to  place  them  in  fattening  houses  constructed  especially 
for  the  purpose.  Each  house  may  be  made  to  contain  from  ten  to  twenty  fowls, 
and  should  be  warm  and  airy  with  raised  floors,  covered  with  a  layer  of  gravel 
strewed  slightly  with  straw;  the  house  must  be  kept  perfectly  clean.  Several 
troughs  for  food  and  water  should  be  placed  in  the  house,  so  that  each  bird  may 
have  easy  access  to  them.  For  fattening  fowls,  the  use  of  a  perch  is  contrary  to 
the  usual  practice;  but  it  may  be  allowed  during  the  first  portion  of  the  time;  for 
this  purpose  a  few  perches  may  be  placed  in  the  house,  but  they  will  not  be  required 
long,  for  as  soon  as  the  fowls  begin  to  fatten  from  feeding,  they  will  prefer  to 
roost  in  the  straw.  By  this  method  fowls  may  be  fattened  to  as  high  a  degree, 
and  their  flesh  will  be  as  delicate,  as  if  they  were  fattened  in  a  farm-yard. 

Another  plan  is  to  fatten. in  coops;  these  may  be  about  three  feet  high,  two 
wide,  and  four  long,  which  will  furnish  room  for  some  six  or  eight  fowls,  accord- 
ing to  their  size.  The  coops  may  also  be  built  in  compartments  about  ten  inches 
by  twenty,  and  twenty  high.  The  floor  should  consist  of  wooden  bars  about  two 
inches  wide  and  two  apart,  with  the  upper  edges  rounded,  the  bars  extending 
from  side  to  side  of  the  coops;  the  front  should  be  enclosed  with  rails  about  an 
inch  wide  and  three  apart.  The  coops  should  be  placed  in  a  well-ventilated  house, 
kept  at  a  moderately  warm  temperature  and  free  from  draughts,  the  front  being 
covered  with  matting  in  cold  weather.  Large  wooden  trays  the  size  of  the  coops, 
and  filled  with  dry  earth,  should  be  placed  on  the  ground,  and  the  coops  fixed 
two  or  three  inches  above  them ;  the  trays  should  be  cleaned  out  daily. 

The  most  easily  digested  food  should  be  given  the  fowls,  and  but  little  grain. 
Buckwheat  meal  is  the  best;  to  its  use  the  French  attribute  their  great  success  in 
sending  well-fattened  fowls  to  market.  The  next  best  food  is  maize-meal  and 
barley-meal  in  equal  proportions,  and  mixed  with  milk,  if  possible.  Barley-meal 
and  oat-meal,  given  alternately,  mixed  with  milk,  or  at  times  with  a  little  drip- 
pings, is  an  excellent  fattening  food;  some  give  drippings  regularly  and  with 
excellent  results.  Chopped  green  food  should  be  supplied  fresh  every  day.  The 
fowls  should  be  fed  from  troughs  kept  perfectly  clean,  at  regular  periods;  early  in 
the  morning  and  again  just  before  roosting  time  are  best;  and  as  soon  as  sufficient 
has  been  eaten,  the  troughs  should  be  taken  away;  a  little  fine  gravel  must  be 
placed  within  reach  to  aid  the  digestion  of  the  food.  A  sufficient  supply  of  clean 
water  is  necessary  and  must  always  be  accessible.  Should  the  confinement  under 
the  coops  produce  vermin,  a  little  powdered  sulphur  rubbed  into  the  roots  of  the 
feathers  will  soon  prove  a  remedy.  The  process  of  fattening  may  be  completed 
in  ten  days  if  the  fowls  are  kept  in  the  dark,  but  it  will  extend  to  twent}'  days  if 
they  are  kept  in  the  light;  the  flesh  of  those  fattened  in  the  light  is,  however, 
superior  to  that  of  those  kept  in  the  dark.  As  soon  as  the  fowls  are  in  proper 
condition,  they  should  be  killed,  otherwise  they  will  speedily  lose  flesh,  and 
become  feverish  and  unfit  for  food.  After  the  fowls  are  removed  for  market  or 
killing,  the  coops  should  be  well  washed  with  lime  and  dried  before  other  birds 
are  placed  under  them. 


452 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


POULTRY    HOUSE    CONVENIENCES. 


The  raising  of  poultry  year  by  year  is  receiving  more  attention,  and  anything 
that  will  add  to  the  ease  in  management  is  gladly  welcomed  by  the  admirers  of 
the  feathered  tribe.  The  practice  among  farmers  of  letting  their  poultry  roost 
about  the  farm  buildings,  upon  harrows,  plows,  wagons,  and  farm  machinery  is 
growing  less  each  year,  as  many  of  them  are  building  suitable  poultry  houses. 
In  the  engraving  is  shown  a  neat  and  handy  arrangement  of  houses  and  lots 

for  poultry.  The  perches 
are  scantling,  eight  feet  in 
length,  two  inches  thick, 
and  three  inches  wide, 
made  of  some  tough  light 
wood.  The  upper  ends 
are  hinged  to  the  side  of 
the  building,  four  feet 
apart,  and  are  connected 
with  roosts  or  perches 
one  inch  in  diameter,  or 
what  is  better,  nail  octa- 
gon strips  fast  to  the 
supports.  Perches  should  be  placed  about  one  foot  apart.  At  any  time  when  it 
is  desired  to  gather  up  the  droppings,  the  end  of  the  frame-work  is  raised  suffi- 
ciently to  engage  with  the  hook  on  the  support,  the  whole  arrangement  being  up 
out  of  the  way,  for  thorough  cleaning.  At  the  corner  of  the  building,  opposite 
the  roost,  is  placed  a  box  containing  ashes,  road  dust,  etc.,  that  the  fowls  may  dust 
themselves.  The  box  should  be  two  feet  square  and  about  one  foot  in  height,  and 
should  be  kept  half  filled  with  dusting  material,  more  particularly  during  winter. 
In  the  corner  is  placed  a  box,  which  should  contain  a  supply  of  gravel  and  broken 
oyster  or  clam  shells.  The  foregoing  conveniences  cost  but  little,  and  will  proye 
valuable  additions  to  any  poultry  house. 


Houses  and  Lots  for  Poultry. 


CARE    OP   YOUNG   CHICKENS. 

Young  chickens  are  injured,  often  seriously,  by  being  exposed  to  heavy  dews 
and  rains.  Until  they  are  a  month  or  six  weeks  old  chickens  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  range  in  the  wet  grass  in  the  early  morning,  and  they  should  never  be 
left  out  of  the  shelter  of  their  coops  on  a  stormy  day.  Those  who  have  watched 
the  lives  of  these  tender  creatures  have  observed  the  importance  of  this  advice, 
and  will  take  care  that  the  young  birds  are  kept  out  of  the  wet  weather. 

We  cannot  too  often  or  too  persistently  insist  that  great  care  should  be  taken 
in  this  respect,  if  you  wish  to  keep  your  young  chicks  free  from  sickness.  Dry 
quarters  and  good  feeding  will  insure  you  fine,  healthy  chickens. 


KEEPING  VERMIN  OUT  OP  POULTRY  HOUSES. 

We  copy  the  following  from  a  private  letter  :     "  The  following  is  my  plan  for 
keeping  my  poultry  houses  free  from  all  vermin,  and  making  my  fowls  healthy  and 


POULTRY. 


453 


happy.  I  have  made  the  roosts  movable,  and  done  away  completely  with  nests 
and  boxes.  The  floor  is  spread  with  straw,  and  when  it  becomes  necessary  to 
clean  it  out  I  get  the  straw  set  on  fire.  It  is  always  damp  enough  to  make  dense 
smoke,  and  after  it  burns  enough  it  is  all  cleared  off,  and  fresh  straw  put  down  in 
which  the  hens  make  their  own  nests.     I  find  they  very  seldom  wander  off,  and 


The  First  BrooJ. 


are  perfectly  delighted  when  they  find  their  weekly  house-cleaning  all  arranged. 
I  do  not  think  that  for  the  last  two  years  I  have  had  a  fowl  troubled  with  lice, 
and  when  they  want  to  set  I  have  no  trouble  in  moving  them  to  a  house  set  apart 
for  incubation." 


454 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


THE  HEN  AND  CHICKEN  RULES. 


The  following  ten  rules  applicable  to  setting  hens  and  young  chickens  were 
contributed  to  the  Mobile  "Register"  by  a  lady: 


Feeding  the  Doves. 


POULTRY.  455 


1.  Never  set  a  hen  in  a  close  box;  give  her  plenty  of  room  to  turn  about. 
She  will  not  do  well  if  cramped  or  crowded. 

2.  Always  set  her  on  the  ground  if  possible.  The  eggs  will  batch  best  with 
the  nest  directly  on  the  ground. 

3.  Don't  give  any  hen  more  than  thirteen  eggs  for  a  setting;  fifteen  is  the 
rule,  but  experience  has  taught  us  that  fifteen  is  just  two  too  many. 

4.  Bo  careful  to  mark  the  eggs,  for  the  other  hens  are  apt  to  lay  in  the  nest 
with  your  setter,  and  unless  the  eggs  are  properly  marked  you  might  not  be  able 
to  identify  the  new  eggs.  You  understand  that  eggs  laid  to  a  setting  hen  must 
be  promptly  removed 

5.  Make  a  record  of  the  time  when  you  set  your  hen,  in  order  that  you  may 
be  looking  out  for  the  hatching. 

6.  Some  eggs  will  invariably  hatch  a  little  sooner  than  others.  Remove  the 
young  chicks  at  once,  and  keep  them  from  the  hen  until  all  are  hatched.  If  you 
do  not  the  hen  will  be  likely  to  quit  the  nest  with  the  first  comers,  leaving  the 
unhatched  chicks  to  chill  and  die. 

7.  Don't  pick  at  the  bills  of  the  little  chicks  in  an  effort  to  remove  what 
some  people  call  the  "  pip."  It  is  all  right,  and  will  disappear  so  soon  as  nature 
requires. 

8.  Never  undertake  to  feed  your  setting  hens  on  the  nest;  it  is  a  poor  way. 
Let  them  come  off  for  their  food.  They  will  not  stay  off  too  long.  Nature  knows 
what  she  is  about.  It  may  be  the  eggs  require  about  the  amount  of  airing  they 
receive  while  the  hen  is  off  for  food. 

9.  See  that  the  hens  do  not  run  about  too  much  Avhile  the  chicks  are  yet 
young;  it  will  cause  them  to  droop,  and  will  sometimes  give  them  a  disease  called 
"spraddles." 

10.  Feed  your  young  chicks  on  corn  meal,  mixed  Avith  pure  water,  and  don't 
mix  it  too  wet.     You  want  it  so  it  will  crumble. 

LET   THEM    SCRATCH. 

Before  you  commence  feeding  your  hens  red  pepper  and  other  like  condiments 
in  order  to  make  them  lay,  try  the  plan  nearer  to  nature  and  see  if  the  result  is  not 
better.  Every  species  of  life  is  provided  with  means  to  procure  food  and  if  not 
prevented  will  follow  their  inclination,  which  in  all  cases  is  the  best.  A  hen 
was  provided  with  long  toes,  and  these  were  armed  with  short,  stout  claws  to 
scratch  with,  and  when  permitted  to  do  so  any  chicken  will  make  dirt  fly,  as 
many  nicely-made  gardens  can  attest. 

Scratching  is  about  the  only  means  a  hen  has  for  exercise,  and  as  exercise  is 
necessary  for  good  health  all  through  animal  life,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  the 
hen  must  be  given  right  to  scratch.  If  an  enclosure  with  plenty  of  dirt  cannot 
be  had,  a  good  substitute  for  earth  can  be  provided  by  using  cut  straw,  clover, 
hay,  dry  leaves,  etc.  In  this  litter  throw  a  few  oats,  a  little  wheat,  barley,  buck- 
wheat, and  occasionally  a  few  sunflower  seed,  and  if  you  don't  see  a  little  bit  of 
the  liveliest  scratching  you  ever  witnessed  it  will  be  because  your  hens  are  ill- 
mannered.  Don't  throw  down  all  these  grains  at  once,  but  vary  them  in  order 
to  make  a  change,  and  don't  think  because  the  grains  disappear  from  your  gaze 
that  the  hens  cannot  find  them,  for  they  will  pick  out  every  one.     This  mode  of 


456 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


feeding  is  better  than  all  the  condition  powders  ever  made,  and  in  place  of  wear- 
ing out  the  poultry  prematurely  it  will  build  them  up,  making  them  strong, 
healthy,  and  profitable.  Furnish  your  hens  a  scratching  place  and  give  them 
something  to  scratch  for,  and  the  egg-basket  will  never  be  empty. 

HOW   TO    PREVENT  CHICKEN   CHOLERA. 

H.  B.  Geer  says :     In  July,  August  and  September  dead  grown  chickens  are 
met     with     everywhere,    under    the    roosts,    about     the    fence     corners,     and 

in  the  alleys.  At  this 
season  of  the  year  that 
dread  scourge  of  the 
poultry-yard,  chicken 
cholera,  stalks  abroad 
and  its  victims  are 
legion. 

But  why  come  in 
the  autumn  rather 
than  at  any  other  sea- 
son of  the  year?  Be- 
cause then  it  is  that 
our  birds  are  all  run 
down  after  laying  and 
hatching  season,  their 
natural  vitality  is  at 
a  minimum,  the  heat 
is  intense,  lice  are  nu- 
merous, water  fre- 
quently is  foul,  and 
they  are  beginning  to 
moult,  which  latter 
ordeal  of  itself  gene- 
rally finishes  the  oldest 
and  most  feeble.  The 
stench  that  prevades 
some  chicken-houses 
of  a  hot  summer  night 
would  kill  a  human 
being  to  inhale  it  one 
week.  Then  why  sub- 
ject the  fowls  to  such 
unhealthy  conditions 
and  expect  them  to  re- 
main strong  and  vig- 
orous. Ventilate  that 
old  hen-house.  Knock 


Taking  Liberties. 


o(F  the  planks  at  the  top  of  the  sides;  you  can  nail  them  on  again  in  the  late  fall. 
Lattice  it  up  and  leave  plenty  of  ventilation.  Let  the  air  pass  through  it  like  a 
sieve.     All  the  chickens  want  in  the  way  of  a  house  at  night  in  the  summer  time 


POULTRY.  457 


13  a  shelter  from  the  rain.  Clean  it  out  thoroughly  and  loosen  up  the  earth  in  the 
bottom  of  it.  Whitewash  it  thoroughly  inside  and  out.  Wash  the  roosting 
perches  with  copperas  water  (green  vitriol)  and  throw  fresh  lime  underneath 
them.  Don't  stop  with  the  first  efforts,  but  make  it  a  rule  to  renovate  once  a 
week,  carrying  out  the  droppings,  washing  the  perches,  and  sprinkling  the  lime 
about. 

See  to  it  that  the  fowls  have  a  good  place  to  wallow.  Without  their  dust- 
path  the  poor  things  will  be  over-run  with  lice.  The  dust  to  them  is  what  water 
ia  to  us.  It  cleanses  and  invigorates  them  and  improves  their  plumage.  Give 
them  plenty  of  pure  fresh  water. 

INCUBATOR    CHICKS    FOR    MARKET. 

We  find,  by  actual  experiment  and  comparison,  that  chicks  hatched  in  incu- 
bators are  fatter,  larger,  stronger,  and  better  in  every  respect,  than  those  raised 
under  hens.  Now,  we  will  say,  there  is  really  no  difference  how  the  chicks  are 
hatched,  as  it  is  merely  the  application  of  heat  to  eggs  in  either  case,  but  our 
readers  will  naturally  wish  to  know  for  what  reason  we  claim  that  incubator  chicks 
are  superior  to  those  hatched  under  hens.  In  reply  we  will  say  that  when  chicks 
are  hatched  in  incubators  they  come  into  the  world  free  from  lice,  which  is  a 
great  point  to  start  with.  In  the  next  place  the  poultryman  depends  on  himself 
to  care  for  them,  and  does  not  trust  them  exclusively  to  the  "old  hen,"  the  conse- 
quence being  that  they  are  always  warm,  always  dry,  always  well  fed,  and  always 
protected  from  sudden  changes  of  the  weather.  It  may  be  that  if  one  has  only 
a  single  brood  of  chicks,  in  the  care  of  one  hen,  with  but  very  few  hens  on  the 
place,  such  a  brood  will  often  receive  as  good  attention  as  will  a  larger  number  in 
brooders,  and  in  such  case  the  chicks  will  grow  equally  as  fast  as  may  be  expected ; 
but,  as  a  rule,  when  a  large  number  of  chicks  are  raised,  those  in  the  brooders 
will  thrive  much  better  than  those  with  hens.  It  is  nothing  remarkable  to  have 
incubator  chicks  weigh  two  pounds  when  they  are  ten  weeks  old,  and  we  have 
seen  as  many  as  2,000  average  two  pounds  each  before  they  were  twelve  weeks 
old.  But  the  same  thing  can  be  done  with  chicks  under  hens,  only  the  work  of 
caring  for  the  chicks  is  not  so  easy,  as  100  chicks  in  brooders  can  be  cared  for 
nearly  as  well  as  can  a  dozen  under  hens,  and  being  free  from  lice  they  grow  rap- 
idly and  sell  as  soon  as  they  reach  the  market. 

LAYING    IN    WINTER. 

How  to  make  hens  lay  in  winter  is  a  question  of  the  most  practical  import- 
ance; but,  after  all  has  been  said,  the  problem  resolves  itself  simply  into  this: 
provide  a  warm  roosting-place,  and  furnish  an  abundance  and  a  variety  of  food. 
If  you  allow  your  poultry  to  roost  in  the  orchard  during  the  winter  season,  you 
may  not  lose  your  chickens,  but  you  will  certainly  have  a  dearth  of  eggs.  Give 
them  warm  quarters,  Avhere  they  can  keep  comfortable  during  the  coldest  nights, 
and  you  will  be  well  repaid. 

HOW  TO   CLEAN   A   POULTRY   HOUSE. 

This  vexatious  job  is  dreaded  by  all,  but  everything  depends  upon  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  interior.     As  there  are  different  methods  of  constructing  the  floors, 


f-158) 


J  ooking  MR  the  Hawk; 


POULTRY.  459 


so  are  tnore  many  modes  of  cleaning  the  houses.  A  house  so  arranged  as  to 
permit  the  droppings  to  accumulate  under  the  roosts,  with  earth  as  an  absorbent, 
soon  becomes  filled  up  to  a  certain  depth  with  the  manure,  which  at  all  times  gives 
off  disagreeable  odors.  Constant  sprinkling  With 
disinfectants  may  prove  serviceable,  but  nothing 
that  may  cause  dampness  should  be  done  in  a 
poultry  house.  The  better  plan  is  to  have  a  hard 
floor,  either  of  boards  or  cement,  and  sprinkle 
dry  dirt  under  the  roosts,  which  not  only  serves 
as  a  disinfectant,  but  when  swept  away  with  a 
broom,  permits  of  the  easy  removal  of  the  drop- 
pings without  fouling  the  floor.  If  the  house  be 
thus  swept  out  daily,  while  the  fowls  are  partak- 
ing of  their  morning  meal,  the  time  consumed  in 
so  doing  will  be  but  a  minute  or  two,  and  the  fresh 
application  of  the  dirt  will  cause  the  interior  to  be  Tbe  Ameri<*n  Turkey, 

inviting  to  the  hens,  as  well  as  permitting  of  the  collection  of 'eggs  without  coming 
in  contact  with  filth.  The  method  is  also  an  excellent  preventative  of  lice,  as  the 
dirt  may  be  freely  dusted  against  the  walls,  in  the  nests,  and  on  the  roosts,  to 
which  the  hens  will  not  object. 

CARE    OF    TURKEYS. 

The  turkey  is  tender  when  young,  but  hardy  when  matured.  The  greatest 
difficulty  with  young  turkeys  is  when  they  are  feathering;  then  they  need  an  almost 
unlimited  supply  of  food  of  the  best  quality  and  variety.  They  feather  so  rapidly 
that  they  are  soon  able  to  fly,  but  this  progress  is  made  at  the  expense  of  a  great 
loss  of  vitality.  They  cannot  endure  confinement,  even  when  young,  and  the 
poultryman  must,  therefore,  not  only  give  them  their  liberty  as  soon  as  possible, 
but  must  not  subject  them  to  the  loss  of  a  single  meal.  The  turkey  hen  is  a  very 
persistent  sitter,  requiring  twenty-eight  days  for  incubation.  She  is  a  careful 
and  attentive  mother,  and  remains  with  her  young  until  they  voluntarily  for- 
sake her. 

For  the  first  twenty-four  hours  the  young  turkeys  should  be  kept  in  a  close 
box,  quiet  and  undisturbed,  in  oi-der  to  allow  them  to  rest  and  appropriate  the 
food  derived  from  the  yolks,  which,  they  absorb.  They  should  then  be  fed  on  finely 
chopped  eggs  every  two  or  three  hours,  for  the  second  day,  and  after  that  time  a 
mixture  of  soaked  wheat  bread  and  milk,  mixed  with  eggs  and  finely  chopped 
onions,  "will  be  excellent.  Do  not  feed  eggs  longer  than  three  or  four  days,  but 
vary  the  food  to  mashed  potatoes,  cooked  oatmeal,  chopped  onions,  chopped 
meat,  and  cracked  wheat  or  corn. 

Keep  the  hen  confined  in  a  roomy  coop  for  the  first  .week,  and  allow  her  to 
take  her  brood  out  for  exercise;  but  she  should  be  watched  carefully,  in  order  that 
the  young  ones  may  be  fed  as  often  as  convenient,  making  meat  and  ground  bone 
a  special  object  in  their  meals.  The  young  turkeys  cannot  endure  the  slightest 
dampness,  and  under  no  circumstances  should  they  be  allowed  out  of  their  coops 
until  the  ground  is  perfectly  dry. 

As  a  single  union  of  the  cock  and  hen  fertilizes  all  the  eggs  of  the  latter  for 


460  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


the  season,  the  former  will  be  serviceable  for  a  dozen  hens  if  judiciously  managed. 
Turkeys  cannot  be  kept  under  confinement  or  restraint,  and  require  plenty  of 
room  for  foraging.  They  will  go  over  the  highest  fences  and  stray  off  for  miles, 
and  can,  therefore,  be  raised  only  on  large  farms,  or  where  there  is  room  for  them. 
The  best  variety  is  the  large  Bronze,  which  sometimes  attains  the  weight  of  forty 
pounds  when  two  years  old,  though  such  weight  is  rather  an  exception.  A  cross 
•of  the  Wild  and  Bronze  gives  a  very  hardy  turkey,  and  if  the  eggs  are  hatched 
under  common  hens  with  a  few  chicks  as  companions,  the  little  turkeys  can  be 
encouraged  to  roost  with  the  other  fowls,  and  will  lose  much  of  their  inclination 
to  wander. 

Turkeys  are  always  profitable,  as  they  require  no  care  after  they  have  passed 
the  critical  period,  and  although  the  strictest  attention  is  necessary  with  them 
when  they  are  young,  when  matured  they  endure  greater  cold  and  exposure  than 
any  other  class  of  poultry;  yet  they  give  the  best  results  when  properly  cared  for. 
They  are  subject  to  both  roup  and  cholera,  but  as  they  are  in  the  fields  the  greater 
portion  of  their  time,  they  do  not  come  so  frequently  as  other  poultry  in  contact 
with  filth  and  other  causes  of  disease.  While  large  flocks  cannot  be  conveniently 
kept  by  every  one,  a  few  should  be  raised  on  all  farms. 

YOUNG   TURKEYS. 

The  mature  turkey  is  one  of  the  hardiest  birds  in  the  farm-yard,  but  it  is  a 
singular  fact  that  the  young  turkey  is  about  the  tenderest  and  hardest  to  raise. 
They  cannot  stand  cold  or  wet,  and  dampness  is  fatal  to  them.  It  is  important 
to  have  for  the  young  broods  a  roomy,  water-tight  coop,  and  this  should  be  set  on 
elevated,  well-drained  soil.  The  mother  should  be  kept  in  a  coop  and  the  young 
poults  in  an  attached  pen  until  able  to  fly  over  the  boards,  which  should  be  about 
a  foot  high.  By  this  time  they  are  strong  enough  to  endure  a  run  through  the 
fields  after  the  grass  has  dried  off.  Showers  are  often  very  destructive  to  the 
young,  when  caught  out  in  them  away  from  their  home.  At  such  times  they 
must  be  looked  after. 

Young  turkeys  require  rather  more  careful  feeding  than  chicks.  They  are 
rather  stupid  at  first,  and  a  young  chicken  of  the  same  age  will  teach  them  to  eat. 
Corn  meal  may  be  gradually  added  to  their  rations  after  they  are  two  weeks  old. 
If  they  are  confined,  and  cannot  get  to  tender  grass,  they  should  have  cooked 
vegetables  added  to  their  feed  of  meal  and  milk.  When  they  have  reached  the 
age  of  three  months  they  become  quite  hardy,  and  need  less  care  than  chickens, 
for  they  roam  over  the  fields  and  pick  up  the  greater  part  of  their  living.  A  tur- 
key hen  and  her  brood  will  devour  an  astonishing  number  of  grasshoppers  and 
other  insects,  and  will  require  comparatively  little  food  during  the  summer 
months.  This  is  especially  true  on  large  grass  and  grain  farms.  Here  their  for- 
aging is  beneficial.  On  truck  farms  and  in  densely  populated  districts  they  are 
an  intolerable  nuisance,  and  should  not  be  kept  except  in  very  limited  numbers. 
While  turkeys  will  find  their  own  living  in  the  fields  and  woods,  it  is  well  to  feed 
them  every  evening  regularly,  to  induce  them  to  come  home  to  roost. 

BREEDING   GEESE. 

When  the  eggs  are  hatched  it  is  best  to  confine  the  mother  some  days  in  a 
eoop  or  pen  placed  upon  the  dry  grass  during  the  day,  allowing  the  goslings  no 


Ain't  Tiity  Pretty! 


(461) 


462  PROFITABLE   FARMING. 


access  to  the  water  beyond  what  they  need  to  drink — which  can  be  placed  in  a 
shallow  pan — until  they  are  two  weeks  old,  after  which  the  mother  and  her  young 
may  have  their  liberty  upon  clean  grass.  The  goslings  should  get  meal  mixed 
with  water  at  first,  and  a  few  leaves  of  early  beets,  turnips  or  cabbage  cut  fine 
will  be  beneficial.  When  they  get  their  full  liberty  they  will  live  upon  grass;  but 
if  it  is  wanted  to  have  them  grow  rapidly  and  become  plump  and  fat,  they  should 
get  meal  mixed  with  buttermilk  or  skimmed  milk  once  a  day.  When  young, 
goslings  are  subject  to  die  of  cramps,  through  getting  wet  and  cold;  hence,  it  is 
necessary  to  insure  them  clean  and  warm  nests  at  nights,  and  not  allow  them  out 
of  mornings  till  the  dew  is  off;  nor  should  they  be  allowed  about  muddy  barn- 
yards. A  small  grass  paddock  for  exercise  ground  should  be  set  apart  for  them 
until  they  can  be  turned  into  the  stubbles  after  harvest,  Avhen  they  will  fatten 
very  rapidly. 

GUINEAS    ON    THE    FAEM. 

Guineas  are  profitable  for  the  reason  that  they  cost  almost  nothing  to  raise. 
The}^  prefer  to  seek  their  own  food  in  the  fields,  and  seldom  come  home  for  food 
as  long  as  they  can  find  a  supply  for  themselves.  As  a  rule  they  mate,  and  it  is 
best,  therefore,  to  have  the  sexes  equal.  The  hen  steals  to  her  nest  but  cannot 
refrain  from  making  a  noise  when  she  comes  off,  which  betrays  her  to  the  watch- 
ful farmer.  Guineas  are  valuable  on  farms  where  the  range  is  wide,  as  they 
destroy  a  very  large  number  of  insects  and  do  not  scratch  up  seeds.  In  fact  a 
Hock  of  twenty  guineas  will  consume  a  number  of  insects  so  large  as  to  almost 
appear  incredible,  as  they  are  active  and  always  searching.  They  also  consume 
grass  and  young  weeds  as  well  as  the  seeds  of  undesirable  plants  and  grasses. 
The  hens  lay  about  125  eggs  a  year,  especially  if  they  are  taken  from  her  before 
she  begins  to  set.  The  flesh  of  the  guinea  is  rather  dark,  but  juicy  and  of  a 
"  gamey  "  flavor.  They  may  be  raised  to  remain  near  the  house  by  placing  the 
eggs  under  hens,  and  add  a  few  chickens  to  the  brood  when  the  young  guineas  are 
hatched.  They  will  learn  from  the  chicks  and  soon  become  tame  and  accustomed 
to  the  same  habits  as  the  chicks,  growing  up  with  them.  The  eggs  require  four 
weeks  for  incubation,  and  are  usually  hatched  under  hens  in  the  poultry  house. 

DUCKS. 

Ducks,  after  commencing  to  lay,  drop  one  egg  very  regularly  once  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  in  the  silent  night.  They  make  nests,  but  are  not  particular  about 
depositing  all  their  eggs  where  they  may  be  hatched,  seeming  to  regard  them  as 
not  of  much  consequence,  laying  some  of  them  in  the  water,  here  and  there. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  pen  ducks  regularly  every  night  during  the  time  of  lay- 
ing.    They  should  be  fed  plentifully,  and  during  the  day  have  free  access  to  water. 

DUCK-TENS    AND    YARD. 

While  ducks  do  not  require  so  much  house  or  yard  room  as  other  poultry, 
they  should  still  have  convenient  and  comfortable  quarters.  A  cheap  and  substan- 
tial arrangement  can  be  made  as  follows :  The  yard  should  be  thirty-two  feet  deep 
and  twenty  to  twenty-four  feet  wide,  enclosed  with  an  ordinary  paling  fence  five 


s 

M 

o 

o 

a 


a 


o 

3 

a 
w 

a 
3 


464 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


feet  high,  or  with  that  width  of  extra  two-inch  mesh-wire  netting.  It  is,  of  course, 
necessary  to  have  a  gate  or  entrance  to  the  yard-pens.  The  pen  is  built  entirely 
across  the  yard,  twelve  inches  high  in  front  and  twenty  inches  at  the  rear,  to  shed 
off  the  Tain.  The  roof  is  made  of  two  doors,  swung  on  strong  strap  hinges  and 
well  cleated  underneath  to  prevent  warping.  As  clucks  have  a  propensity  to  drop 
their  eggs  wherever  and  whenever  fancy  seizes  them,  they  must  he  penned  in  at 
night  and  kept  in  the  enclosure  until  10  o'clock  every  morning,  by  which  time 
they  will  have  laid  their  eggs,  and  can  be  given  their  liberty. 

PUCKS    ARE    AS    PROFITABLE    AS    CHICKENS. 


James  Rankin  says:  I  request  the  privilege  of  stating  to  numerous  inquirers 
by  way  of  more  detailed  information  that  I  hatched  out  last  season  some  3,000 
ducklings.     They  were  put  on  the  market  at  a  cost  of  less  than  25  cents  per  head. 

when  prices  ruled  lowest,  to 
$1.50  when  prices  were  high- 
est. The  ducks  were  all  hatch- 
ed and  raised  artificially,  and 
after  the  first  day  or  two  not 
a  cluck  was  lost  of  the  entire 
lot  during  the  season  except 
from  accident.  I  have  found 
the  growing  of  ducks  for  mar- 
ket fully  as  profitable  as  young 
chicks,  for  as  many  pounds 
can  be  put  on  a  cluck  at  nine 
Aveeks  as  on  a  chicken  at  nine- 
teen weeks.  Ducks  can  be 
grown  at  a  cost  of  5  cents  a 
pound.  A  building  seventy- 
five  feet  long  and  twelve  feet 
wide,  with  a  quarter  of  an 
acre  of  ground,  is  ample  room 
for  1 ,500  ducks.  AVe  feed  the 
same  as  for  chicks,  except  a 
little  more  animal  food.  We 
do  not  feed  cracked  corn  or 
hard  food  of  any  kind  until 
after  they  are  five  weeks  old. 


The  ducklings  should  be  con- 


'  I  Love  Ornndma  !" 


fined   in   a   small 
only  room  enough 


run    with 
for  exer- 


cise, and  given  only  enough  water  to  drink.  They  will  readily  fatten  if  treated 
in  this  way.  We  like  the  Pekins  the  best,  as  they  are  the  best  layers  and  mature 
the  earliest.  They  will  always  lay  their  eggs  in  nests  when  given  the  opportunity. 
Their  feathers  are  also  the  most  valuable  by  far  of  any,  as  they  readily  command 
50  cents  per  pound  at  wholesale.  My  chicken  and  duck  buildings  are  seventy- 
five  or  eighty  feet  long  and  ten  feet  wide,  and  I  use  no  artificial  heat  whatever. 


POULTRY 


465 


I  use  just  glass  enough  to  heat  the  buildings  when  the  sun  shines,  thus  avoiding 
extremes.  My  yards  occupy  about  two  acres  of  land.  The  yards  are  sub-divided 
by  wire  netting  into  small  compartments  of  about  10x80.  Into  one  of  these  yards 
I  put  about  100  ducklings.  The  ducks  are  ready  for  market  when  eight  or  nine 
weeks  old.     They  should  then  weigh  from  nine  to  eleven  pounds  per  pair. 

PEKIN   DUCKS. 

The  Pekin  duck  now  has  the  run  in  the  aquatic  family.  To  the  eye  the  Pekin 
is  beautiful  and  to  the  person  with  a  "  tooth  for  duck,"  the  flavor  of  the  meat  is 
"rich,  rare  and  racy."  In  color  the  Pekin  is  white  or  creamy  white.  The  beak 
must  be  absolutely  free  from  all  marks,  the  true  color  being  deep  yellow.  The 
shanks  are  heavy  and  short  and  of  a  tinted  red  orange  hue.  The  drake  is  readily 
distinguished  from  the  duck  by  his  tail  feathers  which  curl  slightly  up  and  are 
stiff  and  hard.  The  time  was  when  people  thought  they  must  have  a  pond  of 
water  or  a  stream  on  their  place  before  they  could  raise  ducks.  Of  late  about  as 
many  ducks  are  raised  on  land  as  in  water,  the  provision  being  a  horse  trough 
which  seems  to  answer  all  purposes  at  the  same  time  satisfies  his  duckship.  The 
Pekin  duck  lays  an  average  of  150  eggs  per  year,  hatch  and  rear  their  own  young, 
and  need  but  little  special  care  if  on  grass  runs.  It  is  best  to  shut  them  up  of 
nights  as  they  lay  in  any  place  they  chance  to  be,  night  or  day,  not  caring  for  a 
nest.  For  this  reason  many  breeders  do  not  turn  them  out  of  a  morning  until 
after  all  have  deposited  their  eggs.  The  market  is  never  overstocked  with  good 
Pekin  ducks. 

GRAIN    FOR    POULTRY. 

There  is  no  other  grain  that  is  relished  so  well  by  fowls  as  Indian  corn.  It 
must  always  continue  to  be  as  now  the  American  poulterer's  main  reliance,  for, 
although  too  fattening  to  use  in  certain  cases,  it  possesses  more  nutriment  for  the 
price  than  any  other  grain,  and  is  always  to  be  obtained.  Corn  can  be  given 
ground  and  unground,  raw  and  cooked.  Oats  we  prefer  ground  fine,  as  otherwise 
the  hulls  are  too  harsh  and  bulky.  With  wheat,  bran  and  middlings,  wheat  in  the 
kernel,  barley  and  buckwheat,  there  need  be  no  difficulty  in  avoiding  monotony. 
Rye,  though  the  poorest  grain  of  all,  may  bo  given  occasionallv,  and  brewers' 
grains,  if  convenient. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


^Practical  Suggestions. 


BY    J.    W.    FITZ. 


OADS  leading  from  one  part  of  the  farm  to  another  are  a 
great  convenience,  and  the  benefits  derived  from  them  amply 
repay  for  the  labor  and  expense  of  their  construction.  Those 
farmers  who  do  not  have  them  are  apt  to  drive  all  over  their 
lands  wherever  they  have  occasion  to  go,  the  result  of  which 
is  that  the  mowing  and  grain-fields  are  thus  badly  cut  up  by 
§^\wheel  tracks  and  the  treading  of  the  team.  Where  heavy 
Unloads  are  to  be  drawn,  it  is  much  easier  for  the  farmer  to 
have  a  firm,  substantial  road  on  which  to  draw  them,  and 
much  more  labor  can  be  accomplished  in  a  given  time  by 
this  means;  besides,  when  the  soil  is  softened  by  the  rains,  it 
is  difficult  to  draw  heavy  loads,  and  hence,  aside  from  the 

injury  done  the  lands,  much  more  labor  and  time  will  be  required  in  transferring 

produce  and  other  material  from  one  point  to   another  without  good  roads.     A 

team  will  draw  a  much  heavier  load  on  a  good,  hard  road  than  on  turf  hind  or 

simply  a  cart  path,    which    soon   becomes 

worn  into  ruts  by  the  wheels.     These  ruts 

not  only  render  the  drawing  more  difficult, 

but  furnish  a  place  for  standing  water  after 

every   rain,  which   is    soon  converted  into 

mud.     Such  paths  are  especially  troublesome 

in  the  spring  when  the  ground  is  wet  and  ^j 

soft. 

Although    constructing    roads   upon    a  „ 

farm  will  require  some  labor  and  expense, 

the  benefits  derived   will  soon  more  than 

compensate  for  it  all,  and  when  once  prop- 
erly made,  a  very  little  labor  will  be  required 

to  keep  them  in  repair  from  year  to  year. 

The  manner  in  which  the  roads  on   a  farm  should  lie  laid  out  will  depend 

upon  the  size  of  the  farm,  its  locality,  and  the  relative  locality  of  different  fields; 

and   that  of  the  farm-buildings,   especially  the  barn.     As  a  general  rule  there 

should  he  one  good  road,  which,  with   its  branches,  shall  lead  from  each  field  to 

the  barn. 

Farm  roads  should  be  constructed  in  a  manner  similar  to   those  of  public 

use;  the  harder  and  firmer  the  road-bed   is  made  the  better.     Where  the  land  is 

(406) 


Primitive  Leveller  fur  Roads. 


PRACTICAL  SlHiGK.STlONS. 


467 


Carrying  Scraper. 


naturally  dry  their  construction  is  very  easy,  but  where  the  land  is  wet  consid- 
erable labor  is  required,  since  drainage  will  be  essential.  The  ground  for  the  road 
should  be  plowed,  and  the  bed  so  graded  that  it  will  be  elevated  a  little  above  the 
level  of  the  surrounding  land,  and  the  middle  of  it  slightly  higher  than  the  sides 
in  order  to  admit  of  the  water  running  off  easily. 

After  properly  grading  it  will  be  greatly  improved  by  the  use  of  a  roller. 
Where  land  is  nearly  level  a  furrow  should  be  plowed  on  either  side  for  drainage, 

and  to  prevent  the  road  from  being  washed 
by  heavy  rains.  Coarse  gravel  makes  an 
excellent  bed  for  a  road,  and  when  it  is  con- 
venient of  access  will  on  most  soils  well  re- 
pay for  the  labor  and  expense  of  procuring 
it  for  this  purpose.  On  lands  that  are  natu- 
rally wet  and  retentive  of  water,  the  con- 
struction of  roads  is  more  difficult. 

The  soil  should  first  be  thoroughly 
underdrained,  after  which  the  earth  should 
be  thrown  out  of  the  road-bed  to  about  the 
depth  of  two  feet,  and  the  trench  thus 
made  filled  with  small  stones  or  coarse 
gravel,  over  which  the  earth  is  placed. 
Care  should  be  used  to  grade  it  in  such  a  manner  that  the  centre  of  the  road 
should  be  somewhat  more  elevated  than  the  sides.  Ample  provision  should  be 
made  for  drainage  at  the  sides.  For  this  purpose  a  trench  filled  with  stones, 
tiles,  or  a  deep  open  furrow  may  be  used.  Where  the  soil  is  of  such  a  nature 
that  it  is  easily  washed,  the  furrow  will  need  to  be  opened  frequently  to  prevent 
its  filling  up  with  sediment,  where  only  the  latter  is  employed  for  drainage. 

The  Champion  Road-Grader  is  an  implement  much  used  in  many  of  the 
Western  States  in  road-making,  and  it  is  said  to  prove  a  very  efficient  and  valua- 
ble machine  for  this  purpose.  It  is  made 
by  the  Eureka  Manufacturing  Company, 
Rock  Falls,  Illinois ;  when  properly  ad- 
justed it  will  grade  the  road-bed  as  desired, 
and  roll  it  down,  rendering  it  compact 
and  hard. 

Farm  roads  need  not  be  expensive  in 
construction,  since  they  are  not  in  con- 
stant use  like  public  roads,  but  they 
should  be  made  sufficiently  substantial  for 
all  practical  purposes.  Where  the  ditches 
at  the  side  for  drainage  are  shallow  enough 
to  admit  of  teams  passing — which  will 
not  frequently  occur  inside  a  farm — the 
road  need  not  be  made  over  ten  or  twelve  feet  wide.  Roads  should  always 
be  kept  in  good  repair.  It  is  much  cheaper  to  provide  good  roads  than  poor  ones, 
whether  for  public  or  private  use.  A  small  amount  of  labor,  properly  employed, 
will  serve  to  keep  the  road-bed  smooth,  and  in  condition  to  admit  of  the  water 
passing  off  readily,  thus  enabling  it  to  become  more  and  more  compact  by  use, 


Sulky  Scraper,  A.  D.  1831. 


46* 


PROFITABLE   FARMING. 


while  on  the  other  hand,  if  neglected,  a  .small  defect  goon  becomes  a  serious  one; 
the  surface  gets  worn  and  torn  up,  and  places  are  formed  for  the  water  to  accu- 
mulate. The  soil  becomes  soaked  and  softened,  and  gullies  are  formed  which 
grow  deeper  by  use,  soon  rendering  it  either  very  inconvenient  or  unsafe  for 
passage. 

Many  serious  accidents  might  be  avoided,  and  expense  and  time  saved  by 
keeping  roads  in  a  better  condition  than  they  commonly  are.      Horses  often 

receive  injuries  which  render  them  lame  for 
life  through  such  negligence,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  danger  of  the  life  and  limb  of  the 
driver,  while  the  wear  and  breakage  of  carts 
is  no  small  item  in  this  direction.  Roads 
when  not  properly  cared  for  will  also  be- 
come so  worn  by  constant  use,  that  the  mid- 
dle of  the  bed  will  be  concave  instead  of 
convex,  where  the  water  readily  collects 
and  often  makes  a  channel  lengthwise  until 
it  finds  an  outlet  cutting  gullies  in  its 
course.  A  single  rain-storm  will  frequently 
cause  great  damage  to  a  road  when  in  this 
condition,  while  if  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  amount  necessary  to  expend  in 
properly  repairing  it  had  been  devoted  to  keeping  it  in  good  condition  at  first, 
time  and  money  would  have  been  saved.  Good  roads  on  a  farm  as  well  as  in  the 
locality  of  it,  are  not  only  a  very  great  convenience,  but  increase  the  value  of  the 
land.  Such  lands  will  always  find  a  more  ready  and  remunerative  sale,  other 
conditions  being  equal,  than  those  that  are  not  thus  provided  with  proper  means 
of  transit  from  one  point  to  another. 


Wheel  Scraper,  A.  D.  1839. 


FARM    FENCES. 


To  what  extent  farm  fences  are  a  necessity,  is  a  question  that  is  at  present 
attracting  considerable  attention  from  agriculturists.  That  an  immense  amount 
of  needless  expenditure  in  time  and  money 
are  employed  in  making  and  keeping  in 
repair  fences  that  are  not  only  of  no  prac- 
tical benefit  to  the  farm,  but  which,  if  dis- 
pensed with,  would  greatly  improve  in 
appearance  the  lands  which  they  enclose, 
cannot  be  denied.  In  no  country  on  the 
whole  globe  is  there  such  an  enormous 
fence-tax  as  in  the  United  States.  In  fact, 
it,  might  be  stated  in  a  general  sense,  that 
the  custom  of  entirely  encircling  farms  and 
separating  one  owner's  lands  from  an- 
other by  fences,   is   an  innovation,   and  one   that  is   peculiar    to  this  country. 

In  Germany,  England,  Italy,  and  many  other  countries  of  the  Old  World, 
long  under  cultivation,  and  containing  a  dense  population,  fences  for  the  purpose 
of  marking  the   terminus  of  hind,  or   as  lines  of  demarkation.  are   rarely  seen. 


Dry  Scraper,  A.  D.  1850. 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


469 


In  this  country,  especially  in  many  portions  of  New  England,  farms  in  many 
instances  are  divided  and  sub-divided  bylines  of  fences  that  enclose  small  areas, 
and  which  must  have  cost,  in  the  aggregate,  nearly  as  much  if  not  more  to  con- 
struct, than  the  entire  farms,  in  some  cases,  will  now  sell  for.  Frequently  these 
lines  of  division  have  little  or  no  regularity,  and  seem  to  be  entirely  without  any 
established  plan  or  system.  , 

Under  the  usages  and  customs  of  a  former  generation,  who,  in  settling  their 
country   first  cleared  a  field  and  then  fenced  and  cultivated  it,  permitting  the 

farm-stock  to  run  in  the  uncleared  portions, 
this  system  of  fencing  was  inaugurated.  But 
the  necessities  of  that 
remote  period  are  not 
the  necessities  of  to- 
day, and  the  customs 
and  usages  of  that  gen- 
eration are  not  essen- 
tial to  the  present. 

While  fences  on  a  Farm  n'nces  Fis L 

farm  seem,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  be  a  neces- 
Beif-Loadmg  car,,  a.  d.  1800.  ^  yet)  according  to  the  former  custom,  of 

they  are  far  more  extensive  than  essential,  except,  perhaps,  in  prairie 
regions:  and  that  which  is  spentin  making  and  keeping  them  in  repair  might 
much  more  profitably  be  appropriated  to  other  purposes. 

Surplus  fences   are  not  only  expensive   and  unprofitable,  but  they  are  an 
incumbrance  to  the  land.     Many  of  them  are  so  constructed  that  they  take  up 


fei 


lcim 


valuable  land  that  might 
as  stone-walls  common 
England,  the  zigzag  or 
sides  the  general  appear- 
divided  by  numerous 
more  in  conformity  with 
Fences  furnish  a 
and  ripen  their  seed, 
the  wind  over  the  land ; 


Wvt*1*vy. 


be  under  cultivation,  such 
in  many  portions  of  New 
Virginia  fence,  etc.  Be 
ance  of  a  farm  that  is  not 
lines  of  fences  is  much 
good  taste. 

place  for  weeds  to  grow 
which  are  scattered  by 
they  are  also  a  safe  bar- 


Fig.  2. 

bor  for  mice,  rats,  and  other  pests.  To  what  extent  farm  fences  are  essential  will 
depend  somewhat  upon  different  conditions  and  circumstances.  The  crops  must 
of  course  be  protected.  This  protection  may  be  furnished  by  fencing  tlie  farm 
animals  in,  appropriating  a  certain  portion  of  the  farm  for  this  purpose,  or  by 

enclosing  the  cultiva- 
ted fields  by  fences 
and  thus  fencing  them 
out.  Where  the  law 
requires  eveiy  owner 
of  farm-stock  to  keep  f-«\ 
^^^m^^^^^m^  his  animals   on  his  &J 

Flg-S-  own  land  or  to  be  re-  '  ^e-4 

sponsible  for  all  damage  done  by  them,  highway  fences  should  not  be  necessary, 
since  the  owners,  being  made  liable  to  such  damage,  will  be  careful  to  keep  them 


470 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


confined  to  their  own  premises.  The  fences  required,  in  ^ueh  sections,  therefore, 
are  those  which  will  keep  each  owner's  animals  confined  on  his  own  premises, 
and  not  such  as  shall  fence  out  those  of  his  neighbors :  consequently  pasture 
fences  and  fences  about  some  of  the  farm  buildings  will  be  all  the  permanent 

ones  that  are  essential.  Where  soiling  is 
commonly  practiced,  even  pasture  fences 
could  be  dispensed  with. 

In  those  sections  where  the  statute  law 


requires  a  highway  and  division  fence  a 
boundary  fence  will  be  essential,  but  the  law 
g^»  and  custom  may  be  changed,  and  if  farmers 
'use  their  influence  in  securing  the  enact- 
ment and  enforcement  of  stringent  laws  in 
respect  to  restraining  stock,  this  may  be  ac- 
complished and  highway  fences  be  rendered 
unnecessary. 

Self-Loading  Cart,  A.  D.  1867.  Fann     an}malg    tnat    are    nf)t     un(Jer     the 

direct  charge  of  a  keeper  who  is  responsible  for  the  injury  they  may  do  should 
never  be  tolerated  in  the  highway.  Such  toleration  would 
be  detrimental  to  the  best  agricultural  interests  of  the  coun- 
try. If  certain  portions  of  the  farm,  aside  from  the  com- 
mon pastures,  are  desired  to  be  used  as  pasturage  at  any 
time,  such  as  mowing  lands  for  a  season  in  the  fall,  movable 
fences  may  be  used  similar  to  the  hurdle  fences  so  exten- 
sively employed  in  England.  As  a  general  rule  the  perma- 
nent fences  necessary,  except  where  boundary  and  division 
fences  are  required,  will  be  those  of  the  pasture  and  around 
farm    buildings,    such  as  barns  and  sheds.      A    temporary 

fence   can  occasionally  be  used    when 
necessary,  which  will    secure  the  con- 
■venience  of  a  permanent    one  without 
jits  disadvantages,  and  for  this  purpose  a  movable  fence,  as 
previously  recommended,  is  the  most  desirable. 

In  England  and  other  portions  of  Europe,  when  cattle 
and  sheep  are  pastured  where  there  are  no  fences,  a  shep- 
herd is  employed  to  take  charge  of  them,  who,  with  the 
assistance  of  a  well-trained  dog,  will  keep  large  flocks  and 
herds  tinder  perfect  control,  and  as  strictly  confined  to  pre- 
scribed limits  as  though  there  were  fences  for  this  purpose. 
This  practice  of  employing  shepherds  is  based  upon  the 
principle  that  it  is  less  expensive  to  take  care  of  the  herds 
than  to  keep  up  the  fences. 

Removing  Fence*. — We  would  recommend  to  all  farmers 
the  maintaining  only  of  such  fences  on  the  farm  as  are  absolutely  necessary  for 
the  safety  of  the  crops  and  the  confinement  of  the  stock,  and  the  removal  of  all  such 
as  are  not  essential.  Unnecessary  fences  on  a  farm  are  an  expensive  nuisance. 
Rail  Fence. — The  kind  of  fences  used  on  a  farm  will  vary  according  to  cir- 
cumstances.     As  the  most  available  material  for  fencing  purposes  becomes  more 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  fi. 


TIACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


471 


scarce  and  expensive,  the  question  as  to  the  most  economical  and  durable  fence 
to  construct  becomes  a  more  important  one  to  determine.  The  first  settlers  of 
the  country  finding  timber  and  stone  abundant,  made  use  of  these  principally  in 
the  construction  of  fences.  Hence  the  rail  fence 
and  stone  wall  became  the  most  common  at  that 
time.  In  newly-settled  portions,  where  timber 
is  plenty,  the  common  rail  fence,  or  what  is  called 


tfe^SS^a 


the  zigzag  or  Virginia  fence,  is  quite  extensively 


Fig.  12 


Fig.  13. 


employed,  owing  to  the  material  being  cheap — often  an  incumbrance  in  clearing 
up  new  lands — and  the  rails  being  easily  split. 

Post  and  Rail  Fences. — Considerable  less  timber  will  be  required  for  this  than 
the  common  rail,  or  Virginia  fence,  and  it  also  occupies  about  one-third  the  land 
required  for  the  latter,  besides  being  more  substantial.  It  is,  however,  a  more 
expensive  fence  to  make,  since  considerable  labor  and  time  is  involved  in  digging 

the  holes  for  the  posts,  and  in  making  holes  in  the  posts  for 
the  rails,  and  fitting  the  latter  to  them.  The  posts  are  liable 
to  be  thrown  out  by  the  frost,  and  also  decay,  requiring  to  be 
EEE  constantly  reset.  Some  kinds  of  timber  will,  however,  last 
much  longer  than  others,  and  if  the  most  durable  kinds  be 
used,  a  fence  of  this  style,  when  once  properly  built,  will  last 
several  years  with  but  few  repairs.  The  posts  should  be 
pointed  at  the  end,  and  set  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  ^ 
in  the  ground.  The  hole  should  be  made  quite  large,  and  the 
post  placed  in  the  centre  and  surrounded  by  very  small 
stones,  which  should  be  pounded  firmly  around  the  post,  as 
the  hole  is  filled  up.  This  will  prevent  heaving,  and  the  post 
will  also  last  much  longer  than  if  surrounded  by  earth. 

Preserving  Fence  Posts. — Various  methods  have  been  employed  for  the  preser- 
vation of  fence  posts,  some  of  which  have  proved  very  efficient  in  retarding  the 
process  of  decay.  There  is  a  great  difference,  however,  not  only  in  the  durability 
of  different  kinds  of  timber,  but  in  the  manner  upon  which  different  soils  act 

upon  wood,  it  generally  decaying  very  slowly  in  a  compact 
clay,  but  rapidly  in  silicious  sands  and  gravelly  soils.  Plac- 
ing the  post  in  the  ground  in  a  position  which  is  the  reverse 
of  that  of  its  natural  growth,  or  the  upper  end  downward' 
will  render  it  more  durable.  Charring  the  part  that  is 
buried,  or  covering  it  with  coal-tar,  as  well  as  imbedding 
it  in  ashes  and  clay,  is  thought  to  add  to  its  durability. 

Soaking  the  posts  in  a  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  in  the  proportion  of  one 
pound  of  vitriol  to  forty  pounds  of  water,  is  highly  recom- 
mended by  some  as  a  means  of  preserving  all  kinds  of  timber 
that  is  exposed  to  weather  and  moisture.     If  the  timber  is  dry 
it  should  be  soaked  ten  days,  if  green  six  will  be  sufficient. 

But  one  of  the  best  preservatives  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted is  to  completely  saturate  that  part  of  the  post  to  be 
placed  in  the  ground,  with  kerosene  or  common  coal-oil,  and  afterwards  cover- 
ing it  with  tar. 

A  farmer  in  Mississippi  gives  the  following  statement  with  respect  to  this 


iFig.  11. 


Ill 

III 

ill 

lljj 

ill 

11 

1 

I 

y^- 

Fig.  1 


472 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Revolving  Scraper,  A.  D.  ls"s. 


method  of  treatment:  "Ten  years  ago  I  built  a  grapery  at  the  end  of  the  house, 
as  a  screen  against  the  western  sun,  using  sawed  pine  posts.  Anticipating  the 
difficulty  of  ever  replacing  these  posts  after  they  became  covered  with  vines,  I 
took  the  extra  precaution  of  completely  saturating  the  lover  ends  with  kerosene 
(common  coal-oil)  before  applying  the  tar.  These  posts  are  now  perfectly  firm 
and  almost  as  sound  as  they  were  when  put  in.  All  other  pine  posts  set  at  that 
date  have   entirely   rotted    and    perished.      The    result  cf  this    experiment   so 

thoroughly  impressed  me  with  the  value  of 
coal-oil  as  a  preservative  of  timber  under 
ground,  that  I  now  use  it  on  all  posts  in  build- 
ing, afterwards  covering  with  hot  coal  tar. 

"I  add  this,  however,  which  I  think  will 
doubtless  prove  of  great  value :  I  bore  a  f  to 
|  inch  hole  in  the  post  near  the  ground,  slant- 
ing downward  and  reaching  below  the  centre; 
this  is  to  be  filled  with  kerosene  from  time  to 
time — perhaps  once  in  three  or  four  years 
will  answer.  I  feel  sure  that  insects  very 
greatly  hasten  the  decay  of  timber,  to  say 
the  least;  and  kerosene  being  repellant  to 
them,  makes  it  a  valuable  application  at  any  point  where  they  are  likely  to  do 
mischief." 

Post  and  Board  Fence. — This  fence  presents  a  much  better  appearance  than 
that  made  of  posts  and  rails,  and  in  sections  where  timber  can  be  easily  converted 
into  boards,  it  is  cheaper  than  the  latter.  The  posts  should  be  placed  from  seven 
to  nine  feet  apart.  The  boards,  if  about  six  inches  wide,  should  be  placed  about 
the  same  distance  apart  and  firmly  nailed  to  the  posts.  If  substantially  made, 
such  a  fence  always  looks  well,  and  will  last  a  long  time  with  few  repairs.  Before 
setting  the  posts  the  ends  to  be  placed  in  the  earth  should  be  saturated  with  ker- 
osene oil  and  covered  with  coal  tar  to  increase  their  durability.  Precaution  should 
be  taken,  also,  in  setting,  against  their  being  thrown  out  by  the  frost,  according 
to  directions  given  in  connection  with  the  post  and  rail  fence. 

Hedges. — In  many  portions  of  Europe,  especially  in  Great  Britain,  hedges 
have  been  long  used  to  a  considerable  extent,  hedge-rows  having  formerly  been 
a  characteristic  feature  of  rural  life  in  England;  but  they  are  now  beginning  to 
be  regarded  there  as  objectionable,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  country  are  being 
exterminated  from  the  soil.  In  this  country  hedges  have  been  used  to  a  limited 
extent,  but  more  especially  in  sections  where  timber  is  scarce.  For  the  lack  of 
anything  better  for  fencing,  it  may  sometimes  be  well  to  make  use  of  them  for 
boundary  fences,  although  there  are  many  objections  to  introducing  them  gen- 
erally. They  require  in  some  sections  considerable  care  to  secure  a  strong  and 
uniform  growth,  and  to  keep  them  well  pruned  and  trimmed,  and  also  occupy  a 
great  deal  of  land,  and  harbor  noxious  weeds,  furnishing  lurking  places  for  ene- 
mies of  the  field  crop',  orchard,  and  garden.  In  some  climates  their  growth  is  so 
rapid  that  they  require  constant  care  in  pruning,  while  their  over-growth  is  a 
serious  evil,  and  when  once  in  possession  of  the  soil  they  are  difficult  to  eradicate. 
Another  objection  to  hedges  is,  that  when  the  land  is  cultivated  the  roots  not 
only  interferes  with  the  tillage,  but  they  rob  the  cultivated  crop  of  plant  food. 


474  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


There  are,  however,  many  places  where  it  might  be  introduced  without  interfering 
with  cultivation,  such  as  around  pastures,  orchards,  etc. 

For  making  hedges  some  quick-growing,  hardy  shrub,  armed  with  thorns  or 
spurs,  is  generally  used,  although  other  shrubs  and  even  trees  are  employed  to  a 
certain  extent.  The  arbor-vitae,  cedar,  hemlock,  buckthorn,  pine,  yellow-willow, 
osage-orange,  honey -locust,  cotton- wood,  barberry,  and  privet  have  all  been 
employed  to  a  certain  extent.  In  England  the  haw-thorn  has  been  used  for  this 
purpose  for  centuries.  At  the  South  the  Cherokee  rose  is  quite  extensively 
employed  as  an  ornamental  hedge.  The  osage-orange  and  honey-locust  are  per- 
haps used  more  than  any  other — the  former  in  the  Middle,  Southern,  and  South- 
western States;  it  being  liable  to  winter-kill  in  the  extreme  Northern  section. 
The  latter  will  thrive  in  all  parts.  The  willow  is  well  adapted  to  wet  localities, 
but  its  rapid  growth  necessitates  frequent  trimming,  which  is  a  great  objection. 
Evergreen  hedges  are  liable  to  drouth  or  extreme  heat  and  cold,  but  are  very 
attractive  in  appearance  when  carefully  cared  for  and  trimmed.  The  arbor-vitae 
(Thuja  Occidentalis)  makes  one  of  the  most  beautiful  hedges  that  can  be  found 
at  the  North.  It  is  hardy,  and  flourishes  in  any  soil  that  is  not  too  dry,  branches 
out  thickly  from  the  ground,  and  is  of  comparatively  slow  growth.  It  is  much 
used  as  an  ornamental  hedge.  The  principal  objection  to  the  osage-orange  is  its 
vigorous,  rapid  growth,  and  the  exhaustion  it  occasions  to  the  soil  within  reach 
of  its  long  roots. 

Portable  Fences. — Portable  fences  of  various  kinds  are  a  great  convenience  on 
the  farm,  since  they  furnish  all  the  advantages  of  a  permanent  fence,  without  the 
disadvantages.  They  can  also  be  made  during  the  winter  when  other  farm  work 
is  not  pressing.  In  Canada,  where  timber  is  abundant  and  cheap,  a  portable 
fence  much  in  use  is  constructed  with  supports  something  in  the  form  of  the 
letter  A,  tha  pieces  joined  at  the  top  forming  an  acute  angle,  with  the  bar  near 
the  bottom,  and  three  boards  nailed  at  equal  distances  on  one  side  of  these  supports. 
This  fence  requires  considerable  material,  but  it  is  cheap  and  durable,  is  easily 
constructed  and  when  once  made  requires  no  extra  labor  in  putting  up.  Another 
very  convenient  portable  fence  may  be  made  as  follows:  The  supports  are  made 
of  inch-boards,  crossing  near  the  top,  but  allowing  the  ends  to  project  a  sufficient 
length  to  furnish  a  support  for  the  upper  board  of  the  panels  forming  the  fence, 
the  support  being  cut  out  at  the  upper  angle  thus  formed,  to  admit  of  the  top 
board  of  the  panels  fitting  it  well.  A  board  is  nailed  across  the  two  lower  boards 
of  the  panel,  the  lower  side  of  which  is  cut  out  to  fit  them  in  such  a  way  that 
they  cannot  easily  be  pushed  out  of  place.  The  panels,  or  main  part  of  the  fence, 
may  be  made  of  inch-boards  about  sixteen  feet  in  length,  and  of  any  width 
desired,  and  placed  nearer  together  towards  the  bottom  than  at  the  top,  if  designed 
to  confine  small  animals,  such  as  young  pigs  or  lambs.  These  panels  may  be 
made  by  placing  the  sixteen  feet  boards  at  the  desired  distance  apart  (about  four 
of  them  being  required  for  a  panel,  if  the  boards  are  about  six  inches  in  width), 
and  nailing  a  board  across  the  middle  and  near  either  end,  to  hold  them  in  place, 
leaving  the  ends  of  the  boards  to  project  from  six  to  eight  inches.  This  forms 
one  complete  panel.  When  properly  constructed  and  set  up,  the  bottom  of  the 
top  board  of  each  panel  rests  on  the  top  of  the  support,  and  the  bottom  board  of 
the  panel  goes  under  the  cross-piece  of  the  support.     By  digging  a  little  for  the 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


475 


Wire  Fences  with  Tree  Posts. 


posts  of  the  supports,  it  forms  a  very  secure  fence.  This  fence  can  be  opened  at 
any  place,  simply  by  raising  up  one  of  the  ends  of  two  panels. 

By  the  exercise  of  a  little  ingenuity,  various  kinds  of  portable  fences  may  be 
constructed  at  slight  expense  that  will  prove  of  great  utility  on  the  farm,  and  a 
desirable  substitute  for  many  of  the  permanent  fences  that  are  now  in  use.  They 
are  especially  useful  where  it  is  desired  to  feed  different  portions  of  a  field-crop, 
such  as  clover,  turnips,  peas,  etc.,  in  successive  order  by  stock. 

Wire  Fence. — The  post  and  wire  fence  is  quite  extensively  used  at  present,  and 
seems  likely  to  become  in  time  the  common  fence  of  the  country,  especially  in 
those  sections  where  timber  is  scarce.     At  first  the  plain  single  wire  was  employed 

for  fencing  purpo- 
ses, but  failed  to- 
give  entire  satis- 
faction, being  de- 
fective in  some  im- 
portant respects. 
The  single  wire 
contracted  in  cold 
and  expanded  in 
heat   causing  the 

fence  to  get  out  of  repair  easily,  while  it  did  not  repel  unruly  animals. 
Improvements  were  effected  which  have  resulted  in  the  use  of  barbed  wire, 
the  object  being  to  secure  durability,  strength,  and  a  protection  against  all 
intrusion  from  animals  or  trespassers  of  any  kind.  That  most  commonly  em- 
ployed is  made  of  two  twisted  steel  wires,  one  of  them  having  inserted  at  short 
intervals  of  space  a  firmly  twisted  barb. 

By  being  twisted  a  greater  strength  is  secured,  and  the  wire  is  better  able  to 
resist  the  effects  of  changes  of  temperature.  The  barbs  in  such  fences  should, 
as  near  as  possible,  be  just  long  enough  to  repel  infringing  animals  without  being 
capable  of  inflicting  a  serious  injury.  In  erecting  a  fence  of  this  kind  the  num- 
ber of  strands  to  be  used  must  depend  upon  the  special  object  to  be  accomplished. 
Two  strands,  about  twenty-one  inches  from  the  ground  and  from  each  other,  will 
turn  horses,  cattle,  cows,  and  young  stock.  Three  strands,  the  lowest  being  placed 
twelve  inches  from  the  ground,  the  second  twenty-three  inches,  and  the  third 
forty-two  inches  from  the  ground,  will,  of  course,  be  better  and  make  a  more  sub- 
stantial fence. 

Four  strands  are  most  commonly  used,  while  even  five  are  frequently  em- 
ployed when  some  special  object  is  desired,  such  as  excluding  dogs,  pigs,  poultry, 
and  other  small  animals.  In  such  cases  the  lower  strands  are  placed  nearer  the 
ground  and  to  each  other  than  the  upper  ones.  In  constructing  a  four-strand  fence 
the  strand  nearest  the  ground  might  be  about  five  inches  from  it,  the  next  twelve 
inches,  the  third  twntv-two  inches,  and  the  fourth  forty-eight  inches  from  the 
ground.  This  would  give  a  fence  four  feet  high.  In  erecting  a  wire  fence  the  main 
posts  may  be  about  fifty  feet  from  the  corner  post  and  from  each  ether.  They 
should  be  firmly  set  in  the  ground,  so  as  to  prevent  being  thrown  out  by  thefrost. 
They  should  always  be  sharpened  at  the  top,  or  left  wedge-shaped,  better  protection 
against  intrusion  being  by  this  means  secured.  After  setting  the  posts,  they  should 
be  marked  where  each  line  of  wire  is  to   cross.     The  first  end  of  a  spool  of  the 


476 


PROFITABLE  FA  KM  1 N  G . 


'  'Tot ~%iFZM^XZ*'^-^ir^'"- 


Self-Loading  Cart,  A.  D.  1881. 


wire  is  then  fastened  firmly  to  the  first  corner  post  with  staples  and  carried  quite 
a  distance,  allowing  it  to  unwind  as  the  spool  proceeds.  Draw  the  line  from  the 
starting  point  to  the  proposed  post  as  straight  as  possible  with  the  hands,  and 
then  apply  a  stretcher  and  strain  it  tightly  to  its  place.  While  the  line  is  thus 
lander  strain  staple  it  firmly  to  each  intermediate  pust  between  the  point  of  start- 

_ ing  and  the  stretcher.     Repeat  from 

this  point,  and  so  on  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  brace  the  corner  posts  each 
way  with  joists,  bevelled  to  fit  the  post 
at  the  place  of  contact,  and  firmly 
spiked  as  high  on  the  post  as  the  upper 
line  of  fencing,  running  from  this 
point  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  into 
the  ground  below  frost,  and  kept  in 
place  at  the  bottom  by  a  flat  stone  or 
other  substantial  material.  The  posts 
on  each  side  of  a  gate  or  pair  of  bars 
should  be  the  same  size  of  a  corner  post  and  braced  in  the  same  way.  It  is 
important  that  the  wire  be  strained  rigidly  in  place  when  being  put  up;  in  fact, 
there  is  little  danger  of  straining  it  too  tightly,  as  it  is  very  strong,  and  being 
composed  of  two  strands  twisted  together,  it  readily  adjusts  itself  to  different 
temperatures. 

The  arguments  in  favor  of  a  barbed  Avire  fence  are  its  strength,  durability, 
the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  erected,  its  cheapness,  and  the  complete  protection 
it  affords  from  all  intrusion.  It  requires  fewer  posts  than  any  other  fence,  as 
the  posts  can  be  placed  at  quite  a  distance  apart;  it  is  easily  kept  in  repair,  and 
cannot  be  destroyed  by  fire.  It  is  also  valuable  where  snow-drifts  are  an  incum- 
brance, since  it  forms  no  barrier  to  the  strong  winter  winds;  the  snow  cannot 
accumulate  into  drifts,  as  it  does  where  fences  that  offer  obstructions  are  used. 

The  principal  argument  against  the  use  of  the  barbed  Avire  fence  is  that 
animals  are  sometimes  injured  by  it,  and  it  has  for  this  reason  been  termed  by 
some  "a  cruel  fence."  We  think  this  objection  could  be  met  and  entirely  obvi- 
ated by  placing  a  narrow  board  or  pole  above  the  top  wire  from  post  to  post, 
which  will  render  the  fence  readily  seen  by  the  animals  and  thus  prevent  all  such 
accidents.  Whatever  kind  of  fence  used,  when  designed  to  be  of  a  permanent 
character,  it  should  always  be  made  of  good  material  and  be  suhstantially  built. 
It  is  cheaper  in  the  end  to  build  a  good  fence  that  will  require  but  few  repairs  in 
a  long  time,  than  a  poor  one  to  be  constantly  rebuilt,  by  way  of  repairs.  When 
posts  are  used,  the  timber  selected  should  be  of  the  most  durable  kind,  and  well 
set.  For  a  post  and  board  fence,  heavy  nails  should  always  be  employed,  and 
enough  of  them  put  in  to  render  the  work  strong  and  substantial. 


WASTES    AND    WANTS    OF    THE    FARM. 


How  to  make  business  pay,  or  in  other  words,  to  secure  the  largest  profits 
from  the  money,  labor,  and  time  invested,  is  the  study  and  aim  of  all  business 
men.  This  is  no  less  the  case  with  the  farmer  than  with  those  engaged  in  other 
avocations.     In  fact  Ave  believe  farmers,  as  a  general  rule,  labor  harder  to  secure 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  477 


their  profits  than  any  other  class.  Many  of  them,  occupying  small  farms,  too 
often  find  out  at  the  end  of  the  year  that  with  all  their  toil,  working  early  and 
late,  they  have  fallen  short  of  their  expectations  in  results,  and  beyond  defraying 
the  common  expenses  of  the  farm  and  household,  financially  they  are  but  little, 
if  any,  in  advance  of  the  previous  year.  Such  a  result,  we  believe,  is  not  the 
fault  of  the  business,  but  of  the  one  who  manages  or  mismanages  it,  and  that 
when  properly  conducted,  farming  may  be  made  as  profitable  an  avocation  as 
any  other. 

Such  failures  may  be  attributed  largely  to  the  wastes  and  wants  of  the  farm, 
and  should  this  subject  receive  the  consideration  which  its  importance  demands, 
we  believe  much  larger  profit  could  be  secured  with  less  labor,  by  the  majority 
of  farmers,  than  is  now  realized  by  the  present  common  practice. 

Waste  of  Manure,  etc. — Farmers  are  proverbially  economical  in  the  use  of 
money.  They  labor  hard  for  it,  and  hence  realize  its  value,  and  are  loth  to  part 
with  it.  This  economy  in  the  spending  of  money  is  often  carried  so  far  that  it 
borders  upon  penuriousness,  and  we  frequently  hear  it  remarked  that  farmers,  as 
a  class,  are  exacting  and  close-calculatingin  their  dealings  with  others.  No  doubt 
this  accusation  is  often  unjustly  founded,  but  however  this  may  be,  there  are  many 
things  in  respect  to  which  the  average  farmer  is  too  prodigal,  the  saving  of  which 
he  does  not  seem  to  realize  will  aid  very  materially  in  augmenting  the  profits  of 
the  farm,  and  which,  if  rightly  appropriated,  is  equivalent  to  money  earned, 
since  the  resources  of  the  farm  will  be  increased  without  additional  outlay. 

One  of  the  common  wastes  of  the  farm  is  that  of  manure.  The  great  need 
of  the  farms  in  the  older-settled  portions  of  the  country  is  more  manure,  and  the 
problem  for  the  farmers  in  those  sections  generally  to  solve  is  how  to  obtain  an 
adequate  supply. 

Owing  to  the  lack  of  a  sufficient  amount  of  farm  manure  many  farmers  are 
obliged  to  depend  upon  superphosphates  and  other  commercial  fertilizers  to  sup- 
plement the  quantity  required,  the  expense  of  which  reduces  largely  the  profits 
resulting  from  the  crops.  Although  this  lack  of  manure  is  generally  admitted, 
yet,  inconsistent  as  it  may  seem,  there  are  very  few  farmers  but  that  permit  a 
large  proportion  of  the  manure  made  by  the  farm  stock  to  be  wasted.  It  is  a 
common  practice  with  farmers  to  permit  the  liquid  manure  to  be  lost.  How  few 
barns  in  the  country  are  provided  with  means  for  utilizing  this  valuable  fertilizer. 
And  yet  it  is  claimed  by  chemists  that  the  liquid  manure  of  cattle  is  of  as  much 
value  as  the  solid. 

Professor  Dana  states  that  ''the  quantity  of  liquid  manure  produced  by  one 
cow  annually  is  equal  to  fertilizing  one  and  a  quarter  acres  of  ground,  producing 
effects  as  durable  as  do  the  solid  evacuations.  A  cord  of  loam  saturated  with 
urine  is  equal  to  a  cord  of  the  best  rotted  manure.  If  the  liquid  and  solid  evac- 
uations, including  the  litter,  are  kept  separate,  and  the  liquid  is  soaked  up  by  the 
loam,  it  has  been  found  they  will  manure  land  in  proportion,  by  bulk,  of  seven 
liquid  to  six  solid,  while  their  actual  value  is  as  two  to  one." 

Other  noted  authorities  might  be  cited,  but  we  have  treated  of  this  subject 
so  thoroughly  in  connection  with  fertilizers  that  a  repetition  is  not  necessary  here. 

The  fact  has  been  sufficiently  established  by  experiment  and  chemical  ana- 
lysis, from  the  best  authorities,  that  the  farmer  who  makes  no  provision  for  saving 
the  liquid  manure  made  by  his  stock  loses  fully  one-half  the  value  of  the  manure 


vhfep-^ 


'"•\(A 


jeSiiiL 


(47S) 


Two  K.inds  ok  Teachers  and  their  Schoous. 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  479 


they  supply,  while  he  who  utilizes  both  the  liquid  and  solid  excrement  has,  there- 
fore, double  the  amount  of  manure  every  year  than  he  otherwise  would  have. 

To  permit  one-half  of  the  manurial  resources  of  the  farm  to  be  wasted  is 
certainly  not  good  economy,  when  with  a  little  extra  care  it  might  easily  all  be 
saved.  Furthermore,  to  spend  money  in  buying  commercial  fertilizers  to  make 
up  the  deficiency  of  this  waste,  is  not  good  management, 
when  the  expenditure  might  be  so  easily  obviated.  In 
order  to  save  the  liquid  manure  various  methods  are 
employed,  such  as  barn-cellars,  etc.  These  are  very  con- 
venient, but  not  absolutely  essential  for  this  purpose. 
By  the  use  of  proper  absorbents  for  the. bedding  of  the 
stock,  which  will  take  up  all  the  liquids,  they  may  thus 
be  saved.  Suitable  material  for  this  purpose  may  be 
easily  procured,  such  as   dry   loam,    dry   swamp-muck,  *»v      '*-::~-— 

fine  sand,  road-dust,  chaff,  dry  leaves,  etc.  why  Gatua  Sas- 

Another  wasteful  practice  is  in  throwing  the  solid  manure  out  of  the  stable- 
windows  and  permitting  it  to  lie  exposed  to  the  rains  and  hot  sun  until  wanted 
for  use  upon  the  land,  where  the  most  valuable  fertilizing  elements  are  either 
washed  out  or  evaporated.  Manure  thus  exposed  loses  fully  one-half  its  value. 
Thus  we  see  that  those  farmers  who  permit  the  liquid  manure  of  their  stock  to 
be  wasted — which,  as  previously  stated,  is  computed  to  be  one-half  of  the  entire 
quantity — and  are  in  the  habit  of  allowing  the  solid  manure  to  be  exposed  to  the 
weather,  thus  permitting  one-half  or  more  of  that  to  be  wasted,  lose  fully  three- 
fourths  of  the  entire  amount  of  manure  made  by  their  stock.  Dr.  Voelcker 
found  by  careful  experiment  that  five  tons  of  fresh  manure,  after  having  been 
spread  in  the  yard  and  exposed  to  the  weather  from  November  3  to  the  following 
August  23,  lost  nearly  two-thirds  of  its  actual  value  as  a  fertilizer.  Now  if  farmers 
would  take  pains  to  prevent  this  waste  of  manure  by  the  use  of  absorbents  for 
the  liquid  and  shelter  for  the  solid  excrement,  either  in  barn-cellars  or  sheds,  a 
good  supply  of  manure  would  be  had  where  now  it  is  limited,  thus  requiring  less 
expense  for  the  purchase  of  commercial  manures,  and  an  increased  fertility  of 
the  soil  with  no  additional  expense,  together  with  better  crops  and  consequently 
larger  profits. 

Another  waste  common  on  the  farm  that  might  be  appropriately  mentioned  in 
this  connection,  is  in  exhausting  the  resources  of  the  soil  by  constant  cropping 
without  a  sufficient  supply  of  manure.  By  this  means  valuable  lands  in  some 
sections  have  become  almost  worthless,  and  farms  that  once  were  very  produc- 
tive, yielding  for  a  time  large  profits,  have  become  either  entirely  unproductive 
or  can  hardly  be  made  to  produce  sufficient  to  pay  the  expense  of  tillage.  This 
might  all  have  been  avoided  by  the  judicious  use  of  supplying  a  sufficient  amount 
of  plant-food  adapted  to  the  crops  to  be  cultivated,  and  thus  valuable  lands  saved 
from  deterioration  and  running  to  waste.  Very  few  farmers  would  think  of  spend- 
ing to  no  purpose  or  wasting  the  amount  of  money  which  such  injudicious  man- 
agement involves,  yet  they  will  permit  such  wasting  to  go  on  upon  their  farms  year 
after  year  with  the  utmost  indifference. 

Lack  of  Economy  in  Labor. — While  farmers,  as  a  general  rule,  are  a  very 
hard-laboring  class,  working  more  hours  to  the  day  than  those  engaged  in  almost 
any  other  avocation,  yet  it  is  too  often  the  case  that  the  time  and  labor  expended 


480 


PROFITABLE  FARM  LNG. 


A  Good  Farm  Gate. 


do  not  result  in  the  profits  that  they  otherwise  would,  owing  to  the  various  ways 
in  which  there  is  a  lack  of  economy  in  utilizing  the  labor  thus  expended.  The 
neglect  to  perform  work  at  the  proper  time  is  a  source  of  waste  on  the  farm,  as 
well  as  in  every  other  business.  Jf  the  plowing  be  done  for  the  crops  when  the 
soil  is  dry  and  in  a  suitable  condition  for  tillage,  instead  of  being  saturated  with 
water,  much  needless  labor  will  be  saved  both  to  the  farmer  and  team. 

Planting  at  the  proper  season,  and  using  good  seed  for  that  purpose,  will 
economize  labor  and  bring  profits  that  cannot  be  obtained  by  planting  too  early 

and  thus  permitting  the  frost  to  kill  plants, 
necessitating  a  second  planting,  or  planting 
so  late  that  only  a  partial  crop  can  be  secured 
from  the  labor  expended.  The  planting  of 
poor  seed  is  labor  wasted.  The  farmer  who 
takes  measures  to  kill  weeds  in  his  cultivated 
^.«Je~  fields  when  they  first  make  their  appearance 
and  can  be  easily  exterminated,  instead  of 
permitting  them  to  grow  until  they  have  a 
partial  or  complete  possession  of  the  soil,  will 
save  not  only  much  hard  labor  in  destroy- 
ing them  afterwards,  but  will  prevent  the  in- 
jury and  loss  to  the  crop  which  would  be 
caused  by  negligence  in  this  respect. 

The  same  principle  holds  true  with  regard  to  harvesting  crops,  or  any  other 
of  the  duties  pertaining  to  farm  labor.  We  have  seen  farmers  neglect  to  provide 
suitable  drainage  for  lands  until  the  heavy  rains  came  and  saturated  the  soil  with 
water,  and  when  in  this  condition  they  did,  with  twice  or  thrice  the  amount  of 
labor  that  would  otherwise  be  required,  what  should  have  been  done  in  a  dryer 
season.  Carting  dirt  from  one  place  to  another  when  the  amount  of  water  in  it 
would  constitute  nearly,  if  not  quite,  one-half  its  weight,  instead  of  doing  this 
when  the  soil  was  dry,  is  another  of  the  many  methods  of  the  waste  of  labor. 
Some  people  seem  to  possess  the  faculty  of  always  doing  things  in  the  hardest 
possible  way,  through  negligence  and  careless  management,  and  in  order  to  secure 
certain  results  will  perform  many  times  the  amount  of  labor  that  would  be 
required  by  others  practicing  a  thorough  and  systematic  method. 

Slovenly  Management. — The  slovenly  management  seen  on  some  farms  causes 
one  to  wonder  how,  under  such  a  system,  or  rather,  with  such  a  lack  of  system, 
any  profit  whatever  could  be  made,  and  yet  we  know  farmers  who  have  made 
quite  large  profits  by  farming  in  just  tins  manner.  Their  work  would  be  done 
at  nearly  all  times  out  of  season  ;  the  repairing  of  fences  would  be  neglected,  and 
much  time  be  spent  in  the  most  busy  and  important  part  of  the  season  in  looking 
up  the  stock  that  had  for  this  reason  strayed  away.  Dilapidated  farm  buildings 
permitted  year  after  year  to  become  more  dilapidated;  drains  filled  up  and 
were  left  to  take  care  of  themselves.  Wood  necessary  for  the  household  would 
never  be  provided  in  large  quantities  beforehand,  but  be  picked  up  from  time  to 
time  on  the  farm,  as  the  supply  became  exhausted,  in  the  shape  of  broken  rails, 
old  rotten  slumps,  or  trimmings  from  the  apple-orchard,  which  would  bave  to  be 
burnt  in  a  green  state. 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  481 


The  poultry  would  have  no  warm  quarters  provided,  but  be  obliged  to  find  a 
roosting-place  in  the  trees  or  other  out-of-the-way  places. 

Pigs  wallowed  and  even  swam  in  the  accumulations  of  undrained  pens  and 
yards  The  harvesting  of  some  of  the  crops  would  be  delayed  so  late  as  to  be 
nearly  ruined  by  the  frost,  and  everything  on  the  farm  would  seem  to  go  in  a  hap- 
hazard way. 

Now,  if  anv  profits  whatever  can  be  made  of  such  methods,  how  much  more 
pror! table  will  farming  prove  under  a  thorough  and  perfect  system  of  manage- 
ment ? 

Doing  Work  Over-nicely. — In  striking  contrast  with  the  former,  might  be 
mentioned  those  who  spend  too  much  time  and  labor  in  performing  their  work. 
They  do  not  possess  what  is  called  in  hackneyed  phrase  "the  knack  to  turn  off 
work,"  and  much  time  and  labor  is  spent  in  doing  unnecessary  things,  or  that 
labor  whieh  wiD  prove  of  no  real  benefit  to  themselves  or  any  one  else.  They  either 
spend  much  time  in  doing  things  that  are  not  at  all  essential,  and  thus  waste  time 
and  labor,  or  they  are  over-nice  and  particular  in  the  performance  of  necessary 
work. 

They  perhaps  hoe  their  crops  with  the  utmost  precision  by  hand,  when  a 
horse-hoe  or  cultivatoj  would  do  the  work  just  as  well,  and  with  the  expenditu  re 
of  much  less  labor  and  time.  Or  they  may  insist  upon  carefully  mowing  their 
fields  with  a  scythe,  instead  of  using  a  mowing-machine,  because  they  regard  the 
former  method  as  doin$<  the  work  better,  and  leaving  the  surface  more  even  than 
the  latter.  Such  persors  seem  to  fail  to  perceive  that  labor  and  time  are  equiva- 
lent to  money,  and  that  all  needless  waste  of  either  is  a  loss  of  money  value. 
Work  should  always  be  done  thoroughly  and  well,  but  an  unnecessary  expendi- 
ture of  time  and  labor  is  a  waste,  and  cannot  properly  come  under  the  system  of 
good  manage  ment. 

Use  of  J'o'r  Tools. — Another  example  of  false  economy  is  seen  in  the  use  of 
poor  tools,  or  those  which  are  not  adapted  to  the  purpose  designed.  The  employ- 
ment of  heavy  and  cumbious  implements  when  lighter  ones  would  do  the  work 
just  as  well,  and  perhaps  better,  is  the  wasting  of  a  certain  amount  of  labor  for 
either  the  man  who  handles  them  or  the  team  that  draws  them.  It  is,  therefore, 
poor  economy  to  furnish  implements  that  are  ill  adapted  to  perform  the  work 
with  facility  to  hired  help,  since  the  full  value  of  money  expended  for  the  labor 
is  not  realized  in  return. 

It  is  not  good  management  to  use  inetncient  tools,  when  by  a  little  extra 
expenditure  for  suitable  ones,  from  a  third  to  e  fourth  more  labor  might  bo  per- 
formed in  the  same  time. 

The  farmer  who  persists  in  tisin<r  j.;.e  old-fashioned  cradle  in  harvesting  his 
grain,  instead  of  a  good  reaper,  involves  the  waste  of  both  labor  and  grain,  since 
with  a  good  reaping  machine  that  implement  and  horses  could  easily  and  quickly 
perform  what  would  require  a  great  amount  of  labor  and  time  when  done  by 
hand.  In  ord^r  to  economise  labor  and  time,  the  best  implements  and  methods 
should  always  be  employed  in  every  department  of  farm  labor. 

Borrowing  Tools. — The  practice  of  borrowing  farm  tooii   ■<»  one  that  is  quite 

too  common  in  some  sections,  more  especially  in  those  loca.  *ies  where  small 

i  farms  are  cultr  ated.    To  such  an  extent  is  this  practice  followed  by  some  farmers 

that  the  larger  portion  of  work  performed  on  their  farms  is  done  with  borrowed 

31 


482 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


implements.  Such  borrowers  usually  apply  to  their  neighbors  for  favors  with 
some  such  remark  as,  "Are  you  going  to  use  your  cart  to-day?"  or,  "Are  you 
using  your  horse-rake?"  seeming  to  take  it  for  granted  that  if  not  in  use  by  the 

rightful  owner  it  is  their  right  to  appropriate  all  such 
farm  implements  to  their  own  benefit.  It  is  not  unfre- 
quent  that  farm-tools,  by  constant  lending,  are  worn  and 
broken  more  by  the  borrowers  than  by  the  owner.  The 
impertinence  of  such  borrowers  is  often  truly  astonishing. 
We  know  of  one  man  who  positively  refused  to  return  a 
■  cj^^— ~  1:.  borrowed  tool  until  he  was  through  with  it  himself,  when 

it  was  sent  for  by  the  owner.  The  man  who  will  con- 
stantly depend  upon  his  neighbors  for  those  things  that 
are  absolutely  essential  upon  every  well-regulated  farm, 
must  indeed  possess  a  mean  and  selfish  disposition,  and 
but  little  of  the  true  spirit  of  manliness.  But  setting 
aside  the  meanness  of  the  practice,  it  is  certainly  not  a 
good  policy  to  spend  time  and  run  the  risk  of  disap- 
pointment in  hunting  up  tools  on  neighboring  farms  that 
should  bo  always  at  hand  and  ready  for  use.  It  is  gene- 
rally the  case  that  those  who  have  so  little  self-respect 
as  to  be  constantly  dependent  upon  others  have  at  the 
same  time  too  little  honor  and  principle  to  return  the 
articles  borrowed  in  proper  time;  hence,  those  who  are 
frequently  being  applied  to  for  such  favors  have  gene- 
rally, in  addition  to  the  annoyance  occasioned  by  the 
breakage  and  wearing  out  of  their  tools  by  others,  the 
additional  one  of  looking  up  and  bringing  back  the  bor- 
rowed articles. 

Although  we  believe  in  acts  of  neighborly  kindness, 
and  in  accommodating  others  to  a  reasonable  extent,  yet 
such  constant  borrowers  should  be  taught  the  lesson  of 
honesty  and  self-dependence  by  either  a  charge  of  a  stip- 
ulated price  for  the  use  and  breakage  of  tools,  or  by  a 
prompt  refusal  to  loan. 

Lack  of  Care  of  Farm  Implements. — In  addition  to 
slovenly  management  generally  on  the  farm,  might  be 
mentioned  the  neglect  to  take  proper  care  of  farm  imple- 
ments, such  neglect  often  causing  greater  injury  to  them 
than  all  the  wear  in  performing  the  work  for  which  they 
are  adapted. 

There  are  some  farmers  who  are  very  careful  respect- 
expenditures  of  money,  talk  of  hard  times,  and 
the  necessity  of  practicing  economy,  never  purchasing 
anything  but  what  they  consider  absolutely  essential,  but 
who  will  leave  valuable  farm  machines  out  in  the  open 
field,  exposed  to  the  weather  for  months,  without  a 
waste  thus  incurred.     Plows,  harrows,  mov'ing  machines, 

in  work  hap- 


ing  their 


thoug  ht  about  the 

horse-rakes,  reapers,  carts,  wagons,  etc.,  are  left  where  their  use 


PRACTICAL  (SUGGESTIONS. 


483 


pens  to  stop  for  the  season,  and  there  they  remain  exposed  tu  rains,  snows,  and  hot 
sun  until  they  are  wanted  in  the  following  season,  when  they  are  looked  up  for  the 
purpose.  It  is  unnecessary  to  state  that  such  negligence  will  cause  more  injury 
to  farm  implements  than  their  constant  use  would  during  that  period,  and  the 
farmer  who  fails  to  provide  a  place  of  shelter  for  his  tools  has  a  very  poor  idea  of 
the  proper  econ- 
omies connect- 
ed with  his  bu- 
siness, as  well  as 
but  little  system 
and  method  in 
managing  it. 
Western  farm- 
ers are  general- 
ly more  negli- 
gent in  this  re- 
spect than  East- 
ern, but  such 
mismanage- 
ment is  quite 
too  commonly 
seen  in  all  sec- 
tions  of  the 
country. 

Repairing 
Tools.  —  Failing 
to  repair  tools 
at  the  proper 
time  is  also  a 
great  waste.  The 
old  maxim  with 
regard  to  "a 
stitch  in  time," 
is  as  true  in  re- 
lation to  farm- 
ing as  in  any 
other  business. 
Some  farmers 
never  think  of 
repairing  a  wag- 
on, or  harness, 
until  it  absolute- 
ly breaks  down 
or  gives  out  al- 
together,    and 

even  then  make  a  temporary  repair  in  a  bungling  manner,  to  make  the  broken 
parts  hold  together  for  the  time  being,  at  the  imminent  risk  of  life  and  limb  thus 
involved.  Neither  wagons  or  harnesses  are  scarcely,  if  ever,  oiled,  the  friction 
thus  produced  on  the  axles  of  the  former  causing  them  to  wear  out  much  faster 


Tne  Sportsman  and  his  Son. 


481  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


than  the;>  otherwise  would.  The  tire  of  the  wheels  gets  loose,  and  ib  *ever  reset, 
tintil  by  long  rattling — which  would  be  sufficient  to  signal  the  approach  of  such 
vehicles  at  a  long  distance — they  finally  come  off,  and  repairing  becomes  an 
imperative  necessity.  Harness  gets  dry  and  stiff  for  lack  of  oil,  soon  bleaks  in 
consequence,  and  is  tied  together  with  tow  strings,  or  leather  stripe  made  after 
the  fashion  of  cobbler's  shoe-strings,  and  is  thus  used  until  it  can  be  used  no 
longer,  and  a  new  set  is  bought  to  receive  the  same  kind  of  care.  It  seems 
strange  that  farmers  who  are  often  economical,  and  even  penurious,  with  respect 
to  spending  money  for  other  things,  should  permit  such  wastes,  when  with  a  little 
care  it  might  be  obviated. 

A  reaper  should  never  rattle  when  at  work,  and  if  by  taking  hold  of  a  shaft 
it  can  be  shaken,  it  shows  that  the  boxes  need  filling.  This  may  be  done  by 
almost  any  farmer  himself,  or  it  will  cost  but  a  few  dollars  to  have  it  done  at  a 
machine  shop.  A  few  pounds  of  old  type  when  melted  will  serve  for  the  mate^ 
rial.  In  the  use  of  all  farm  machines,  they  should  be  kept  in  good  repair, 
with  every  nut  and  rivet  tight.  They  should  also  be  kept  w^ll  oiWl  where  the 
latter  is  essential. 

A  few  moments  spent  in  replacing  a  lost  bolt,  tightening  a  loosened  screw, 
or  making  any  such  light  repairs,  will  often  save  much  labor  and  expense  in 
making  more  extensive  ones  that  may  be  required  through  neglect  at  first. 
Serious  accidents  to  rider  and  team  may  also  not  unfrequently  be  avoided  by 
attending  to  such  slight  repairs  in  season. 

Insufficient  Help. — The  number  of  laborers  on  a  farm  should  always  be 
adapted  to  the  amount  of  work  to  be  performed.  With  ideas  of  false  economy, 
some  farmers  employ  only  about  one-half  the  hired  help  that  is  necessary  in  order 
to  perform  the  work  in  the  proper  time  and  manner,  and  endeavor,  by  working 
this  force  to  the  utmost,  early  and  late,  to  be  able  to  secure  the  accomplishment 
of  the  work  for  the  season,  at  a  much  less  expense  than  would  ordinarily  be 
involved  in  accomplishing  it.  By  this  course,  much  of  the  work  is  delayed 
beyond  the  proper  time  of  doing  it,  and  many  of  the  crops  become  seriously 
injured.  The  cultivation  and  harvesting  is  in  many  instances  delayed,  weeds 
obtain  the  mastery  of  the  soil,  on  account  of  other  duties  pressing,  because  there  are 
not  sufficient  hands  to  perform  at  the  proper  time,  crops  become  over-ripe,  the 
grain  shells  out  in  the  field,  and  the  whole  machinery  of  the  farming  system 
seems  clogged.  The  loss  occasioned  by  such  management  will  usually  far  exceed 
the  expense  of  employing  a  suitable  number  of  hands;  while  hived  help  who  feeL 
that  their  employer  is  endeavoring  to  over-reach  them  by  exacting  more  from. 
them  in  service  than  is  just,  for  the  compensation  received,  will  not  take  that 
interest  in  the  work,  or  do  it  as  well,  as  when  they  feel  that  they  are  fairly  treated* 
Besides,  aside  from  motives  of  policy,  which  should  be  secondary,  any  course 
that  is  based  upon  such  selfish  motives  is  not  founded  upon  honor,  or  the  prin- 
ciple of  right,  and  the  man  who  is  not  willing  to  give  a  just  and  fair  equivalent 
for  what  he  receives,  is  not  an  honest  man,  and  is  not  entitled  to  the  respect oi 
others.  The  employer  who  treats  his  help  fairly  and  reasonably  in  all  respect  i 
is  the  one  who  will,  as  a  general  rule,  secure  the  best  results  from  their  service. 

Poor  Teams  — Labor  and  time  are  often  wasted  by  the  use  of  inefficient  farrr 
teams  in  performing  the  work.     Perhaps  oxen  are  used  where  horses  would  be 
more  serviceable  or  the  reverse — teams  that  might  be  good  in  themselves,  but 


Preparing  a  Good  Dinner. 


!•?-) 


486  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


not  adapted  to  the  kind  of  work  or  the  place.  For  performing  certain  work,  such 
as  plowing,  two  men  may,  perhaps,  be  employed  where  one  man  with  the  proper 
team  would  do  just  as  well,  and  the  labor  of  one  man  appropriated  to  other  pur- 
poses, thus  saving  the  labor  of  one  extra  hand. 

In  other  cases,  weak,  fractious,  lame,  or  otherwise  inefficient  animals  may 
be  employed,  which  results  in  slow  progress  and  work  poorly  done,  when  a  good 
team  of  the  right  kind  would  have  performed  the  work  better  and  perhaps  in  half 
the  time.  Besides,  it  costs  no  more  to  maintain  a  good  team  than  a  poor  one, 
and  the  labor  done  by  the  former  is  so  much  more  satisfactory  that  it  is  far  better 
economy  to  always  keep  good  teams,  although  the  first  cost  of  purchasing  suck 
would  be  more  than  that  of  an  inferior  one.  Good  teams  are  the  cheapest  in  the 
end. 

Inferior  Stock. — The  same  might  be  said  of  the  stock  bred  upon  the  farm,  or 
animals  selected  for  the  dairy,  as  of  poor  teams.  Under  a  mistaken  idea  of 
economy,  the  lowest-priced  animals  are  used,  when  the  product  of  the  best  cows 
for  the  dairy  and  thorough  bred  stock  for  breeding  purposes  would  more  than 
double  the  profits,  besides  soon  paying  for  the  extra  expense  in  purchasing.  Where 
milk  is  the  principal  object,  a  milking  breed  should  be  selected;  if  beef  is  the 
leading  consideration,  a  beef  breed  should  be  chosen.  The  animals  should  be 
adapted  to  the  purpose  to  which  they  are  used.  False  economy,  and  the  lack  of 
knowledge  in  selecting,  breeding,  and  feeding  animals,  is  one  great  cause  why 
this  department  of  farming  does  not  prove  as  remunerative  as  it  otherwise  would. 

Since  it  requires  as  much  labor  and  expense  to  maintain  inferior  stock  as  the 
best,  it  is  a  waste  of  labor  and  money  as  well  as  a  loss  to  the  farmer  to  maintain 
and  breed  the  former,  when  so  much  larger  profits  could  be  secured  by  keeping 
the  latter.  There  is  too  much  indifference  manifested  by  farmers  with  respect  to 
this  subject.  Great  improvement  could  be  made  in  the  poorest  flocks  and  herds 
in  a  few  years  by  the  use  of  thoroughbred  sires  of  suitable  breeds,  and  farmer? 
who  have  generally  not  given  their  attention  to  the  subject  Avill  find  that  they  can 
advance  their  interests  and  profits  very  materially  by  this  means.  The  same 
principle  holds  true  with  respect  to  feeding  and  handling  all  kinds  of  farm  ani- 
mals. Generous  feeding,  good  care,  and  kind  treatment  have  quite  as  much 
influence,  if  not  more,  in  regulating  the  profits  which  result  as  the  breed.  A 
poor  animal  or  farm  implement  is  costly  at  any  price,  while  the  best  are  eventually 
the  cheapest. 

Inconvenience  of  Farm  Buildings,  etc. — Another  cause  of  waste  of  time  and 
labor  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  farm  buildings  are  not  conveniently 
arranged  or  the  farms  properly  laid  out. 

On  some  farms  the  buildings  have  every  convenience  with  respect  to  construc- 
tion and  location;  there  are  suitable  places  for  the  storage  of  crops  and  tools  and 
the  shelter  of  stock.  Hence,  the  labor  is  all  utilized  to  some  purpose,  and  there 
is  no  unnecessary  waste  in  this  respect.  Where  soiling  is  practiced,  the  crops 
grown  for  this  purpose  are  near  the  barn,  where  they  may  easily  be  cut  as  wanted 
and  fed  to  the  stock,  while  the  yards  and  sheds  are  supplied  with  an  abundance 
of  pure,  fresh  water  for  watering  all  the  farm  animals.  The  cultivated  fields  are 
conveniently  located  for  carting  manure  and  for  tillage,  and  everything  scemi 
arranged  to  help  on  the  farm  work,  instead  of  hindering  it.  On  the  other  hand, 
some  farms  seem  so  arranged  as  to  require  double  the  amount  of  labor  and  lime 


488 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Koad  Builder,  A.  D.  1883. 


in  accomplishing  the  same  results.  The  buildings  are  not  convenient  in  location 
or  arrangement,  and  there  is  not  sufficient  room  for  the  storage  of  anything. 
No  water  is  provided  in  the  yards,  and  the  stock  must  be  driven  quite  a  distance 
in  winter  to  a  field,  and  the  ice  broken  in  order  to  water  them.  This  involves 
much  trouble  and  time,  with  a  liability  to  injury  to  some  of  the  animals  from 
slipping  on  the  ice,  or  hooking  each  other,  aside  from  the  exposure  occasioned  on 
severely  cold  or  stormy  days.  The  soiling  crops  are  grown  at  a  distance  from  the 
barn,  involving  the  necessity  of  the  use  of  a  team  every  time  anything  is  cut  for 

feeding,  while  all  the  ar- 
rangements on  the  farm 
seem  calculated  to  im- 
pede rather  than  to  assist 
—  the  progress  of  the  farm 
work.  Much  of  the  labor 
expended  in  such  cases 
would  have  been  unnec- 
essary under  a  better  sys- 
tem of  arrangement,  and 
is  a  constant  expenditure 
of  labor  and  time  that 
brings  no  real  compensa- 
tion in  return. 

Better  Knowledge  of  Farming  and  Less  Drudgery. — Money,  time,  and  labor  are 
often  wasted  by  farmers  from  alack  of  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  requirements 
of  the  soil  and  plants  cultivated. 

A  vast  amount  of  labor  is  frequently  expended  in  attempts  to  produce  crops 
from  soils  which  are  not  adapted  to  those  particular  kinds  of  plant  growths,  or 
which  lack  some  of  the  essential  elements  of  plant  food.  Failing  to  inform  them- 
selves with  respect  to  the  improved  agricultural  methods  of  the  present  time, 
many  farmers  do  not  profit  by  that  which  has  been  gained  by  years  of  experi- 
ment and  observation;  hence,  they  are  a  generation  or  more  behind  the  age  in 
which  they  are  living.  Knowledge  is  power  in  every  branch  and  department  of 
business,  and  the  farmer  who  possesses  the  best  knowledge  of  his  business  is  the 
best  capacitated  to  make  that  business  a  success. 

The  hands  should  serve  the  head,  and  the  farmer  that  has  the  best  agricul- 
tural knowledge,  combined  with  the  mental  ability  to  successfully  plan  and 
execute  the  most  thorough  system,  will  not  be  obliged  to  make  his  life  a  mere 
drudgery  of  toil  from  morning  till  night,  day  after  day,  and  year  after  year.  The 
devising  of  the  best  plans  and  methods  should  be  the  first  consideration,  and 
their  execution  secondary.  He  who  drudges  on,  without  any  sj'stem  or  method, 
will  never  be  anything  but  a  mere  drudge,  or  attain  to  anything  but  a  meager 
success.  Farmers,  as  a  class,  should  spend  more  time  in  informing  themselves 
in  their  business,  by  reading  the  best  agricultural  books  and  papers,  attending 
farmers'  clubs,  etc.,  and  also  more  time  in  devising  the  best  methods  for  all  kinds 
of  farm  work,  based  upon  the  knowledge  thus  obtained.  By  such  means,  more 
h^ad  work,  and  few  hours  of  labor  with  the  hands,  will  secure  far  better  results 
than  are  now  commonly  obtained. 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


489 


Farmers  should  also  acquaint  themselves  with  the  best  and  uniformly 
cheapest  rates  of  transporting  their  goods  to  market.  This  consideration  will  be 
called  in  question  in  deciding  what  crops  to  raise.  Farmers,  as  a  class,  also  need 
a  better  understanding  of  business  principles  to  enable  them  to  buy  and  sell  to 
the  best  advantage — the  time,  manner,  and  rates  for  the  different  products  of  the 
farm  all  having  due  consideration.  They  need,  in  this  connection,  to  deal  more 
directly  with  the  consumer  and  manufacturer  in  disposing  of  their  products,  and 
in  purchasing  implements,  clothing,  etc.,  and  less  with  the  "middle  men,"  whose 
commissions  largely  modify  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  the  farmer  in  such 
eases.  With  better  information  on  agricultural  subjects,  there  will  be  better 
tillage,  the  use  of  better 


seed  for  crops,  better 
farm  stock,  better  plan- 
ning and  systematizing, 
less  hard  labor,  and  bet- 
ter profits.  Constant  and 
severe  toil  incapacitates 
the  mind  for  the  best 
thought  of  which  it 
eapable;  there  will 
neither  the  energy  nor 
the  time  for  it. 

A  certain  amount  of 
rest  from  hard  labor  is, 


Wheel  Scraper,  A.  D.  1884. 


therefore,  a  paying  investment,  as  the  hands  will  then  be  made  to  serve  the  brain 
*,o  the  best  advantage,  and  there  will  be  less  drudgery  and  more  knowledge  and 
skill  in  conducting  the  business,  while  larger  profits,  other  conditions  being  equal, 
will  be  the  result. 

Improved  Farm  Implements  Essential. — The  improvement  made  in  farm  imple- 
ments during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  is  truly  astonishing,  as  well  as  the 
influence  of  their  use  upon  agriculture.  During  that  period  they  have  been  sub- 
stituted in  a  great  measure  in  place  of  hand  labor  on  the  farm,  which  has  resulted 
in  vastly  increasing  the  agricultural  resources  of  the  country,  since  by  their  use 
labor  can  be  performed  much  cheaper,  faster  and  better  than  by  hand.  They  are 
a  great  convenience  on  small  farms,  and  absolutely  indispensable  on  large  ones, 
where  extensive  crops  could  not  be  cultivated  without  them. 

Take  the  reaper,  for  instance,  the  introduction  of  which  into  the  grain  fields 
has  added  many  millions  of  dollars  to  the  annual  harvests,  by  rendering  it  possi- 
ble to  secure  the  entire  product,  and  also  by  admitting  of  a  largely  increased  area 
of  grain  culture.  The  same  might  be  said  of  improvements  in  harrows,  cultiva- 
tors, plows  and  all  other  farm  machinery.  The  use  of  suitable  farm  implements 
also  enables  a  farmer  of  small  means  to  conduct  a  much  larger  business  than  he 
otherwise  could  where  only  hand  work  was  employed,  thus  cheapening  the  cost  of 
production.  Since  labor  can  be  so  much  more  easily  performed  by  the  use  of  im- 
proved machinery,  it  is  the  practice  of  economy  to  employ  them  whenever  practica- 
ble. There  are,  however,  many  farmers  who,  with  ideas  of  false  economy,  still 
persist  in  depending  mainly  upon  hand  labor,  while  the  few  implements  that  may 
be  in  use  upon  their  farms  are  of  the  most  inferior  kind. 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


491 


Where  the  amount  of  crops  cultivated  will  warrant  the  purchase  of  the  host 
machines,  they  will  soon  pay  for  themselves  many  times  over,  in  the  amount  of 
labor  saved  and  the  increased  facilities  thus  afforded  for  cultivating  larger  and 
better  crops.  The  use  of  machines  also  saves  time,  labor  and  health.  By  their 
aid  the  farmer  can  raise  better  crops  with  less  physical  labor,  and  consequently 
less  risk  to  health.  As  a  general  rule,  farmers  look  older  according  to  their  years 
than  any  other  class  of  individuals.  ,  This  is  due  to  the  severe  toil  to  which  they 
subject  themselves,  and  the  constant  overtaxing  of  their  strength.  We  do  not 
wish  to  be-  understood  to  convey 
the  idea  that  we  do  not  consider 
farming  a  healthy  business.  On 
the  contrary,  Ave  believe  it  the  most 
healthy  of  all  occupations  when 
judiciously  followed.  But  every 
good  is  liable  to  perversion,  and 
we  believe  the  majority  of  farmers 
either  injure  their  health  or  hasten 
old  age,  and  break  down  in  the 
latter  part  of  life  quicker  than  they 
ought,  through  the  excessive  hard 
labor  that  they  impose  upon  them- 
selves. If  the  machines  can  be 
employed  to  perform  the  necessaiy 
farm  work,  and  thus  prevent  a 
waste  of  strength  and  health,  how 
much  better  to  make  use  of  these 
things  than  to  make  life  a  drudgery 
with  all  the  attendant  evil  effects. 
Instead  of  feeling  that  he  cannot 
afford  such  aids,  the  farmer  that 
has  a  correct  idea  of  economy  will 
feel  that  he  cannot  do  without 
them.  In  connection  with  the  use 
of  better  farm  implements,  which, 
by  admitting  of  better  tillage  and 
increased  facilities  of  cultivation  and  harvesting,  will  enable  the  farmer  to  pro- 
duce larger  crops,  might  be  mentioned  the  economy  of  so  fertilizing  the  soil, 
combined  with  improved  methods  of  tillage,  that  much  larger  crops  may  be  pro- 
duced from  the  same  area.  By  this  means  labor  will  be  saved,  and  compara- 
tively larger  profits  be  secured.  English  agriculture,  where  a  dense  population 
requires  that  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  be  such  as  to  secure  the  highest  results 
from  a  limited  area,  might  be  mentioned  as  an  example  of  this  method.  Where 
land  is  abundant  even,  this  principle  will  hold  true  to  a  certain  extent,  since 
about  the  same  amount  of  labor  will  be  required  for  the  cultivation  and  harvest- 
ing of  a  light  or  a  heavy  crop. 

The  land  must  be  plowed  and  harrowed,  the  grain  sowed  and  reaped,  and  if, 
by  a  little  extra  care  in  preparing  the  soil,  a  third  or  one-half  larger  crop  can  be 
produced,  it  will  well  repay  for  the  extra  labor  and  expense  bestowed. 


A  Faithful  Friend. 


492 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


A  leading  aim  with  the  farmer  should  be  tc  raise  the  largest  amount  of  farm 
products  with  the  least  expense.  To  half  till  a  field  of  ten  acres  and  obtain  but 
three  or  four  hundred  bushels  of  corn,  when  that  amount  could  be  raised  by 
cultivating 
properly 
four  or  five 
a '  c  r  e  s  , 
would  be 
poor  econo- 
my, since 
the  same  re- 
sult could 
be  reached 
with  half 
the  amount 
of  plowing 
and  other 
necessary 
labor  in  cul- 
t  ivat i  n  g 
and  harves- 
ting.  Be- 
sides, the 
well-culti- 
vated four 
or  five  acres 
w  o  u  1  d  be 
left  rich 
and  mel- 
low, and 
could  be 
much  more 
easily 
worked  for 
subsequent 
crops  than 
the  hard, 
poorly- 
tilled  soil  of 
the  ten 
acres. 

It  is  the 
best  econo- 
my for  the 
farmer  nev- 
er   to    CUltl-  Primitive  Log  Bridge. 

vate   more 

land  than  can  be  done  in  the  most  thorough  manner.     Anything  beyond  this,  aa  a 

general  rule,  will  result  in  a  waste  of  labor  and  prove  unsatisfactory  i:i  (ho  end. 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  493 


The  fear,  that  is  so  natural,  of  incurring  expense  for  tho  purchase  of 
suitable  fertilizers,  or  the  lack  of  judgment  in  purchasing  and  applying 
guch  as  are  suitable  to  the  soil  to  be  cultivated,  or  the  crop  to  be  raised, 
is  often  tho  source  of  great  loss,  or  rather  failure  to  realize  as  much  as 
•Tight  to  be  realized.  The  farmer,  above  all  others,  should  be  a  live,  thinking 
man. 

Systematic  Management. — One  of  the  great  wants  pertaining  to  farming 
generally  is  a  more  perfect  system  of  management — a  system  that  will  nut  only 
admit  of  the  various  kinds  of  work  on  the  farm  being  done  in  the  proper  time, 
but  in  the  most  profitable  manner.  Time  and  attention  should  be  given  in  ascer- 
taining the  best  methods  of  conducting  the  business,  and  then,  having  decided 
upon  and  adopted  a  certain  plan  or  system,  it  should  be  carried  out  thoroughly. 
Experiments  in  this  manner  may  sometimes  result  in  changes  in  certain 
respects,  and  new  and  improved  methods  will  be  adopted,  from  time  to  time,  if 
the  farmer  is  progressive — as  he  should  be — in  order  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times 
and  the  age  in  which  he  lives;  still,  he  should  conduct  his  farming  in  a  methodi- 
cal manner,  whatever  that  sj'stem  may  be,  and  never  permit  the  business  to 
manage  itself,  as  is  too  frequently  the  case. 

A  well-developed  system  will  enable  the  farmer  to  pursue  an  even,  uniform 
plan  of  operations,  and  have  a  tendency  to  obviate  the  frequent  shifting  from  one 
department  to  another,  with  no  permanency  in  any  one  of  them,  which  practice 
reduces  farming  to  a  continuous  routine  of  profitless  experiments  and  ventures. 
Not  that  we  would  condemn  experimenting  in  a  judicious  way.     Every  pro- 
gressive farmer  will  not  only  experiment  for  himself,  but  will  profit  by  the  intel- 
igent  experiments  of  others;  but  experiments  should  be  the  exception  and  not 
he  rule  for  general  practice  in  farming,  and  shovdd  always  be  made  judiciously, 
md  with  an  intelligent  understanding  of  the  nature  of  the  things  to  be  experi- 
nented  with. 

A  lack  of  system  is  one  of  the  fruitful  causes  of  failure  in  all  kinds  of 
;mployments,  and  especially  so  in  farming.  To  be  a  successful  farmer  requires 
i  wide  range  of  knowledge  and  methodical  practice.  He  must  not  only  know 
vhen  and  how  to  cultivate  the  various  crops,  the  soil  to  which  they  are  best 
adapted,  but  how,  when,  and  where  to  dispose  of  them  in  the  most  profitable 
nanner,  how  to  purchase  the  necessary  farm  supplies  to  the  best  advantage,  what 
:rops  and  farm  stock  are  the  most  profitable  for  him  to  raise,  etc. 

In  order  to  ascertain  definitely  with  respect  to  the  comparative  profits  of 
Efferent  branches  of  farm  industry,  and  the  real  state  of  his  business,  every 
armer  should  keep  a  correct  account  of  all  the  receipts  and  expenditures.  It  is 
inly  in  this  way  that  the  actual  profits  or  losses  of  the  farm  can  be  ascertained. 
aich  an  account  is  also  often  convenient  for  reference,  as  furnishing  important 
lata  that  can  be  obtained  in  no  other  way.  Keeping  such  an  account  has  also  a 
ondency  towards  systematic  practice  in  every  department,  and  cannot  fail  of 
I  cinch  profit  to  the  farmer  in  all  respects. 

More  Capital  in  Farming. — It  is  frequently  the  case  that  the  limited  success 
f  the  farmer  is  due  to  a  lack  of  sufficient  capital.  It  may  be  the  young  farmer, 
ist  starting  in  life,  who  has  invested  nearly  all  of  his  money  in  purchasing  a 
arm,  has  but  little  left  with  which  to  supply  the  necessary  outfit.  Hence, 
l  procuring  a  team,  farm  implements,  stock,  etc.,  he  is  from  necessity  obliged  to 


484 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


run  in  debt  or  purchase  those  that  are  inferior;  or,  if  first  quality,  not  the  number 
that  is  needed  on  the  farm  sufficient  to  make  the  business  as  profitable  as  it 
should  be.  To  be  limited  in  capital,  or  to  incur  a  heavy  debt,  are  both  a  great 
drawback  in  successful  farming,  and  many  a  young  man  has  to  contend  with  this 
evil  year  after  year  before  being  freed  from  it.  As  a  general  rule,  it  will  be  better 
to  purchase  less  land  at  first,  and  add  to  it  from  time  to  time  as  means  will 

permit,  and  retain  a  suf- 
ficient amount  of  capi- 
tal to  furnish  and  stock 
it  well,  rather  than  to  ex- 
pend nearly  all  in  land 
and  be  embarrassed  in 
managing  it  for  lack  of 
means  to  render  the  labor 
bestowed  profitable. 

There  may,  however, 
be  exceptions  ;  for  in- 
stance, desirable  lands 
that  can  be  purchased  at 
a  low  rate  may  be  so  lo- 
cated as  to  soon  largely 
increase  in  value,  which, 
if  lying  even  unimproved 
for  a  few  years,  will 
bring  in  selling  many 
times  the  original  expen- 
diture; but  we  refer  more 
particularly  to  farms  pur- 
chased with  the  view  of 
cultivating  the  whole,  or 
larger  portion  of  them. 

Again,  with  ideas  of 
false  economy,  many  far- 
mers who  possess  an 
abundance  of  means  for 
cultivating  their  lands 
in  the  most  successful 
manner,  will  limit  their 
expenses  to  the  lowest 
possible  figure,  permit- 
ting their  farm  buildings 
to  run  down  for  lack  of  re- 
pairs and  improvements, 
using  antiquated  and  unsuitable  machines  in  doing  work,  in  order  that  they  may 
put  the  receipts  of  the  farm  into  the  bank,  bonds,  or  other  securities.  By  invest- 
ing such  receipts  in  the  improvement  of  lands,  farm  buildings,  farm  implements, 
and  the  farm  business  generally,  might  in  many  cases  perhaps  double  the  profits 
resulting  from  the  former  course.     Extravagance  and  waste  should  always  be 


Singing  Lessons  itt  Home. 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


195 


avoided,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  requires  capital  to  make  capital,  and 
the  farmer  who  invests  a  certain  amount  of  money  in  his  business  to  maintain 
and  continue  all  laudable  improvements  has  the  best  opportunities,  other  condi- 
tions being  equal,  to  make  that  business  a  success. 


CHOICE    OF    FARMS. 


Lattice  Bridge. 


There  is  something  in  the  ownership  of  land  that  gives  independence  to  a 
man's  character.  It  is  in  itself  an  honor,  and  has  connected  with  it  a  kind  of 
reflex  influence  that  does  not  seem  to  be  associated  with  other  possessions.  The 
retention  of  the  old  family  homestead  and  farm  by  a  long  line  of  ancestry  for 
successive  generations  is  one  of  the  interesting  features  of  the  older-settled  por- 
tions of  the  country,  "and  is  in 
many  respects  a  desideratum, 
whether  we  regard  it  in  the  prac- 
tical light  of  an  investment  or  of  m 
a  pardonable  pride,  as  the  basis  of 
the  sentiment  of  family  honor 
and  respectability  that  is  to  be  as- 
sociated with  the  name  and  inher- 
itance. Among  the  many  changes 
of  ownership  of  lands  it  is  pleas- 
ant to  see,  as  we  do  occasionally, 
although  too  rarely,  an  instance  of 
this  kind.  While  the  few  among  the  multitude  of  farmers  have  this  privilege  of 
retaining  the  old  home,  the  majority,  in  establishing  themselves  in  business, 
either  from  necessity  or  choice,  locate  elsewhere. 

In  selecting  a  farm  there  are  many  things  of  importance  to  be  taken  into 
consideration.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  are  to  be  carefully  weighed, 
and  the  sum  of  each  taken  into  account.  The  location,  quality  of  soil,  size,  the 
purposes  to  wnicb.it  is  to  be  appropriated,  etc.,  all  are  to  be  judiciously  considered, 
and  that  decision  given  which  seems  to  favor  the  highest  possibilities  of  success. 
But  it  must  be  remembered  that  absolute  perfection,  either  with  regard  to  man- 
kind or  locality,  will  never  be  found  on  the  face  of  the  whole  earth.  We  must, 
therefore,  not  expect  it,  and  take  things  as  we  find  them,  making  a  choice  of  such 
as  seem  to  us,  by  the  vise  of  our  best  judgment,  to  contain  the  most  good  and  the 
fewest  evils.  No  location  can  be  found  but  what  will  have  its  disadvantages  as 
well  as  its  peculiar  advantages;  and,  according  to  the  great  natural  law  of  com- 
pensation, the  sum  of  the  one  will  in  a  measure  offset  that  of  the  other. 

Whether  mixed  agriculture  or  sjDecial  be  the  object,  the  facilities  for  trans- 
portation and  nearness  to  market  must  necessarily  be  considered  in  selecting  a 
farm,  as  well  as  the  adaptability  of  the  soil  and  climate  to  the  crops  to  be  pro- 
duced. If  tropical  products,  for  example,  are  to  be  raised,  the  farmer  must  make 
choice  of  lands  where  the  soil  and  climate  is  best  adapted  to  such  crop.  If  grain 
is  to  be  the  specialty,  some  of  the  Western  States  will  afford  the  best  facilities. 
If  the  object  be  sheep  husbandry  on  a  large  scale,  some  of  our  river  bottom 
lands  should  be  the  place  chosen.  If  it  be  the  care  of  large  herds  of  cattle, 
it  should  be  a  ranch  in  some  of  the  far  Western   States  or  Texas.     But  if  the 


(496) 


a  Gallani  Escort. 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  49' 


farmer  wishes  for  himself  unci  family  the  peculiar  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
a  home  in  the  older-settled  portions  of  the  country,  some  State  in  the  Eastern  or 
Southern  section  would  doubtless  be  his  choice. 

[f  he  desires  a  locality  remote  from  other  inhabitants,  he  must  forego  the 
educational,  social,  and  other  privileges  that  a  nearness  to  a  city  or  largely  popu- 
lated section  will  furnish;  while,  if  the  choice  lie  in  a  densely  populated  region,  ho 
must  of  necessity  give  up  the  peculiar  advantages  of  retirement,  and  accept  the 
objectionable  features  that  such  a  place  may  possess.  In  making  a  selection  of 
locality,  the  farmer  should  never  overlook  the  health,  comfort,  happiness,  and 
general  welfare  of  his  family.  These  should  always  be  primary,  and  the  money 
profits  of  the  business  a  secondary  consideration;  for,  while  money  making  is 
one  of  the  great  desideratums  with  most  men,  it  is  not  the  chief  good  in  life, 
neither  does  it  constitute  the  sum  total  to  earthly  happiness,  as  many,  by  their 
lives,  seem  to  regard  it.  Success  and  happiness  in  life  do  not  depend  so  much 
upon  the  location  and  business,  as  the  character  of  the  individual.  As  a  general 
principle,  the  man  makes  the  business,  and  not  the  business  the  man.  Success  is 
what  we  make  it,  and  the  man  of  the  right  stamp,  who  is  honorable  in  his  dealings, 
energetic,  capable,  systematic,  practical,  and  thoroughly  business-like,  will  be 
successful  wherever  he  maybe  located,  or  in  whatever  laudable  business  he  under- 
takes. And  those  farmers  who  are  generally  dissatisfied  with  their  condition, 
and  imagine  that  they  may  be  greatly  benefited  by  a  change  of  place,  will  find, 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  that. the  fault  is  more  in  themselves  than  in  their  sur- 
roundings, and  that  the  adoption  of  a  better  system  and  improved  methods  will 
produce  better  results  than  a  change  of  locality.  For  this  reason  a  change  should 
never  be  made  without  due  deliberation,  and  an  honest  endeavor  to  ascertain  the 
true  reason  for  the  lack  of  success  that  has  thus  far  characterized  their  business'. 
Of  course,  there  are  exceptions  to  this,  as  to  all  rules,  but  we  think  that  it  will 
prove  applicable  to  most  cases. 

The  desertion  of  the  old  homestead  is  too  frequently  a  mistake  with  young 
men.  If  properly  managed,  money  can  be  made  there  as  well  as  elsewhere: 
Avhile  other  considerations  of  importance  are  involved,  such  as  the  influence  of 
the  association  connected  with  the  home  on  successive  generations,  their  tendency 
to  restrain  from,  evil  and  promote  the  good  in  a  desire  to  hand  down  the  family 
name  with  honor  from  one  generation  to  another,  etc.  In  many  of  the  sparsely 
settled  portions  of  New  England  the  old  homesteads  are  passing  into  the  hands 
of  foreigners  and  the  state  of  society,  as  well  as  the  lands  in  those  sections,  is 
deteriorating.  For  the  sake  of  the  general  good  of  the  community  in  such  locali- 
ties, enough  of  the  native  population  should  remain  to  sustain  our  institutions 
and  maintain  that  intelligent  enterprise  and  progress  which  is  characteristic  of 
American  people,  and  which  should  be  a  credit  to  the  country  at  large. 

Advantages  of  Large  Farms.— The  size  of  a  farm  should  always  be  adapted  to 
the  purposes  to  which  it  is  to  be  devoted,  but  it  will  also  be  largely  influenced  by 
the  location.  In  the  Eastern  section  wherethere  is  a  dense  population,  where  taxes 
are  high,  and  land  sells  for  a  comparatively  high  price,  smaller  farms  will  be  found 
more  profitable  than  at  the  West  and  South,  where  land  is  plenty  and  can  he 
bought  at  much  lower  rates,  and  also  where  extensive  use  can  be  made  of 
improved  agricultural  implements.  As  a  general  rule  the  number  of  men  who 
are  capacitated  to  manage  successfully  extensive  farms  is  small  compared  with  the 

32 


498 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


number  represented  by  those  who  can  make  profitable  the  management  of  farms 
of  small  or  medium  size.  Some  man  have  special  talents  for  successfully  engag- 
ing in  large  enterprises. 

They  possess  the  ability  not  only  to  originate  the  most  perfect  and  systematic 
plans,  but  to  successfully  execute  them  as  well.  But  these  are  in  the  minority 
as  it  will  be  found  in  the  majority  of  cases  that  the  management  of  small 
farms,  or  those  of  moderate  size,  will  in  the  aggregate  prove  most  successful. 
Large  farms,  however,  possess  many  advantages  over  small  ones.  While  the 
former  will,  as  a  general 
rule,  cost  less  in  propor- 
tion to  their  size  than 
small  ones,  they  furnish  a 
larger  proportionate  area 
of  tillable  soil  from  which 
an  income  can  be  obtain- 
ed. The  insurance,  taxes, 
repairs,  and  other  expenses 
will  also  be  larger  in  pro- 
portion to  the  investment 
on  a  small  than  large 
farm;  hence,  there  is  a 
larger  proportion  of  un- 
productive property  in  the 
former  than  the  latter. 

Large  farms  require  a 
smaller  proportionate 
amount  of  capital  to  be  in- 
vested in  buildings.  The 
same  principle  holds  true 
with  respect  to  fencing. 

The  expense  of  fur- 
nishing farming  imple- 
ments on  a  small  farm  is 
very  much  higher  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  pro- 
duced than  on  a  large  one, 
while  the  cultivation,  be- 
ing performed  on  a  large 
scale  of  operation,  can  be 
done  with  much  more  fa- 
cility and  under  a  more 
perfect  system  of  manage- 
ment than  on  the  latter.  Thc  LitUo  Mischief. 

A  farm  of  seventy-five  or  a  hundred  acres  will  require  nearly  as  many  kinds 
of  farm  implements  for  performing  the  work  as  one  of  five  hundred  acres,  and 
they  will  cost  about  as  much  when  purchased  as  those  for  a  larger  farm.  The 
principal  difference  will  be  that  the  owner  will  have  several  times  as  much  profit 
from  their  more  extensive  use  as  the  owner  of  the  one  hundred  acres;  hence,  a 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  499 


larger  per  cent,  of  profit  on  the  investment.  In  fact,  on  very  extensive  farms, 
where  a  number  of  the  same  kind  of  machines  are  required,  such  as  sulky  or 
gang-plows,  harrows,  reapers,  etc.,  these  implements  can  be  purchased  at  a  large 
discount,  making  the  expense  for  this  purpose  on  the  large  farms  very  much  less 
in  proportion  to  small  ones.  The  same  is  true  to  a  certain  extent  with  respect 
to  teams  for  the  farm.  In  disposing  of  produce  where  mixed  farming  is  prac- 
ticed, the  time  and  labor  spent  in  taking  to  market  the  surplus  products  of  a 
small  farm  are  about  the  same  as  for  a  large  one,  with  the  exception  of  a  differ- 
ence in  handling  in  loading  and  unloading  and  the  heavier  cartage. 

While  the  business  of  a  large  farm  can  be  handled  to  a  better  advantage, 
and  those  who  are  adapted  to  it  can  make  it  more  profitable  than  that  of  a  small 
farm,  still  there  is  always  more  risk  attending  it.  The  losses  are  greater  in  case 
of  failure.  On  cheap  lands,  and  until  a  section  becomes  dense!}'  populated,  larger 
profits  will  be  found  generally  in  cultivating  large  areas  devoted  more  particu- 
larly to  special  crops.  When  well  populated  the  land  becomes  more  uniformly 
divided,  the  farms  as  a  consequence  are  reduced  in  size,  and  a  more  thorough 
cultivation  is  given.  The  natural  result  of  continued  cultivation  of  large  areas 
devoted  to  special  crops  is  to  produce  exhaustion,  while  smaller  farms  under  a 
more  thorough  system,  combined  with  proper  rotation,  will  not  only  retain,  but 
increase  their  fertility. 

Advantages  of  Small  Farms,  etc. — While  large  farms  possess  many  advantages 
over  small  ones,  yet  the  latter  also  admit  of  some  special  advantages  over  the 
former.  In  the  Western  sections,  where  bonanza  farms  are  under  cultivation,  corn 
and  other  grains  bring  a  much  less  price  than  in  the  East,  where  their  cultivation 
is  necessarily  limited;  hence,  the  Eastern  farmer  receives  much  larger  returns 
for  his  crops,  and,  therefore,  it  is  essential  that  the  Western  farmer  should  culti- 
vate more  land  and  secure  larger  products  in  order  to  make  even  the  same  profits 
that  result  from  the  crops  raised  by  the  Eastern  farmer. 

Small  farms  always  require  less  capital  invested,  and  a  man  of  moderate 
means  can  establish  himself  on  such  a  farm  without  incurring  a  heavy  debt,  the 
interest  of  which  would  be  constantly  consuming  his  profits,  while  the  mortgages 
would  prove  a  source  of  continuous  "nightmare"  if  he  were  a  man  of  energy 
and  business  capacity.  They  also  require  less  hired  help,  less  expenditure  in 
supplying  wdth  suitable  teams,  etc.,  while  there  is  less  care  and  anxiety  as  well 
as  less  risk  attending  their  management. 

A  small  farm  admits  of  more  thorough  culture,  and  if  properly  tilled,  can  be 
kept  in  a  higher  state  of  fertility  than  a  large  one,  and  be  made  to  produce  a 
larger  crop  in  proportion  to  the  area  cultivated.  While  there  are  some  farmers 
who  could  increase  the  size  of  their  farms  with  profit,  yet  by  far  too  many  own 
more  land  than  they  can  properly  manage,  or  their  capital  may  warrant,  or  are 
what  may  be  called  "land  poor."  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  not  profitable  for  the 
farmer  to  hold  unproductive  property.  He  should  own  no  more  tillable  land  than 
he  can.  properly  cultivate,  and  should  add  to  his  farm  from  time  to  time  as  his 
resources  will  admit.  An  authoritative  writer  on  agriculture  says,  respecting  capi- 
tal in  farming:  "  Were  I  asked  to  point  out  the  best  paying  farms  of  this  country, 
I  should  seek  them  not  where  land  is  cheap  and  where  agriculture  is  conducted 
on  a  large  scale,  but  upon  the  outskirts  of  some  metropolis  among  the  market 
gardens,    the   secret  of  whose   success  is   hidden  only  by  the   shades  of  night, 


a 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


501 


■when  cart,  load  upon  cart  load,  the  waste  of  city  consumption,  is  convoyed  back  to 
the  outlying  farms;  and  thus  while  the  world  is  sleeping,  is  supplied,  as  to  a 
growing  school-boy,  such  vitalizing  gain  as  more  than  balances  the  daily  loss. 


Nowhere  better  than  such  sections  of  city  surrounding  country,  can  the  system 
of  high  farming  be  carried  to  perfection.  The  nearness  of  the  consumer  furnishes 
a  ready   market   for   vegetable    products  which,  from  their  perishable  nature, 


502 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


demand  immediate  consumption,  while  unrivalled  facilities  for  obtaining  fertili- 
zers leave  a  margin  for  profits  which  can  scarcely  be  equaled  in  places  more 
remote." 

In  those  sections  where  the  farms  are  generally  small;  it  is  a  good  practice 
for  a  few  of  the  proprietors  to  co-operate  in  the  purchase  of  expensive  farm 
machines  or  choice  stock,  thus  largely  reducing  the  outlay  to  each,  and  increasing 
proportionately  the  profits,  while  it  permits  each  individual  interested  in  the 
ownership  to  obtain  the  benefits  resulting  at  a  comparatively  slight  expense. 
Whatever  the  size  of  the  farm,  the  capital  should  never  be  all  invested  in  land. 
There  should  always  be  a  sufficient  amount  of  working  capital  left  in  the  hands 
of  the  owner  and  manager  of  the  farm  to  thoroughly  till  it,  and  no  land  that  is 
capable  of  being  tilled  should  be  left  unproductive. 

MODEL   FARMS. 

There  are  man}'  farmers  who  are  strongly  prejudiced  against  scientific  farm- 
ing, or  what  they  call  "book-farming/'  regarding  it  as  pertaining  more  to  a  mere 
theory  than  utility  in  practice.  They  consider  all  who  favor  it  as  visionaries — 
the  old  methods  are  supreme,  and  all  attempts  towards  an  innovation  as  fanciful 
and  unprofitable  schemes.  It  will  invariably  be  found  that  those  who  are  most 
strongly  opposed  to  scientific  agriculture  are 
the  most  ignorant  concerning  it.  To  be  sure, 
mere  scientific  knowledge  is  not  by  any 
means  all  that  is  necessary  to  successful 
farming.  Theory  is  important  as  far  as  it 
goes,  but  the  art  is  fully  as  essential;  and 
when  we  have  the  two  combined,  viz:  the 
science  and  art  of  agriculture,  or,  in  other 
words,  when  we  have  the  skill  to  put  in  most 
successful  practice  the  knowledge  that  science , 
bestows,  it  is  then  that  we  have  a  complete 
union,  and  the  highest  standard  attained  in 
agricultural  achievements. 

But  what  is  scientific  agriculture  of 
Avhich  we  hear  so  much,  and,  unfortu- 
nately, see  so  little?  Science,  literally, 
means  knowledge,  and  when  used  in  connection  with  agriculture  it  means  no  less. 

Scientific  agriculture,  therefore,  means  the  employment  of  that  knowledge 
obtained  from  Nature's  vast  laboratory — of  her  forces  and  her  laws- — in  the  prac- 
tical art  of  farming. 

But  why  should  we  not  make  use  of  the  aid  which  science  gives?  Why 
refuse  any  assistance  that  will  give  us  a  more  perfect  knowledge  of  the  elements 
with  which  Ave  have  to  deal?  It  is  a  fact  that  there  is  no  business  whatever  that 
requires  such  a  varied  and  accurate  knowledge  of  nature'slaws  as  farming;  neither 
is  there  any  business  that  calls  into  exercise  more  frequently  that  faculty  that  is 
usually  denominated  "practical  common  sense." 

No  one  can  deny  that  the  manufacturer  is  enabled  to  make  vastly  larger 
profits  by  the  aid  of  science,  and  conforming  his  labors  to  scientific  principles, 
and  whv  not  the  farmer  as  well  ? 


Aboriginal  Dwelling. 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


503 


"We  do  not  claim  that  farming  can  bo  reduced  to  a  science  as  exact  as  that  of 
mathematics  or  mechanics,  for  there  are  too  many  varying  influences  over  which 
the  farmer  has  no  control  to  admit  of  it — such  as  the  heat  and  cold,  rain  and  sun- 
shine, etc. — but  we  do  claim  that  the  highest  attainments  in  this  direction  are 
reached  only  through  the  knowledge  imparted  by  science.  Those  farmers,  there- 
fore, who  reduce  their  practice  to  the  most  intelligent  system,  will,  other  condi- 
tions being  equal,  be  the  most  successful.  The  best  methods,  when  properly  put 
in  practice,  will  always  be  found  the  most  profitable. 

FARM    BUILDINGS. 


As  the  degree  of  civilization  attained  by  a  people  can  be  very  accurately 
determined  by  the  manner  in  which  they  till  the  soil,  and  the  implements  used 
for  that  purpose,  so  in  like  manner  can  the  standard  of  civilization  be  measured 
by  the  kind  of  houses  they  construct  for  themselves  and  their  domestic  animals. 
The  lowest  types  of  the  human  family  live  in  holes  dug  in  the  ground,  burrow- 
ing like  some  kinds  of  animals,  while  savages  of  a  little  higher  order  than  these 
construct  rude  huts,  that  are  a  single  improvement  upon  the  former  habitations. 
As  intelligence  and  civilization  increases,  the  style  of  architecture  improves  in  a 
proportionate  degree,  until  the  habitations 
of  the  most  intelligent  nations  of  the  earth 
are  characterized  by  thrift,  refinement,  and 
taste ;  wealth,  intelligence,  and  culture  being 
as  unmistakably  evinced  by  the  style  of 
architecture  of  such  a  nation,  as  by  the  cus- 
toms and  manners  of  the  inhabitants  them- 
selves. 

What  is  true  of  all  nations  is  equally 
true  of  individuals,  and  the  conditions  of 
the  farm  and  farm  buildings  will,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  be  an  index  of  the  thrift,  enter- 
prise, and  refinement  of  the  owner.  Al- 
though there  has  been  a  great  improve- 
ment in  the  construction  of  farm  buildings 
of  all  kinds  in  the  last  quarter  of  a  century, 

not  only  in  the  number  adapted  for  the  various  purposes  of  farm 
convenience  and  style  of  their  construction,  still  there  is  in  many 
deficiency  in  these  respects,  which  occasions  much  inconvenience  and  loss. 

Buildings  Necessary  on  the  Farm,  etc. — The  number  of  buildings  required  on 
the  farm  will  depend  upon  a  variety  of  circumstances,  such  as  the  size  of  the 
farm,  the  purposes  to  which  it  is  best  adapted,  the  special  departments  of  busi- 
ness to  be  conducted,  the  productiveness  of  the  land,  etc.  A  large  farm  will 
require  more  and  larger  buildings  than  a  small  one.  Inasmuch  as  the  family 
should  have  the  first  consideration  above  that  of  the  domestic  animals,  of  course 
the  house  should  receive  the  first  attention,  and  be  considered  the  most  impor- 
tant of  all  farm  buildings.  It  should  have  the  most  care  and  money  spent  upon 
it  in  rendering  it  healthful,  pleasant  and  attractive,  while  the  barn  should  be 
secondary  in  this  respect,  although  Ave  know  of  some  farmers  who  seem  to  regard 


First  Step  Towards  Comfort. 

use,  but  in  the 
sections  a  sjreat 


504 


PRO  FIT  ABLE  FARM  ]  N  ( 4 . 


their  horses  as  first  in  importance,  and  wife  and  children  secondary,  and  who 
will  be  at  a  great  expense  of  money,  time,  and  labor  for  the  welfare  of  their  stock, 
providing  fine  comfortable  barns,  in  which  they  seem  to  take  much  pride,  while 
they  are  at  the  same  time  careless  and  indifferent  with  respect  to  the  wants  of 
the  family,  and  provide  for  them  a  home  comparatively  much  inferior  in  con- 
venience, comfort,  and  general  architectural  construction  to  the  barn.  We  are 
glad  to  know  that  this  class  of  farmers  is  in  a  small  minority,  and  yet  such  are 
by  far  too  numerous,  and  wherever*found  will  always  be  characterized  by  a  lack 
of  the  essentials  of  true  manliness  and  intelligence  that  are  characteristic  of 
farmers  generally. 

In  many  sections  cf  the  country  it  is  necessary  to  provide  shelter  for  the 
stock  during  a  portion  of  the  year,  hence  a  barn  is  essential  for  that  purpose,  as 
well  as  for  the  storage  of  their  food.  Where  large  numbers  and  a  variety  of 
animals  are  kept,  a  stock-barn  will  be  necessary  for  this  purpose.  In  those  parts 
of  the  country  where  cereals  are  cultivated  to  any  extent,  a  granary  will  be  essen- 
tial for  the  storage  of  such  crops.  A  hog-house  will  be  indispensable  on  a  farm 
where  swine  are  kept,  while  the  poultry-house,  wagon-house,  wood-house,  or  place 
of  storage  of  any  kind  for  fuel,  store-house,  tool-house,  and  repair-shop  will  be 
found  equally  necessary.  Sometimes  one  building  may  be  made  to  answer  the 
purpose  of  two  or  three  combined,  on  small  farms,  such  as  the  wagon-house,  tool- 
house,  wood-house,  etc,  being  different  departments  of  the  same  building. 

Aside  from  those  already  mentioned,  the  ice-house  will  be  found  a  great  con- 
venience on  most  farms,  and  the  source  of  supplying  a  luxury  which,  when  once 

enjoyed  for  a  season,  will  be  regarded  as 
a  necessity.  The  expense  and  labor  attend- 
ing it  is  slight,  compared  with  the  bene- 
fits that  may  be  received.  On  a  dairy  farm 
an  ice-house  is  very  necessary,  as  is  also 
a  milk-house,  in  those  sections  where  there 
are  no  creameries  or  cheese-factories  in  the 
vicinity.  These  will  not  only  prove  a  great 
convenience,  but  will  contribute  largely  to 
the  profits  of  such  farms  by  improving  the 
quality  of  the  daily  products.  Where  to- 
bacco or  other  special  crops  are  exclusively 
cultivated,  buildings  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose will  also  be  required. 

If  to  the  above  the  farmer  is  so  cir- 
cumstanced that  he  can  add  a  small  con- 
servatory, not  as  anecessity,  but  as  a  lux- 
ury and  a  means  of  increasing  the  edu- 
cating and  refining  influences  of  a  home  as  well  as  adding  to  its  attractions,  the 
money  and  labor  thus  expended  will  be  found,  wherever  such  a  course  is  practi- 
cable, to  be  a  profitable  investment. 

In  the  construction  of  all  farm  buildings,  convenience  and  good  taste  should 
have  due  consideration.  It  costs  but  little  more,  at  first,  to  construct  a  building 
that  is  convenient  and  tasty  than  one  that  is  lacking  in  these  respects,  while  con- 
venient, buildings  will  prove  the  cheapest  in  the  end  by  the  vast  amount  of  labor 


Kuiiardiit  Cubin. 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


505 


saved  that  is  always  involved  ■where  buildings  are  lacking  in  this  essential.  Of 
course,  good  judgment  and  taste  are  necessary  in  securing  such  results,  and  while 
the  one  who  plans  the  structure  may  possess  tlio  former,  he  may  not  the  latter, 
for  it  is  not  everv  one  that  is  endowed  with  sufficient  taste  to  plan  the  artistic 
arrangement  of  a  building,  as  will  he  seen  by  the  attempts  at  this  hind  of  art, 
exemplified  by  the  many  buildings  commonly  seen  upon  the  farm.  In  the  con- 
struction of 
farm  build- 
ings health, 
comfort,  and 
convenience 
should  he  the 
first  conside- 
ration, being 
of  primary 
importance, 
while  behuty 
of  design  and 
ornamenta- 
tion, though 
of  secondary 
importance, 
should  not  be 
entirely  over- 
looked. 

Ri pairing 
and  Fainting 
Buildings,  etc. 
In  the  archi- 
tectural study 
of  farm  build- 
ings, a  recent 
writer  has 
divided  them 
into  two 
classes,  viz : 
"Thoso  al- 
ready built, 
and  those  that 
are  to  be 
built  '  —  in 
other  words, 
the  old  and 
the  prospec- 
tive new.  A  s  the  former  are  by  far  the  most  numerous  we  will  consider  them  first. 
The  importance  of  keeping  farm  buildings  in  good  repair  should  not  be  over- 
looked by  any  farmer  who  has  regard  not  only  to  the  general  thrifty  and  orderly 
appearance  of  his  surroundings,  but  to  economy  as  well.     On  every  well-regulated 


Captive  Liberated. 


506 


PRO  FIT  ABLE  FARMING. 


farm,  frequent  repairs  in  "buildings  become  a  necessity  in  securing  their  preser- 
vation, and  unless  these  necessary  repairs  are  made  in  season  and  thoroughly 
performed,  the  expense  of  repairing  will  he  largely  increased  and  permanent 
injury  to  the  buildings  often  be  the  result.  If  a  leak  in  a  roof  of  a  building  or 
elsewhere  is  promptly  stopped,  no  injury  is  occasioned  by  it;  but  if  neglected 
month  after  month  the  frame-work  of  the  building  will  be  liable  to  decay,  and 
become  after  a  little  time  so  injured  as  to  be  entirely  worthless.  When  buildings 
need  painting,  the  sooner  the  new  boat  of  paint  is  applied  the  better.  If  too  long 
neglected,  the  surface  becomes  rough  by  exposure  to  the  weather,  which  will  ren- 
der the  painting  more  difficult  to  perform,  and  also  require  much  more  paint  to 
cover  the  surface  well;  hence,  promptness  in  such  cases  is  an  economy  in  both 
the  expense  of  labor  and  material. 

Besides  the  economy  of  keeping  buildings  in  good  repair,  their  neat  and 
orderly  appearance  is  no  small  argument  in  favor  of  such  management.  Good 
work,  promptly  performed,  is  in  all  respects  the  cheapest.  In  painting  buildings, 
two  objects  are  secured,  viz:  ornamentation  and  durability.  Paint  adds  to  the- 
beauty  of  the  buildings,  and  also  tends  to  preserve  the  wood  to  which  it  is  applied. 
Buildings  that  are  kept  well  painted  have  a  neat  and  attractive  appearance,  are 
an  indication  of  the  culture,  refinement,  and  prosperity  of  tbe  owner,  and  render 

home  more  pleasant  to  the  family  circle.  Un- 
painted  buildings  have  a  dingy  neglected  ap- 
pearance, and  will  require  a  new  covering 
of  wood-work  much  sooner  than  those  that 
are  kept  well  painted. 

In  answer  to  the  question,  whether  it 
will  pay  for  the  farmer  of  small  means  and 
many  expenses,  to  incur  the  additional  ex- 
pense of  keeping  Ills  buildings  well  painted, 
we  would  say,  that  it  depends  upon  various 
cirumstances ;  if  money  value  merely  in  ben- 
efits resulting  from  having  well  painted  build- 
Modem  vma.  jno-g    js    considered,   it    will    depend    upon 

whether  it  will  cost  more  to  procure  the  paint  necessary  to  preserve  the  wood- 
work than  to  newly  cover  the  buildings  when  they  need  it. 

In  some  sections,  where  lumber  is  cheap,  the  paint  would  be  the  most  expen- 
sive; in  others,  where  timber  is  scarce,  the  cost  of  timber  and  labor  of  re-covering 
would  be  the  most  expensive.  But  the  money  value  of  things  is  not  the  only 
consideration  to  be  involved.  The  attractions  that  may  be  added  to  the  home  by 
the  outlay  of  keeping  the  farm  buildings  well  painted  and  in  good  repair,  and  the 
pleasure  and  satisfaction  afforded  the  family,  besides  the  refining  and  educating 
influence  of  pleasant  surroundings,  are  considerations  which  it  would  be  difficult 
to  weigh  by  a  money  standard. 

If  farmers  would  take  more  pains  to  make  their  homes  attractive  and 
pleasant,  and  farm  life  something  better  than  the  hard  drudgery  that  it  too  com- 
monly is,  there  would  be  more  respect  and  love  entertained  for  farming,  as  an 
occupation,  by  farmers'  children,  and  less  complaint  by  farmers  generally  of  being 
left  to  till  the  farm  alone  in  their  old  age.  If  farmers  wish  their  sons  to  be 
attached  to  the  farm  home   and  farm  life,  thev  must   make  that  farm  home  and 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  507 


farm  life  sufficiently  attractive  to  induce  some  of  their  boys  to  stay;  and  how  can 
they  make  a  better  beginning  than  to  commence  right  at  homo  and  first  make  the 
farm  buildings  neat  and  attractive?  We  are  sorry  for  the  farmer's  son  or  daugh- 
ter who  feels  ashamed  to  say  to  a  stranger  friend,  "  This  is  my  home; "  while  it  is 
refreshing  to  see  a  kind  of  pardonable  pride  manifested  by  children  for  their 
home.  Home  should  be  the  dearest  and  most  attractive  place  on  earth  to  hus- 
band, Avife,  and  children,  attractive  to  both  heart  and  eye,  and  in  order  to  make 
it  such  there  is  more  responsibility  involved  individually  in  connection  with  each 
member  of  the  household  than  mere  sentimentalism  might  include. 

The  home  should  be  made  attractive  and  beautified.  Money  thus  spent  is 
capital  well  invested,  and  will  bring  larger  returns  to  the  farmer  and  his  descen- 
dants in  real  happiness,  comfort,  and  elevating  influences  generally,  than  almost 
any  other  investment  that  could  be  made;  and  to  those  farmers  who  can  make 
such  a  course  practicable,  we  would  say:  Spare  no  pains  or  reasonable  expense 
in  making  your  homes  as  attractive  as  possible. 

The  expense  of  painting  may  be  greatly  reduced  by  the  farmer  being  able  to 
perform  the  labor  of  applying  the  paint  himself,  instead  of  paying  a  professional 
painter  to  do  the  work  for  him.  This  was  formerly  in  a  great  measure  imprac- 
ticable on  account  of  the  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  proper  method  of  mixing 
paint;  but  the  difficulty  is  now  obviated  by  the  use  of  what  are  called  "mixed 
paints,"  which  have  for  several  years  been  in  general  use.  These  may  be  found 
in  the  market  mixed  in  the  proper  proportions,  ready  for  use. 

The  Farm-House. — The  location  of  the  farm-house  should  never  be  chosen 
without  due  deliberation,  as  it  has  much  to  do  with  the  health  and  comfort  of  the 
household,  as  well  as  the  pleasantness  of  the  home  surroundings.  The  site  chosen 
for  the  new  house  should  always  be  on  dry  soil.  A  damp  cellar  is  one  of  the  most 
objectionable  features  of  a  house,  and  the  fruitful  cause  of  various  ills.  Many 
incurable  diseases,  besides  deaths  that  may  have  been  regarded  by  the  members 
of  the  family  as  the  dispensation  of  an  overruling  Providence,  might  be  directly 
traceable  to  this  source.  Unless  the  site  chosen  be  on  a  naturally  dry  soil  it 
should  be  made  perfectly  dry  by  carefully  and  thoroughly  underdraining.  A  low, 
marshy  locality  should  be  avoided  by  all  means,  the  air  of  such  places  being  filled 
with  dampness  and  malarial  disease. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  hill  is  colder  than  the  valley.  Every 
farmer  must  have  noticed  that  the  late  frosts  of  spring  and  early  frosts  of  autumn 
do  more  damage  on  the  lowlands  than  the  highlands,  and  the  thermometer  of  a 
cold,  still  night  shows  a  lower  degree  of  temperature  in  the  lowlands.  The  valley 
may  furnish  a  shelter  from  the  winds,  but  not  from  the  cold.  Cultivate,  there- 
fore, the  valleys ;  but  place  your  iarm  buildings  on  the  hills,  where  an  equally 
good  shelter  from  the  winds  can  be  secured  by  clusters  of  white  pines  or  other 
evergreen  trees  planted  on  the  windward  side  of  the  buildings. 

As  a  second  suggestion,  we  say,  locate  farm  buildings  where  the  sun  will 
shine  the  most  hours  of  the  day  and  the  most  days  of  the  year.  The  value  of 
sunlight,  both  for  man  and  beast,  has  never  been  fully  appreciated.  There  are  life, 
health,  and  elasticity  of  spirits  in  sunshine.  Show  me  a  woman  who  has  worked 
for  j^ears  in  a  dark,  gloomy  cellar-kitchen,  and  in  all  probability  you'll  show  me 
one  the  corners  of  whose  mouth  are  turned  down,  whose  constitution  is  impaired, 
and  who  has  lost  all  buovancv  of  feeling.     Show  me  an  ox  that  is  stalled  in  a 


508 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


dark  cellar  stable,  and  yarded  on  the  north  side  of  a  barn,  and  I  will  show  you 
one  whose  eye  is  dull,  hide  inelastic,  hair  bristling,  and  step  heavy.  Physicians 
tell  us  that  patients  located  on  the  south  or  sunny  side  of  hospitals  are  more 
likelv  to  be  cured  than  those  located  on  the  north  side,  and  heliopathy  is  as  much 


'  Afniiil  of  Calves 


iii  fashion  as  hydropathy  once  was.  What  the  exhilerating  and  invigorating 
effects  of  a  sun-bath  are  we  can  conceive  from  the  change  that  conies  over  our 
feelings  and  powers  when  the  .sun  shines  out  clearly  after  having  been  hidden  for 
a  Ioult  time  beneath  the  clouds. 


PRACTICAL  RUCGERTIONS. 


-.09 


Very  nearly  allied  to  the  location  of  the  house  where  the  family  may  enjoy 
the  full  benefit  of  the  sun's  rays  is  our  next  suggestion,  that  the  house  he  not  sur- 
rounded hy  too  many  shade  trees.  A  tree  is  a  thing  of  beauty  and  a  joy  forever, 
and  we  would  by  no  means  discard  all  trees  around  the  farmer's  premises;  hut  it 
is  possible  to  have  too  much  of  a  good  thing.  A  house  without  any  shade  trees 
looks  naked,  and  is  naked.  A  few  well-located  elms,  maples,  mountain  ashes, 
'and  white  pines,  add  much  to  the  beauty  and  comfort  of  home,  but  no  one  should 
live  in  a  forest.  Mosquitoes  may 
live  and  thrive  in  such  a  deep 
shade,  but  man  finds  his  true  de- 
velopment where  air  and  light  find 
free  access.  We  never  desire  to  see 
so  many  trees  around  a  house  that 
the  grass  will  not  make  a  velvety 
turf  on  the  lawn.  Beautiful  as  are 
trees  and  exquisite  as  are  the  forms 
and  colorings  of  flowers,  there  is 
nothing  that  pleases  the  eye  more, 
day  after  day,  than  a  well-kept 
lawn.  A  stately  elm  here  and  a 
cluster  of  evergreens  there,  adorn 
and  protect  a  rural  homo  far  better 
than  a  perfect  swamp  of  trees. 

The  southern  slope  of  a  hill 
side  is  a  desirable  site  for  a  house, 
as  it  furnishes  the  opportunity  for 
the  enjoyment  of  the  full  sunlight 
during  most  of  the  day.  The  north- 
ern side  of  the  road  should  also 
be  chosen  when  practicable.  The 
house  should  always  be  located 
near  the  highway.  We  have  seen 
houses  in  the  country  located  in 
such  a  manner  and  so  far  from 
the  road,  that  it  would  he  almost 
impossible  for  the  inmates  to  catch 
a  glimpse  of  what  was  passing  on 
the  highway,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  going  from  the  premises,  or 
the  receiving  of  visits  from  friends, 
they  would  seem  almost  as  much 
isolated  from  the  outer  world  as 
though  they  were  behind  prison 
bars.  The  farmer  and  his  sons 
would  not  be  as  much  affected  by  the  unpleasant  location  of  the  farm-house  as 
the  wife  and  daughters,  since  their  business  calls  them  away  into  the  fields  and 
broad  sunlight  so  large  a  portion  of  the  time;  but  it  does  very  materially  affect 
the  health  and  happiness  of  those  compelled  to  spend  the  most  part  of  their  time 
in  such  a  location. 


iiving  (he  Young  Ones  a  Show. 


510 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


The  house  should  he  so  located  and  planned  that  the  rooms  most  occupied  in 
the  daily  tasks  of  the  home  duties  should  be  upon  the  sunny  and  most  pleasant 
side  of  the  house,  commanding  the  best  view  of  the  highway  and  neighboring 
farm  houses.     To  persons  possessing  certain  temperaments,  the  isolation  and 

«--^^^-  , — retirement 

IplfPlPpP^--'''"!?^ — ^— -  '   __  """"  -  which     some 

'ocalities  in 
he  country 
mpose,  is  a 
serious  cause 
of  nervous- 
ness and  mor- 
bidness, and 
it  has  been 
stated  by 
some  of  the 
highest  medi- 
cal authori- 
ties, that 
much  of  the 
insanity 
among  farm- 
ers' wives — 
which  is  more 
frequent,  in 
proportion, 
than  among 
almost  every 
other  class  of 
persons  — 
may  be  direct- 
ly traceable 
to  excessive 
hard  labor 
and  this  isola- 
tion and  mon- 
otony in  life. 
With  nothing 
to  divert  from 
the  dull  and 
monotonous 
routine  of  la- 
bor, day  after 

"  Keep  him  Away  I  Keep  him  Away  1"  "liv    llld  Veir 

after  year,  the  mind  is  apt  to  prey  upon  itself  with  the  consequent  evil  effects. 
Our  surroundings  have  much  to  do  in  making  up  the  sum  of  happiness  in 
life,    and   nothing   that   contributes   to   it   even   in   the   least   should   be   over- 
looked . 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS 


511 


Country  life  is,  of  necessity,  devoid  of  much  of  the  variety  which  the  village 
or  city  afford,  but  it  need  not  be  rendered  doubly  isolated  and  the  home  a  lonely 
hermitage  fur  that  reason.  The  most  pleasant  location  possible  should  be  chosen 
for  tho  home,  at  a  convenient  and  desirable  proximity  to  the  public  road,  on  a 
slight  elevation  if  practicable.  In  sections  where  the  land  is  low  and  level,  a 
slight  elevation  can  be  made  artificially  by  carting  earth  and  building  up  the 
surface.  This  involves  considerable  labor,  but  will  well  repay  it,  in  some  locations, 
by  the  better  drainage  thus  secured,  as  well  as  by  improving  the  appearance  of  the 
grounds. 

Influence  of  the  Dwelling 
upon  Character. — In  the  con- 
struction of  all  farm  buildings 
they  should  be  adapted  to  the 
purpose  for  which  they  are  in- 
tended. As  the  house  is  de- 
signed for  the  protection,  com- 
fort, health,  and  happiness  of 
the  household,  it  should  be 
constructed  in  a  manner  suited 
to  subserve  these  purposes ; 
hence,  it  should  be  convenient, 
roomy,  and  of  sufficient  size 
to  meet  the  wants  of  the  fam- 
ily. It  should  be  well  lighted 
and  ventilated,  pleasant  and 
tasty 


in  arrangement  and  de- 


sign. 


It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  "home"  is  not  merely  a 
place  of  shelter  from  the 
storms  and  cold  of  winter  and 
the  heat  of  summer — a  place 
in  which  to  sleep  securely  at 
night  and  labor  by  day;  it  is 
all  this,  and  something  vastly 
more.  It  is  a  place  where  the 
children  receive  their  first  and 
most  lasting  impressions,  those 
that  go  far  in  molding  and 
forming  the  character  of  the 
man  and  woman  in  after  life. 

A  tasty,  orderly  home  has  a  refining,  educating  influence  upon  its  inmates,  while 
an  unattractive,  gloomy-looking,  and  poorly-furnished  house  has  an  influence 
which  is  the  reverse  from  elevating.  Where  there  is  nothing  to  cultivate  a  re- 
fined taste  and  there  is  necessitated  a  constant  association  with  things  that  are 
meagre  and  mean,  the  mind  naturally  is  warped  in  the  same  direction.  A  plea- 
sant home  will  not  only  prove  an  attraction  to  the  children  of  the  owner,  keep- 
ing them  from  places  that  are  debasing  in  their  influences,  but  will  also  attract 


512 


PROFITABLE   FARM  I  N( 'i. 


.better  associates  for  them,  who  will  come  and  visit  where  they  hud  the  same 
refining  and  pleasant  surroundings  to  which  they  are  accustomed  in  their  own 
homes. 

Things  that  may  seem  small  in  themselves  are  often  vastly  large  in  their 
influence,  and  determine  the  Avhole  course  of  many  a  human  life.  We  are  apt  to 
speak  of  "destiny"  in  life,  and  regard  it  as  something  mysterious  and  inevita- 
ble— an  indefinable  power  that  determines  the  fate  of  mortals,  and  over  which 

they  have  no  con- 
trol. But  the  fact 
is,  our  destiny  is  in 
our  own  hands,  and 
is  what  we  make  it ; 
consequently,  our 
own  lives,  and  the 
lives  of  those  de- 
pending upon  us, 
arc,  in  a  great  mea- 
sure, what  we  make 
them. 

We  are  more  or 
less  influenced  by 
our  surroundings, 
and  too  little  atten- 
tion and  import- 
ance is  generally 
given  to  this  fact  in 
the  construction 
and  furnishing  of 
our  homes.  But 
some  fanners  will 
say:  "Such  talk  is 
all  very  well  for 
those  that  have 
plenty  of  money 
and  can  afford  to 
have  nice  homes, 
but  we  are  not  able 
to  make  our  homes 
tasty  and  attractive ; 
we  are    poor,    and 

Haying  Lots  of  Fnn.  we     an(j    QU].     c]jU. 

dren  must  work  for  a  living.  We  have  neither  the  means  nor  the  time  to  bestow 
in  beautifying  our  homes,  and  the  idea  of  farmers  of  such  limited  means,  that 
the}'  can  scarcely  make  a  living  from  their  farms,  embellishing  their  homes,  is  all 
nonsense." 

To  be  sure,  "bread"  is,  indeed,  the  "staff  of  life,"  and  the  material  wants 
must  receive  the  first  attention;  it  is  better,  if  we  cannot  have  but  one,  to  have 
the  body  properly  fed  and  cared  for,  than  to  have  a  beautiful  home.     But  without 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


513 


pleasant  surroundings  lifo  is  but  half  a  life,  and  how  few  realize  at  what  slight 
expense  a  home  maybe  made  tasty  and  attractive!  How  few  understand  how 
pleasant  and  enjoyable  life  on  the  farm  in  the  country  can  be  made,  and  at  what 
small  expenditures  the  rural  home  may  be  rendered  convenient,  tasteful,  and 
really  beautiful!  For  the  exercise  of  good  taste  and  ingenuity  does  not  necessa- 
rily imply  extravagance.  We  have  seen  houses  in  the  city  furnished  with  the 
most  wanton  extravagance,  where  money  was  lavished  almost  without  limit,  and 


His  Future  Master. 


yet  they  were  not  beautiful,  because  there  was  no  taste  displayed  in  the  selection 
and  arrangement.  To  be  sure,  everything  Avas  expensive  and  rich,  but  there  was 
a  lack  of  harmony  and  good  taste  that  offended  the  eye,  as  a  discordant  note  in  a 
strain  of  music  offends  the  ear. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  have  entered  many  a  rural  country  home — a  small 
bird's-nest  kind  of  cottage,  perhaps — where  everything  seemed  so  neat,  tasteful, 
and  perfectly  adapted  to  the  place,  and  surroundings  that  possessed  a  charm  and 

33 


514  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


attraction  th  it  rendered  the  term  ''beautiful"  not  an  inappropriate  one  to  apply- 
to  it;  and  yc  fc,  perhaps,  many  of  the  furnishings  and  ornamentations  were  rustic 
carvings,  or  jther  work  performed  by  the  father  or  boys  of  the  household  on  winter 
evenings  or  rainy  days  when  not  employed  on  the  farm,  while  the  wife  and  daugh- 
ters had  beautified  every  niche  and  nook  within  with  specimens  of  their  decora- 
tive art  and  handiwork,  and  without  with  trailing  vines,  blooming  shrubs  and 
flowers,  in  a  manner  that  only  a  certain  quality  of  feminine  taste  and  ingenuity 
can  devif-1   and  execute. 

Wealth  loes  not  always  furnish  a  tasty  or  a  happy  home,  although  it  may  pos- 
sess the  n  )ans  of  doing  this,  while  the  lack  of  a  competence  need  not  necessarily 
prevent  tl  i  possession  of  a  home  that  is  tasteful  and  attractive,  the  abode  of 
contentm*  at  and  happiness. 

Plant  for  Form  Houses. — Before  erecting  a  new  house  it  will  be  very  essen- 
tial for  1  le  farmer  not  only  to  have  a  well-defined  plan,  which  will  secure  for 
himself  i  ad  family  all  the  conveniences  and  comforts  practicable,  but  also  to 
carefully  estimate  the  expense  that  will  be  incurred,  and  whether  he  can  safely 
and  with  >ut  injury  to  his  financial  prosperity  withdraw  from  his  business  the 
amount  of  money  necessary  for  the  purpose.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  found 
better  to  occupy  the  old  house  two  or  three  years  longer,  until  the  financial  status 
of  the  fa  rner  is  such  that  he  can  safely  invest  in  the  enterprise  of  building  the 
new;  fo>  while  a  neat  and  attractive  house  to  live  in  is  a  very  desirable  thing, 
still  it  a  better  to  occupy  one  that  is  old  and  time-worn  and  even  shabby  in 
appeara  ice  than  to  be  driven  into  bankruptcy  by  the  erection  of  a  new  one  before 
being  r<  ally  able  to  do  so.  On  the  other  side  of  the  question,  farmers,  as  a  gen- 
eral ruL-;,  are  very  cautious  and  quite  too  apt  to  go  to  the  opposite  extreme  of 
delay  in  ;•  the  enjoyment  of  the  new  beyond  their  means,  instead  of  taking  them 
in  adva  ice.  And  too  many  of  them  subject  themselves  and  families  to  the  depri- 
vation <  if  many  things  that  might  and  should  be  enjoyed. 

LI;  e  is  short  at  its  longest,  and  if  a  few  years  of  it  may  be  made  brighter  for 
the  household  by  occupying  a  neat  and  commodious  house,  why  not  brighten 
these  few  years  for  such  members  as  soon  may  leave  it,  instead  of  delaying  it  and 
involving  a  loss  to  all,  and,  perhaps,  until  it  shall  be  too  late  for  some  loved  one 
ever  to  enjoy  it?  -       , 

A  house,  in  order  to  be  comfortable  and  pleasant,  need  not  necessarily  be 
very  expensive.  A  neat  and  tasty  cottage,  relieved  by  slight  ornamentation  of 
the  severe  plainness  so  frequently  characterizing  country  homes,  would  be  very 
suitable  for  the  purpose. 

The  Barn. — As  commonly  appropriated,  farm  barns  are  used  for  the  protec- 
tion of  stock  against  inclement  weather,  the  storage  of  their  food,  the  manufacture 
and  preservation  of  fertilizing  materials,  and  the  storage  of  farm  machinery. 
Aside  from  these  considerations,  the  convenience  in  performing  the  barn  work 
should  also  be  taken  into  account  in  constructing  a  barn.  On  very  large  farms 
necessitating  the  extensive  use  of  farm  implements,  a  separate  building  is  some- 
times required  for  their  storage. 

A  good  barn  is  one  of  the  great  essentials  on  a  farm.  In  newly  settled  por- 
tions, they  are  sometimes  dispensed  with  for  a  time,  until  the  land  can  be  put 
under  cultivation,  and  the  owner  is  able  to  erect  the  necessary  farm  buildings. 
This  is  frenuentlv  the  case  in  the  far  West,  but  even  under  such  circumstances 


Ci 

o 
o 
o 


'$-<■* 


K   ^__ 


616 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


the  most  thrifty  and  enterprising  farmers  will  not  be  long  without  a  barn,  and 
those  which  are  the  most  enterprising  and  prosperous  will  erect  the  best  farn 
buildings  and  keep  them  in  the  best  repair.  As  a  general  rule  the  barns  of  the 
Western  and  Southern  portions  of  the  country  are  not  equal  in  architectural 
structure  and  convenience  to  those  of  the  New  England  and  Middle  States, 
although  many  portions  of  the  older  settled  sections  of  the  West  are  fully  equal 
in  this  respect  to  either  of  the  latter  mentioned.  Next  to  a  good  farm  house,  a 
good  barn  is  essential,  and  no  farmer'can  afford  to  be  without  one,  which  shoxild 
be  of  sufficient  size  for  all  the  purposes  to  which  it  is  to  be  appropriated. 

While  large  barns  are  more  expensive  than  small  ones,  and  a  surplus  of  room 
in  this  respect  is  therefore  a  lack  of  economy,  yet  it  more  frequently  happens 
that  barns  are.  too  small,  rather  than  too  large,  and  the  owners  are  obliged  to  be 

subjected  to 
great  incon- 
venience for 
this  reason, 
or  be  at  the 
expense  of 
building  oth- 
ers, cr  enlar- 
ging the  orig- 
inal. Alaig3 
number  o  f 
small  build= 
in  gs  on  a 
farm  are  9 
blemish  and 
an  unneces- 
sary expense, 
and  it  is  bet- 
ter in  every 
respect  for 
the  farmer 
to  build  one 
barn  of  suffi- 
cient dimen- 
sions for  all 
the  practical 
rises  on  the  farm,  than  to  be  obliged  to  build  two  or  three  small  ones. 

The  size  of  the  barn  must,  of  course,  be  proportionate  to  the  size  and  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  farm,  and  the  number  of  animals  to  be  furnished  comfortable 
quarters.  Even  in  latitudes  that  do  not  require  the  housing  of  stock  during  a 
certain  portion  of  the  year,  animals  that  are  kept  stabled  a  part  of  the  time  are 
more  valuable,  as  they  have  better  care,  and  are  more  gentle  and  therefore  easily 
managed,  while  they  can  also  be  fed  with  less  Avaste  of  material,  and  the  fertili- 
zers they  produce  can  all  be  saved  with  little  care,  which  is  no  small  considera- 
tion when  we  take  into  account  the  value  of  well  decomposed  manure  to  the 
farmer.     In  those  latitudes  in  which  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  a  portion 


Recreation  for  City  People. 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  517 

•f  the  year,  the  barn  should  bo  largo  enough  to  accommodate  all  the  stock  on  the 
farm  and  their  fodder.  Animals  that  are  not  protected  from  the  cold  require 
more  food  than  those  that  are,  since  much  of  the  food  "which  they  consume  goes 
towards  the  production  of  animal  heat,  and  unless  enough  food  is  given  them  to 
satisfy  their  hunger,  this  extra  demand  reduces  the  supply  for  repairing  the  waste 
of  the  system;  consequently  such  animals  will  not  only  consume  larger  quantities 
of  food,  but  will  grow  thin  in  flesh  and  present  an  emaciated  condition  in  the 
spring.  Young  horses  and  cattle  are  frequently  stunted  in  their  growth  by  this 
means. 

On  the  other  hand,  stock  that  are  provided  with  warm,  comfortable  quarters, 
will  consume  less  food,  and  be  kept  in  a  thriving  condition  during  the  winter. 
Diseases  are  also  more  frequently  prevented,  and  more  easily  cured  under  such 
conditions.  Cows  that  are  kept  in  warm  stables  will  give  more  milk  and  of 
better  quality  than  those  that  are  not  comfortably  housed.  This  truth  is  so  appa- 
rent that  it  requires  no  argument  to  substantiate  it.  It  is,  therefore,  a  practice  of 
economy,  as  well  as  humanity,  for  the  farmer  to  furnish  food  and  good  shelter 
for  his  stock. 

Where  ensilage  is  used  extensively  for  feeding  animals,  less  room  will  be 
required  in  the  barn  for  the  storage  of  hay.  Hay  may  be  stacked  in  the  field, 
thus  rendering  less  room  necessary  in  the  barn;  but  hay  that  is  thus  exposed  to 
the  weather  is  greatly  inferior  to  that  which  is  stored ;  besides,  stacking  involves 
much  waste.  A  great  advantage  in  this  respect  will  be  found  in  baling  hay,  as 
it  will  then  occupy  much  less  room  than  otherwise.  In  building  a  barn  the 
farmer  should  have  as  definite  an  idea  of  its  use,  and  the  necessities  for  its  con- 
Tenience,  as  in  building  a  house,  and  in  many  respects  what  will  apply  to  the  one 
will,  with  slight  modifications,  apply  to  the  other. 

In  a  large  portion  of  the  country  it  will  be  necessary  to  build  barns  in  a 
manner  to  secure  warmth;  hence,  they  must  be  tightly  covered  and  the  floors 
well  laid,  that  the  cold  air  may  not  blow  in  upon  the  animals.  At  the  same  time, 
good  ventilation  must  be  maintained.  While  warmth  is  essential  in  a  barn  for 
the  comfort  and  thrift  of  the  animals,  it  is  better  that  the  barn  be  cold,  and  good 
rentilation  secured  by  air  blowing  through  the  cracks  and  about  the  windows, 
rather  than  that  the  animals  be  made  to  breathe  the  offensive  and  tainted  atmos- 
phere of  badly-ventilated  stables.  Cattle  kept  in  such  enclosures  cannot  be 
healthy,  and  are  totally  unfit  to  become  food  for  mankind. 

Location  of  Barns. — The  barn  should  be  located  at  a  convenient  distance  from 
the  farm  house,  but  sufficiently  removed  to  prevent  all  contamination  of  air  and 
water.  It  should  never  be  placed  upon  the  ground  higher  than  the  house,  in  such 
&  manner  that  the  drainage  of  it,  either  on  the  surface  or  in  the  soil,  will  be  able 
to  reach  the  cellar,  well,  or  the  surroundings.  Unless  on  a  level,  with  the  house, 
the  barn  should  be  placed  on  a  lower  level,  if  practicable.  The  location  should 
also  be  so  chosen  that  the  drainage  from  the  barn-yard  shall  flow  upon  the  farm 
lands,  that  they  may  receive  and  absorb  all  the  fertilizing  elements  that  may  be 
washed  from  the  yard  in  heavy  storms,  etc.  We  have  frequently  seen  barns  built 
upon  a  road  side,  with  a  slope  towards  the  highway  into  which  all  the  wash  from 
the  yard  is  carried  year  after  year.  By  this  means  much  of  the  fertility  that 
might  be  derived  from  this  source  is  lost  to  the  farm.  This  may  seem  a  small 
matter  to  those  farmers  who  till  the  prairie  soil,  possessing  such  a  wealth  of  fer- 
tility that  it  requires  no  fertilizer  in  addition,  for  the  production  of  vast  crops; 


(518) 


O,  Mister,  Open  the  Gate,  will  yer  ? 


1'iiACi'j.OAL  BuGGJiibTlONS.  519 


bub  to  the  farmer  whoso  soil  is  such  quality  that  it  necessitates  such  a  large 
supply  of  plant  food  applied  every  year  to  render  it  productive,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  preserve,  or  secure  the  requisite  amount,  it  means  considerable. 

Other  important  considerations  are  involved  in  the  location  of  a  barn,  such 
as  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  animals  to  be  stabled  in  it;  consequently  dry 
land  should  be  chosen  and  damp  localities  be  avoided;  also  cold,  bleak  sites,  or 
those  that  are  inconvenient  of  access  in  hauling  loads  to  and  from  it.  The  old- 
fashioned  custom  of  building  a  house  on  one  side  of  the  highway  and  the  barn 
on  the  other,  nearly  opposite,  should  also  be  regarded  as  obsolete,  and  a  better 
one  substituted  in  its  place.  Frequently  a  locality  will  be  found  admitting  of  a 
basement  partly  under  ground,  which  will  furnish  the  best  facilities  for  a  root- 
cellar,  as  well  as  for  other  purposes. 

Stables. — It  is  always  Avell  to  have  plenty  of  stable  room,  even  in  a  warm  cli- 
mate, where  protection  from  the  weather  is  not  as  necessary  as  in  the  higher 
latitudes.  Animals  that  are  stabled  a  portion  of  the  time  are  more  tame  and 
gentle,  hence  more  easily  managed,  and  are  really  more  valuable  on  this  account. 
They  also  can  be  kept  in  a  better  condition  by  the  care  they  may  thus  receive, 
while  they  will  not  waste  one-half  the  food  that  they  would  if  spread  upon  the 
ground.  Animals  that  are  fed  on  the  ground  will  not  only  waste  a  great  deal, 
but  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  being  hooked  by  others,  while  the  master  spirits  of 
the  herd  prevent  the  timid  ones  from  getting  their  portion.  By  stable-feeding, 
these  evils  are  all  avoided.  Stables  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  avoid  crowding. 
Animals  that  are  crowded  into  narrow  quarters  will  not  thrive. 

Stables  should,  as  a  general  rule,  be  built  higher  than  they  commonly  are, 
They  should  never  be  less  than  eight  and  a  half  feet,  while  ten  feet  would  be 
much  better.  A  better  and  drier  condition  of  atmosphere  is  thus  secured.  The 
atmosphere  of  any  stable  should  be  sufficiently  dry  to  permit  the  insensible  per- 
spiration to  pass  off,  and  at  the  same  time  sufficiently  warm  to  dry  a  horse  readily 
when  its  coat  is  wet  with  perspiration  and  is  being  well  rubbed. 

Light  in  Stables. — Stables  should  be  located  in  the  sunny  side  of  the  build- 
ing, that  the  animals  may  have  the  benefit  of  the  warmth  and  sunlight  thus 
afforded.  A  dark  stable  should  always  be  avoided.  Light  is  as  essential  to  ani- 
mals as  to  men,  and  no  animal  will  thrive  to  be  excluded  from  it  for  any  length 
of  time.  At  the  same  time,  the  arrangement  of  the  stable  should  be  such  that 
the  light  can  be  admitted  without  its  being  too  intense  in  the  face  of  the  ani- 
mals. We  have  known  horses  and  cattle  to  have  been  made  partially  or  wholly 
blind  by  being  confined  in  stables  where  their  eyes  were  exposed  to  a  stronglight 
most  of  the  time.  If  practicable,  the  light  should  come  in  from  the  rear,  thus 
affording  a  protection  to  the  eyes.  Stables  located  on  the  south  side  of  a  building — 
which  is  the  most  desirable  arrangement — will  admit  of  the  best  means  of  thus 
adjusting  the  light. 

Ventilation  of  Stables. — Good  ventilation  is  also  highly  essential.  So  much 
•  has  been  previously  stated  with  reference  to  this  subject  that  a  repetition  here 
seems  unnecessary.  No  animal  can  be  healthy  without  pure  air.  Good  ventila- 
tors should  be  arranged  at  the  top  of  the  barn  where  stock  are  kept  to  permit  the 
foul  air  to  escape,  while  there  should  also  be  openings  near  the  floor  for  admit- 
ting the  pure  air.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  order  to  have  the  arrange- 
ments for  ventilation  such  that  no  animal  shall  be  exposed  to  a  draught  of  air. 


(5:20) 


Embryq  Seamen, 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


521 


Such  exposure  will  produce  the  most  serious  results  to  mankind  or  animals,  pneu- 
monia and  other  diseases  being  frequently  occasioned  by  it. 

We  have  in  mind  a  farmer  who  lost  with  lung  fever  a  valuable  Alderney  cow 
from  his  dairy  herd  for  three  winters  in  succession  from  having  them  stand  in 
the  stable  directly  in  front  of  an  open  window,  where  they  were  constantly  exposed 
to  a  draft  of  air  from  the  rear.  And  this  farmer  was  either  so  indifferent,  or 
ignorant,  Avith  respect  to 
sanitary  laws,  that  it  was 
only  the  fact  of  the  cows 
that  died  in  this  manner 
having  each  occupied  the 
same  place  in  the  stable 
that  aroused  his  mind  to  in- 
vestigate as  to  the  cause. 

Stables  should  be  built 
tight  and  warm  for  the 
comfort  of  the  stock,  as 
well  as  for  economic  rea- 
sons, while  the  pure  air  to 
be  sujDplied  for  the  animals 
to  breathe  should  find  an 
entrance  in  itsp  roper  place, 
and  not  through  the  cracks 
of  the  barn  at  the  sides,  or 
up  through  the  stable  floor, 
or  through  an  open  window 
in  cold,  wintry  weather, 
where  the  air  is  constantly 
blowing  upon  the  animals. 
If  any  farmer  doubts  the 
soundness  of  our  position 
in  this  respect,  let  him 
imagine  or  experience  the 
discomfort  and  effects  up- 
on the  health  of  being 
himself  confined  to  a  limi- 
ted space,  from  which  he 
oould  not  get  free,  and  be 
obliged  to  be  constantly  in 
a  cold  draught  day  and 
night.  If  those  having 
•harge  of  animals  were 
themselves  obliged  to  be 
subjected,  for  a  short  time  even,  to  the  same  treatment  they  impose  upon  tho 
dumb,  patient,  and  so  often  abused  creatures  under  their  care,  there  would  soon 
be  a  great  reformation  in  this  respect,  and  more  kindness  and  consideration  shown 
them  than  we  now  often  see. 


Keereatiou  lor  Country  Folks. 


522  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Floors,  Box-Stalls,  etc. — The  floors  of  stables  should  be  strong  and  well-laid. 
Serious  loss  sometimes  occurs  from  the  giving  away  of  the  stable  floor.  There- 
should  be  a  few  box-stalls  in  every  barn  where  stock  is  kept,  and  these  should  be 
so  arranged  that  a  single  animal  may  be  turned  in  loose  when  desired.  These 
are  very  convenient  for  horses  or  sick  animals  to  occupy.  They  are  also  almost 
a  necessity  for  use  as  lying-in  stalls  for  cows,  while  they  furnish  a  convenient 
place  for  young  calves  when  separated  from  the  mother. 

Whatever  the  method  of  fastening  employed,  it  should  be  such  as  will  admit 
of  the  free  use  of  the  head  and  a  restful  position  in  lying  down.  We  have  seen 
animals  so  tied  in  the  stable  that  they  could  not  lie  down  without  great  discom- 
fort. While  cattle  should  be  so  secured  by  fastenings  that  they  cannot  break 
loose,  hook  or  otherwise  injure  each  other,  they  should  have  sufficient  freedom  to 
maintain  comfortable  positions  in  standing  up  or  lying  down.  All  animals  would 
be  more  comfortable  when  stabled  if  they  could  each  have  the  freedom  of  a  box- 
stall,  without  being  tied  at  all.  This  would  be  impracticable  where  many  cattle 
are  kept,  but  if  all  working  horses  could  be  favored  with  such  comfortable  quar- 
ters we  believe  they  would  last  much  longer,  and  the  benefits  derived  would  well 
repay  the  expense  of  this  luxury  to  them. 

Freedom  of  movement  is  just  as  essential  to  animals  as  to  man  for  health 
and  comfort,  and  if  horses  could  each  have  a  large  box-stall,  where  they  could 
run  loose  and  get  some  exercise  in  unfavorable  weather,  and  lie  down  in  any  posi- 
tion that  they  might  choose,  it  would  be  much  better  for  them  than  the  common 
custom  of  fastening  them  to  one  place  in  a  narrow,  dingy  stable.  Mangers  should 
be  made  perfectly  smooth  inside,  and  so  well  fitted  that  even  dry  meal  or  bran 
can  be  fed  them  without  waste.  Where  racks  are  used,  a  shallow  box  should  b» 
arranged  underneath  to  prevent  the  waste  of  hay. 

A    GOOD    PLATFORM    FOR   THE   FARMERS. 

If  the  farmers  will  stand  flat-footed  on  the  following  platform  for  the  next 
year,  they  will  not  be  ashamed  of  it: 

1.  Six  full  days'  work  every  week. 

2.  Never  wait  for  work  to  push  you. 

3.  Kill  the  May  crop  of  grass  and  weeds  dead  before  they  have  time  to  claim 
the  field  by  peaceable  possession. 

4.  Look  carefully  after  the  feed,  health,  and  comfort  of  your  work  animals. 
Remember  that  sore  shoulders  and  skinned  backs  of  horses  and  mules  indicate 
careless  and  cruel  mastors. 

5.  Keep  tools  in  good  order,  and  have  duplicates  of  such  as  are  liable  im 
break  or  wear  out. 

6.  Never  get  in  an  awful  hurry,  and  push  and  rush  and  cavort  around.  Suck 
men  generally  break  down  before  the  middle  of  the  week. 

7.  Lay  all  your  plans  several  days  ahead,  and  always  have  a  job  ready  for  a. 
wet  spell.  Never  let  your  hands  know  that  you  are  wanting  in  plans  and  deci- 
sion.    That  will  make  them  indifferent,  and  perhaps  lazy. 

8.  A  well-cultivated  crop  is  of  much  more  importance  to  you  than  political 
meetings,  wire-pulling  caucuses,  and  conventions. 

9.  Work  for  the  biggest  yield  to  the  acre  you  have  ever  made. 

10.   Make  your  own  supplies  on  the  farm  as  far  as  you  possibly  can. 


(0BS) 


024  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


FEEDING    OIL-CAKE. 

The  great  importance  given  to  oil-cake,  as  an  auxiliary  food,  raises  the  perti- 
nent question,  in  what  form — crushed,  steeped,  or  in  meal — can  it  be  most  profita- 
bly employed  ?  Concentrated  rations  are  most  useful  when  given  under  a  form 
which  permits  them  to  be  readily  digested.  The  experiments  of  Professor  Kuhn, 
of  Mockern,  show,  that  if  anything,  concentrated  food  is  less  assimilable  in  tiie 
liquid,  than  in  the  pulverous  or  mealy,  dry  state.  Softened  by  steeping,  much 
food  is  swallowed,  not  masticated,  by  the  animal,  and  in  the  case  of  ruminants, 
passes  directly  into  the  third  stomach,  and  so  escapes  eudding.  Now  rumination 
plays  an  important  part  in  digestion.  Dry  and  mealy  rations  should  then  be 
moistened,  but  not  wet;  or,  sprinkled  over  other  food.  In  the  case  of  rape-cake, 
the  steeping  produces  a  penetrating  odor  which  communicates  a  taste  to  the  milk 
and  butter,  and  occasionally  affects  the  animal's  health.  It  is  considered  that 
more  deleterious  foreign  matters  find  their  way  into  oleaginous  food,  when  in  the 
state  of  cake,  than  if  in  the  sifted  meal  form.  True,  the  latter  can  be  on  the 
other  hand  adulterated;  but  against  this  there  is  the  usual  protection  of  purchas- 
ing from  respectable  houses. 

CULTIVATE  THE  WILLOW. 

There  are  many  special  crops  which  might  be  profitably  grown  in  this  coun- 
try, and  which  have  been  entirely  neglected,  or  at  least  to  that  extent  which 
nearly  amounts  to  neglect.  For  many  years  we  have  depended  upon  foreign 
countries  for  our  supply  of  basket  willow,  and  some  idea  of  the  extent 
of  the  demand  for  this  simple  article  or  variety  of  wood,  can  be  gleaned 
from  the  fact  that  nearly  $6,000,000  worth  is  annually  imported  into  the  United 
States  from  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  France.  From  Holland,  how- 
ever, comes  the  largest  supply,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  best  and  most  acceptable  quality, 
the  climate  and  the  numerous  dykes,  on  the  borders  of  which  it  flourishes  finely, 
being  especially  adapted  to  its  successful  growth,  while  experience  has  taught  tb« 
Hollanders  how  to  prepare  it  so  as  to  best  meet  the  wishes  of  manufacturers  here. 
There  is  no  just  reason  why  we  cannot  readily  produce  all  that  can  possibly  be  called 
for  in  this  country,  and  do  so  profitably  to  the  grower,  for  that  there  is  considera- 
ble profit  in  its  growth  for  market  is  undoubtedly  true.  One  of  the  greatest 
items  in  its  favor  is  that  it  grows  best  on  such  spots  of  lands  as  cannot  profitably 
be  utilized  for  other  crops,  on  account  of  the  excessive  and  constant  moisture,  but 
meadows  and  the  banks  of  low  and  shallow  streams  being  best  adapted  for  its 
rapid  and  healthy  growth.  It  is  also  in  such  localities,  an  admirable  wind-break, 
while  it  serves  to  beautify  or  hide  what  would  otherwise  be  unsightly  spots  on  the 
farm.  It  grows  over  a  wide  range  of  latitude  and  temperature,  and  is  found  in 
variety  in  nearly  every  State  in  our  Union,  especially  the  black  willow,  which  is 
grown  as  an  ornamental  tree,  and  as  a  shelter  and  wind-break.  This  variety, 
however,  is  not  vised  in  basket-making,  and  in  kindred  work,  the  true  osier  wil- 
low being  the  only  kind  which  can  thus  be  used,  on  account  of  its  light  color,  its 
strength  and  elasticity,  and  its  tendency  to  succor,  thus  producing  wood  of  the 
size  and  form  most  desired.  In  severely  cold  climates  the  rapid  growth  of  the 
black  willow  is  used  as  before  stated,  as  a  protection  to  stock  from  the  bleak  and 
cutting  blasts  which  prevail  in  some  localities  nearly  the  entire  winter,  its  rapid 
and  dense  growth  soon  affording  the  necessary  protection. 


Distressed. 


(525) 


596  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


While  all  varieties  of  the  willow  delight  in  a  cool,  moist,  or  wet  soil,  and  on. 
lands  bordering  on  streams,  it  will  readily  root  and  grow  in  almost  any  locality, 
even  on  upland,  and  is  not  at  all  particular  as  to  the  quality  or  richness  of  the 
■oil,  although  where  it  is  planted — the  osier — for  profit,  such  localities  as  are  best 
suited  to  its  successful  growth  should  be  selected,  so  as  to  produce  a  quick,  strong 
growth,  and  an  abundance  of  such  shoots  as  find  greatest  favor  with  purchasers. 
Aside  from  its  value  as  an  ornamental  tree,  as  a  wind-break,  and  for  basket-mak- 
ing and  for  like  uses,  its  value  by  no  means  ceases  there,  for  its  lightness,  tough- 
ness, and  elasticity  fit  it  for  numerous  other  uses,  to  which  it  would  be  put  mora 
largely  if  the  supply  from  domestic  sources  could  be  depended  on.  In  making  ox 
yokes  it  is  especially  prized,  as  it  is  less  than  half  the  weight  of  the  hard  woodi 
so  frequently  used,  and  this  with  no  decrease  of  strength  or  durability,  while  it  is 
more  extensively  used  by  furniture  manufacturers  than  many  persons  imagine,  it 
being  a  wood  which  will  partake  of  a  magnificent  finish  on  account  of  its  close- 
ness and  evenness  of  grain,  and  so  tough  as  to  stand  rough  usage  almost  indefi- 
nitely. The  manufacturers  of  gun  powder  use  the  charcoal  in  large  quantities 
made  from  this  wood,  while  tanners  call  for  its  bark  for  their  uses,  the  bark  con- 
taining large  quantities  of  tannic  acid,  and  the  sprouts  are  utilized  by  the  basket- 
makers,  so  all  is  made  good  and  profitable  use  of  unless  it  be  perhaps  the  leaves. 

In  growing  the  willow  principally  for  the  basket-makers'  uses,  it  should  be 
the  object  to  encourage  the  production  of  large  numbers  of  shoots.  The  wil- 
low is  readily  propagated  by  cuttings  which  are  either  set  out  and  then  trans- 
planted when  they  are  well  rooted  to  the  spot  where  they  are  intended  to  grow, 
or  else  a  couple"  of  shoots  about  a  foot  or  so  in  length  set  out  right  where  they 
were  intended  to  remain,  as  they  root  quickly  and  seldom  fail  to  grow.  If  both  of 
the  shoots  grow  one  can  be  removed  to  another  place,  as  one  is  enough  to  remain. 
Let  it  grow  all  it  will  the  first  season,  and  in  the  late  fall  cut  it  back;  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  you  will  get  a  good  growth,  when  the  cutting  back  can  be  repeated. 
The  third  season  you  can,  if  the  plantation  has  been  properly  handled,  harvest 
your  first  crop,  and  thereafter  for  many  years,  as  the  willow  is  long-lived  and  will 
produce  increasing  crops  every  year.  It  will  be  found  to  bring  in  a  very  accepta- 
ble crop  of  money  each  year,  and  from  land  which  would  otherwise  be  worse  than 
useless.  The  expenses  of  starting  and  maintaining  a  plantation  of  the  osier  or 
basket  willow  is  trifling,  and  is  not  at  all  felt.  It  requires  no  cultivation  and  but 
little  to  keep  the  trees,  so-called,  in  proper  trim,  the  greatest  amount  of  time  being 
expended  in  harvesting  and  preparing  the  shoots  for  market.  In  doing  this  the 
bark  is  quickly  and  thoroughly  stripped  from  the  shoots  by  means  of  an  impro- 
vised hatchet  attached  to  a  bench.  This  hatchet  is  made  in  several  different 
shapes,  the  one  most  readily  used  being  a  series  of  dull  V-shaped  teeth  in  a  dou- 
ble frame,  the  upper  one  being  loose  and  movable,  to  give  with  the  varying  size 
of  the  pieces,  and  so  as  not  to  injure  the  appearance  of  the  wood.  The  shoots 
are  then  seasoned,  care  being  taken  not  to  injure  the  white  color  so  muck 
desired,  when  they  are  assorted  into  sizes  and  put  into  bundles  and  bales  and  ship- 
ped to  dealers  in  such  goods  in  our  different  largecities. 

THE   TIME    TO    CUT   TIMBER. 

The  time  to  cut  timber  should  be  determined  by  the  consideration  of  the 
nse  to  which  it  is  to  be  put,  for  one  thing.     For  example,  hickory  cut  when  the 


Wr.LL  Trained! 


(527) 


528  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


bark  adheres  has  very  little  value  for  fence  rails.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the 
worms  will  attack  it  and  soon  bore  it  to  pieces.  Also  it  will  rot  very  fast  when 
the  bark  adheres.  Hickory  is  very  susceptible  to  moisture,  and  when  moisture 
gets  under  the  bark,  as  it  soon  will,  the  sap-wood  rots  very  rapidly  and  the  rot 
eats  fast  into  the  heart-wood.  A  hickory  rail  with  the  bark  sticking  fast  to  it 
should  never  be  put  into  a  fence.  It  will  rot  so  soon  that  it  is  hardly  worth 
handling,  and  then  to  replace  it  will  be  troublesome.  But  if  live  hickory  is  cut' 
when  the  bark  peels  off,  say  in  August  or  early  September,  and  the  bark  it 
jerked  off  and  the  rails  stacked  up  off  the  ground  to  season,  the  rail  will  be 
very  nearly  or  quite  as  durable  as  the  best  for  off  the  ground  use.  It  matter« 
not  at  what  time  hickory  is  cut,  it  will  soon  rot  if  it  rests  upon  the  ground,  for, 
as  we  have  already  stated,  it  is  very  susceptible  to  moisture.  But  if  used  above 
the  bottom  course,  a  hickory  rail  free  from  bark  and  seasoned  will  last  for  a  quar- 
ter of  a  centurv. 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  hickory  to  be  used  for  fencing,  or  for  any  other 
purpose  where  durability  is  required,  should  be  cut  when  it  will  peel  readily. 
This  is  true  of  other  woods.  White  oak  for  posts  will  last  one-fourth  longer  if 
cut  when  the  sap  is  flowing.  Of  course  moisture  is  well  retained  under  the 
bark,  and  this  hastens  rotting;  hence,  by  getting  rid  of  the  bark  we  retard  th« 
rotting.  The  idea  has  also  been  advanced  that  when  the  tree  is  cut  while  the  sap 
is  flowing  and  the  live  wood  is  charged  with  sap,  this  sap  excludes  from  the 
pores  of  the  wood  the  air  and  external  moisture,  and  therefore  decay  i» 
retarded. 

For  fuel,  however,  wood  should  be  cut  when  the  bark  adheres,  unless  the 
wood  is  to  be  stored  for  some  time.  Usually  the  durability  of  the  wood  we  nse 
for  fuel  cuts  no  figure,  as  it  is  burned  before  it  can  decay.  We  want  the  bark, 
for  it  makes  considerable  heat.  Taking  our  former  example,  hickory,  the  impor- 
tance of  having  the  bark  adhere  becomes  plain,  for  hickory  bark  makes  a  very 
hot  fire.  To  lose  the  bark  is  to  lose  a  good  part  of  the  fuel.  This  is  true  of 
the  bark  of  other  woods,  though  perhaps  not  in  so  great  degree.  Another  advan- 
tage in  having  the  bark  adhere  is  that  it  ignites  readily  and  is  a  help  in  starting 
the  fire.  We  desire  the  bark  to  adhere,  and  to  adhere  closely,  else  the  wood 
makes  a  litter  whenever  it  is  handled.  Not  only  the  bark  falls  on  the  carpet,  but 
also  the  small  pieces  of  loose  wood  and  the  dusty  stuff  just  under  the  bark,  which 
is  allowed  to  escape  by  the  loosening  of  the  bark.  The  woodshed,  the  walks,  and 
the  rooms  are  littered  up  sadly  when  wood  for  fuel  is  cut  at  such  time  that  the 
bark  falls  off. 

It  is  most  convenient  to  cut  nearly  all  wood  for  fuel  in  the  winter,  when  the 
bark  will  adhere;  but  it  is  inconvenient  to  cut  timber  when  the  sap  is  flowing 
freely,  and  that  is  when  it  should  be  cut  for  rails,  posts,  etc.  Spring  is  prac- 
tically out  of  the  question,  as  at  that  season  we  must  lend  all  our  energies  to 
repairing  fences  and  to  fitting  the  ground  for  crops  and  getting  those  crops  in 
the  ground.  The  fall  is  when  we  must  cut  most  of  the  timber  for  such  uses  that 
durability  is  an  important  quality.  Chopping  is  warm  work,  and  especially  in 
the  woods  in  the  West.  But  all  the  necessary  chopping  can  be  done  in  the  early 
morning,  before  the  day  gets  hot;  for  all  that  must  be  done  is  to  cut  the  trees 
down — they  need  not  be  worked  up  until  cool  weather  comes.  In  fact,  the  logs, 
which  Ave  presume  will  bo  cut  into  the  proper  lengths  with  the  cross-cut  saw,  as 


84 


Careful  Builder. 


(529) 


630  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


that  is  less  laborious  and  far  less  wasteful  than  to  chop  them  into  pieces  with 
the  axe,  can  be  sawed  most  easily  when  they  have  partly  seasoned.  If  sawed 
as  soon  as  the  tree  is  cut  down,  the  sap,  freely  exuding,  will  gum  and  clog  the 
saw  and  make  work  more  difficult  than  it  would  be  later.  Thick  chunks  should 
be  laid  for  the  tree  to  fall  on,  not  only  to  keep  the  trunk  off  the  ground,  and 
thus  protect  it  from  moisture  and  hasten  its  seasoning,  but  also  to  make  the 
work  of  sawing  the  trunk  into  pieces  not  so  tiresome  to  the  back. 

There  is  another  point  as  to  time  of  cutting  to  be  considered  in  relation  to 
the  durability  of  the  wood.  Many  kinds  of  wood  last  much  better  if  the  tree  is 
cut  while  yet  alive.  Take  that  variety  of  oak,  for  example,  known  as  pin  oak 
in  the  West,  where  it  is  quite  common.  If  the  tree  is  allowed  to  die  before  it  is 
cut,  the  wood  is  of  no  value  for  rails  or  posts.  Even  off  the  ground  rails  cut 
from  dead  pin-oak  trees  will  decay  so  rapidly  that  it  does  not  pay  to  put  them 
into  a  fence.  But  if  the  pin  oak  is  cut  while  alive  and  when  the  bark  will  peel 
off,  and  it  is  allowed  to  season,  it  makes  a  very  durable  rail  off  the  ground,  and 
a  moderately  durable  rail  on  the  ground  or  a  good  post.  However,  at  the  best  it 
is  not  so  good  for  posts  or  ground  rails  as  the  white  oak.  While  it  does  not  make 
so  great  a  difference  in  the  durability  of  some  woods  as  the  pin  oak  to  cut  it 
before  it  dies,  so  far  as  we  know  live  wood  is  always  the  most  durable,  and  dead 
wood  should  be  used  for  fuel. 

A   EAT-PEOOF    COEN   CEIB. 

A  crib  that  is  proof  against  rats  has  become  a  necessity  on  every  farm  where 
corn  is  grown.  The  rat  of  to-day  is  not  the  rat  of  ten  or  a  dozen  years  ago;  his 
enterprise  is  equal  to  and  keeps  pace  with  that  of  man.  His  ratship  at  this  age 
thinks  nothing  of  climbing  into  a  crib  that  his  early  ancestors  would  have  given 
up  in  despair.  What  can  be  more  filthy  than  a  crib  of  corn  into  which  rats  or 
mice  have  daily  access.  No  animal  should  be  compelled  to  subsist  on  such  foul 
rations.  If  this  marauder  were  content  to  eat  to  his  satisfaction  and  then  get 
out  without  doing  other  damage  it  would  not  be  so  bad,  but  that  does  not  suffice; 
the  whole  crib  full  must  be  subject  to  his  inspection,  and  the  result  is  generally 
not  very  satisfactory  to  the  owner  of  the  corn. 

Last  winter  a  part  of  our  corn  crop  was  stored  in  a  crib  built  ten  or  a  dozen 
years  ago.  When  first  built  it  was  seldom  if  ever  that  a  rat  managed  to  get  into 
it,  unless  something  was  carelessly  left  leaning  against  the  crib.  The  last  year  or 
two,  and  especially  last  winter,  there  were  a  few  enterprising  fellows  among  the 
rest  that  thought  it  good  fun  to  climb  in  and  help  themselves  whenever  they 
wished,  much  to  our  disgust  and  damage,  notwithstanding  we  did  our  best  to  hinder 
them.  Another  part  of  the  crop  was  stored  in  a  crib  built  later  than  the  first 
one,  and  on  a  plan  somewhat  similar,  but  the  construction  is  such  that  "Mr.  Rat" 
has  a  much  more  difficult  job  when  he  undertakes  to  climb  in — in  fact  we  cannot 
remember  that  there  ever  was  a  rat  in  it.  This  crib  has  the  advantage  over  those 
with  large  posts  or  stones  set  in  the  ground,  inasmuch  that  the  supports  under 
the  crib  are  and  can  be  made  much  smaller  than  if  set  in  the  ground.  The 
corner  and  middle  posts  of  the  crib  should  extend  from  the  roof  down  to  the 
ground,  not  into  it,  but  on  to  a  solid  flat  stone  placed  a  little  above  the  surface. 
Such  a  stone  should  be  provided  for  each  post  and  leveled  up  so  that  the  posts 
can  all  be  of  equal  length  from  the  bottom  of  the  crib  down. 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


531 


Our  last  crib  built  lias  been  so  satisfactory  that  we  intend  shortly  to  build 
another  similar  to  it.  We  shall  use  posts  for  corners  or  wherever  there  should  be 
supports  under  the  crib  sawed  Gx6  inches;  these  posts  will  runup  to  the  plate 
bearing  the  rafters.  For  sills  we  will  use  2x6  pieces,  say  15  feet  long,  and  using 
two  lengths  will  make  a  crib  30  feet  long.  The  6x6  posts  will  be  provided  with  a 
2x6  mortise  about  two  feet  from  the  lower  end.  This  mortise  should  be  made 
just  loose  enough  to  slip  the  2x6  sill  through.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  this 
makes  a  strong,  substantial  and 
durable  crib.  The  cross  sills 
should  be  tenoned  or  mortised 
into  the  side  sills  and  pinned 
on  the  outside.  For  a  30-foot 
crib  we  would  use  2x6  sills  15 
feet  long,  using  10  6x6  posts; 
this  will  make  the  posts  7  J  feet 
from  centre  to  centre  and  make 
it  amply  strong  for  a  large 
amount  of  corn .  The  lower  end 
of  the  posts  can  be  left  full  6x6 
down  to  the  stone,  or  tapered 
down;  we  prefer  the  latter.  By 
raising  anywhere  from  two  feet 
to  30  inches  from  the  stone  to 
the  sill  and  tapering  the  lower 
end,  and  nailing  some  tin  on 
around  the  four  sides,  rats  and 
mice  on  attempting  to  climb  the 
post  will  become  so  disgusted 
that  they  will  leave  the  farm  for 
more  promising  fields. 

To  make  it  more  easy  to  get 
in  and  out  of  the  crib  a  piece  of 
five-eights  round  iron  can  be 
made  in  the  shape  of  a  horse- 
shoe with  the  upper  ends  flat- 
tened and  fastened  on  below  the 
door.  The  rat  that  tries  to  get 
a  hold  on  this  step  will  meet 
with  but  little  better  success 
than  on  the  posts.  We  hope 
some  reader  of  this  book  in- 
tending to  build  a  crib  will  try 


Farmer's  Daughter. 


this  plan.     It  cannot  fail  to 


give  satisfaction  in 


being  substantial  and  in 


many  dollars  in  the  security' of  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  farmer's  crops. 


WHEN   AJTO   HOW  TO   SELL   CROPS. 


The  farmer  who  knows  when  and  how  to  sell  his  crops  to  the  best  advantage, 
says  the  "Husbandman,"  is  more  fortunate  than  his  fellows  who  lack  such  knowl- 


532  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


edge.  There  can  be  no  definite  rule  by  which  to  insure  always  the  best  prices, 
but  there  are  certain  general  rules,  well  established,  that  may  be  observed  with 
profit.  The  most  important  of  these  is  that  a  crop  fitted  for  the  market  should 
be  sold  at  a  time  which-  will  best  suit  the  seller.  That  is  to  say,  if  he  permits 
himself  to  be  hampered  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow  the  buyer  to  make  terms,  both 
as  to  price  and  time  of  delivery,  he  is  practically  without  voice  in  the  matter. 

The  first  requisite  in  entering,  the  market  with  reasonable  expectation  of 
obtaining  prices  for  products  that  will  afford  profit  on  the  labor  of  producing  them 
is,  that  they  be  of  good  quality  and  deliverable  in  good  order.  A  farmer  who  has 
a  crop  of  wheat  threshed  soon  after  harvest,  well  cleaned  and  stored  in  bins,  is 
able  to  exert  some  influence  in  fixing  the  price.  If  he  has  a  desirable  crop  there 
is  in  it  something  to  tempt  the  buyer,  an  inducement  to  reach  the  highest  figure. 
Now,  if  added  to  this  there  is  safe  confidence  in  the  integrity  of  the  farmer  his 
profits  in  sales  are  still  further  augmented.  What  is  regarded  as  integrity  in  this 
case  is  the  high  character  of  the  farmer  which  inspires  confidence  that  the  crop 
shall  be  what  it  appears  to  be,  clean  at  the  top,  in  the  middle  and  at  the  bottom, 
that  the  bins  as  they  show  give  true  ideas  of  condition  and  quality.  Then  the 
same  guaranty  comes  in  Avith  beneficial  effect  regarding  delivery;  the  buyer  says: 
"I  want  to  use  this  crop  just  ten  days  from  this  time;  can  I  have  it  then?" 
If  the  farmer's  word  be  as  good  as  his  bond,  when  he  says  "  yes,"  that  should 
mean  that  the  crop  will  be  delivered  promptly  upon  the  time  specified  with  no 
possibility  of  failure,  barring  such  accidents  as  are  beyond  human  control. 

It  is  true  that  careful  observance  of  these  requirements  will  not  always 
secure  the  prices  necessary  to  bring  about  profit,  but  it  will  secure  the  best  prices 
that  are  paid  at  that  time. 

Then  comes  the  question  about  delay,  about  holding  products  for  better  prices. 
Of  this  personal  judgment  must  be  the  sole  guide.  Many  a  farmer,  not  satisfied 
with  the  current  rates  for  his  products,  holds  without  definite  ideas  about 
chances;  without  informing  himself  what  influences  are  exerted,  to  advance  or 
depress  prices,  simply  waiting,  Micawber-like,  for  something  to  turn  up.  There 
is  no  wisdom  in  this  course.  The  farmer  who  has  no  understanding  about  the 
markets  except  as  prices  are  quoted  to  him,  will  usually  do  the  best  when  he  sells 
at  a  price  that  affords  profit,  because  he  does  not  know  when  to  wait.  He  has  no 
reason  to  justify  holding,  although  such  reasons  may  exist. 

After  all  it  is  not  a  bad  rule  for  any  farmer  to  sell  his  products  whenever  the 
prices  afford  satisfactory  profit.  When  the  markets  are  steady,  with  general  ten- 
dencies upward,  and  he  has  full  understanding  of  the  situation,  he  may  wait  with- 
out incurring  risks,  that  is  to  say,  he  may  await  his  convenience  for  the  delivery 
— take  his  own  time  when  it  will  best  fit  into  the  general  work.  But  when  prices 
fluctuate  materially,  he  will  do  better  to  "catch  on,"  as  the  street  phrase  runs, 
when  the  price  has  suitable  margin  of  profit.  That  for  him  is  the  time,  while 
failure  to  use  it  will  be  very  likely  to  put  his  products  at  the  bottom. 

The  influences  which  govern  the  markets  differ  very  greatly  from  those  of  a 
few  years  ago.  Now  all  the  principal  products  of  the  farm  m  ay  be  delivered  in  large 
cities  from  an  extent  of  country  vastly  beyond  that  which  forty  years  ago  was 
the  restricted  source  of  supply.  Wheat  is  delivered  from  Chicago,  St.  Louis  or 
Milwaukee  as  quickly  as  a  few  years  ago  it  could  be  delivered  from  counties  adja- 
cent to  the  cities  which  are  the  ultimate  markets,  and  the  same  is  true  of  all  other 


Out  in  the  Storm. 


(533) 


634  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


farm  products,  including  cattle,  sheep  and  swine.  In  effect  the  field  is  multiplied 
a  thousandfold,  and  therefore  competition  multiplied  a  thousandfold.  There  is 
so  much  less  chance  for  individual  advantage.  On  the  other  hand  the  means  of 
information  are  so  greatly  extended  that  an  intelligent  farmer  may  have  better 
understanding  of  the  market.  If  he  studies  conditions  with  care  he  will  be  able 
always  to  act  intelligently  in  selling.  Market  reports  made  up  fairly,  not  in  the 
interest  of  buyers,  nor  of  sellers,  but  rather  to  represent  the  true  condition  of 
affairs,  become  safe  guides  to  sound  judgment,  and  such  reports  are  accessible  to  all 
farmers.  The  one  general  rule  that  should  govern  in  selling  and  buying  is:  Get 
full  information  of  all  conditions  affecting  the  product  offered,  then  seize  upon 
the  opportunity  which  affords  satisfactory  profit. 

THE   MARKETS. 

To  market  a  crop  profitably,  or  to  know  where  or  to  whom  to  consign  it,  is 
as  indispensable  to  the  farmer,  as  to  be  able  to  produce  it  successfully.  While  an 
article  may  command  a  good  price  in  one  market,  it,  at  the  same  time,  may  hardly 
pay  the  freight  charges  in  another.  Even  the  cereal  grains  of  like  quality  may 
vary  in  prices  in  the  different  markets,  and  distinct  varieties  of  the  same  vegeta- 
ble, or  fruits  of  the  same  variety  and  quality,  may,  and  do,  suit  one  market  better 
than  another,  and  it  is  necessary  to  learn  the  peculiarities  of  each,  and  reliable 
information  should  be  had  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained.  With  a  little 
attention  and  examination  of  prices  in  different  cities,  the  farmer  may  be  cor- 
rectly posted  and  be  able  to  sell  to  the  best  advantage. 

THE    CORX    WEEVIL. 

Now  that  the  growing  of  corn  has  become  a  branch  of  profitable  farming  in 
the  South,  the  following,  from  the  "Texas  Farm  and  Ranch,"  may  be  of  service 
to  some  of  our  Southern  readers  who  have  to  contend  with  the  weevil  pest: 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  interest  manifested  by  farmers  on  the  subject  of 
weevils  in  corn.  In  the  Southern  section  of  Texas  a  large  portion  of  the  crop 
is  annually  destroyed  by  these  small  but  exceedingly  numerous  messengers  of 
destruction.  Not  unfrequently  corn  is  literally  devoured  in  the  field,  until  nothing 
is  left  but  husks  and  dust.  This  only  happens  when  corn  is  left  long  in  the  field 
after  ripening.  Recently  the  "Texas  Farm  and  Ranch"  has  published  from  its 
correspondents  a  number  of  suggestions  for  preventing  the  ravages  of  the  weevil. 
Some  of  these  may  answer  the  purpose;  but  some  of  these  plans  this  writer  has 
tested  without  benefit,  and  is  convinced  that  neither  lime,  salt,  nor  the  leaves  or 
berries  of  the  china  tree  will  serve  the  purpose,  unless  used  in  impracticable 
quantities.  However,  the  writer  has  never  known  a  crib  of  corn,  if  put  up  quite 
wet,  to  be  seriously  damaged  thereafter  by  weevils.  The  supposition  is  that  the 
heating  of  the  contents  of  the  crib  destroj's  the  insects.  If  put  up  too  wet  some 
of  the  corn  may  rot,  but  rarely  more  than  one  per  cent.  But  what  does  it  signify 
if  one  ear  is  found  to  be  rotted  if  the  ninety  and  nine  are  found  to  be  sound  and 
free  from  weevils  ?  It  would  undoubtedly  be  beneficial  to  add  salt  to  the  water, 
as  it  would  make  the  shucks  more  palatable  to  stock.  Another  important  aid  in 
keeping  corn  sound  is  to  gather  and  house  it  early.  Besides  the  ravages  of  weevils 
to  which  corn  is  always  exposed  in  the  field,  it  is  subject  to  other  casualties  which 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


>35 


sensibly  reduce  both  its  amount  and  quality.  It  is  a  common  custom  in  the 
South  to  put  off  gathering  corn  as  long  as  possible,  often  until  frost,  or  until  the 
rush  of  cotton 
picking  is  over. 
All  things  con- 
sidered, it  would 
probably  be  a 
great  saving — • 
and  all  the  more 
important  when 
the  crop  is  un- 
avoidably short, 
to  gather  early 
and  crib  accord- 
ing to  the  fore- 
going suggest- 
ions. This,  at 
least,  is  the 
opinion  of  one 
who  has  had 
many  years  ex- 
perience in  the 
worst  weevil- 
infested  section 
of  Texas.  Who 
and  how  many 
farmers  will  giv^ 
this  plan  a  fair 
trial  and  report 
the  result? 

TIDINESS  ON  THE 
FARM. 


Tidiness  in 
farming  is  worth 
a  great  deal 
more  than  many 
persons  imag- 
ine. Much  de- 
pends on  "the 
looks  of  the 
thing"  after  ah, 
as  the  following 
incident  will 
show:  Two  men 
were  riding 
along    a     high- 


Wluch  Shall  I  Keep? 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


way,  the  one  a  stranger,  the  other  an  old  resident  of  those  parts.  They  came  to 
a  point  where  two  farms  joined,  being  separated  only  by  the  public  road.  The 
stranger  pointed  to  one  of  the  farms  and  said:  "I  should  judge  the  owner  of 
that  place  to  be  a  shiftless  farmer,  and  behind-hand  in  the  world.  But  this  one 
on  the  right  is  a  successful  farmer,  and  no  doubt  doing  well." 

"Upon  what  do  you  base  your  judgment?"  said  his  friend,  who  knew  both 
men  Avell,  and  knew  that  his  companion  had  slipped  for  once. 

"  Why,  upon  the  appearance  of  the  two  farms,  certainly.  See;  this  one's 
ditches  and  fences  are  crowded  with  briers  and  weeds,  the  apple  trees  are  covered 
with  trumpet-vines,  the  gates  and  fences  are  broken  and  shabby,  the  buildings 
are  sadly  out  of  repair,  and  there  is  an  air  of  general  neglect  and  untidiness 


Educated  Bears. 


about  the  whole  place.  But  this  one  on  the  right  is  everywhere  neat  and  trim; 
there  are  no  weeds  along  the  hedgerows  and  in  the  corners  of  the  fences,  we  see 
no  broken  down  carts  and  implements  encumbering  the  lane,  and  the  buildings 
are  in  good  condition  and  most  of  them  painted.  Surely  this  man  is  worth  at 
least  two  or  three  times  as  much  as  that  one." 

"Well,  for  once  you  are  wrong.  The  two  men  have  about  equal  means,  and 
both  are  good  farmers.  They  both  get  on  well  and  are  making  money,  and  their 
farms,  in  fact,  are  about  equal  in  value.  You  judge  by  appearances,  truly,  and 
appearances  have  misled  you  this  time.  It  is  all  on  account  of  the  habits  of 
tidiness  of  the  two  men.  Mr.  A.  lets  no  brush  lie  about,  or  weeds  grow,  or  vines 
■encumber  his  fruit-trees,  or  boards  hang  loose  on  the  barn.     He  keeps  his  barn 


538  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


in  nice  order,  everything  neat  as  a  new  pin,  and  thinks  a  good  deal  on  the  looks 
of  it.  On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  B.  seems  to  have  no  eyes  for  weeds  or  brush,  does 
not  know  how  to  keep  things  picked  up,  has  no  time  to  bother  with  broken 
gates  and  the  like;  but  he  is  a  capital  farmer,  nevertheless,  and  is  making 
money  despite  his  shiftless  way." 

Thus  -it  is  that  strangers,  on  passing  the  farms,  judge  of  the  means  and 
ability  of  the  owners,  and  generally  they  are  right,  but  not  always.  The  looks 
of  a  place  go  a  great  way,  and  a  good  farmer  who  is  not  attentive  to  appearances 
does  himself  injury  and  is  rated  at  less  than  his  real  value.  Therefore,  keep  the 
farm  tidy. 

COMMON    SENSE    FARMING. 

The  "  Rural  Messenger"  says  the  papers  are  indulging  in  a  discussion  of  the 
system  of  farming  now  in  vogue,  and  there  has  been  much  adverse  criticism.  It 
seems  that,  in  laying  the  whole  blame  of  non-success  upon  excessive  cotton, 
peanut  and  tobacco  planting,  they  stop  far  short  of  the  true  reason. 

These  are  the  best,  most  money  producing  crops  for  our  section  and  climate. 
These  are  certain  crops,  and  when  ready  for  market  are  equivalent  to  cash.  They 
are  easily  marketed  and  easily  handled;  are  better  adapted  to  the  present  system 
of  labor.  To  charge  the  failure  to  exceptional  weather  and  seasons,  and  the  con- 
sequent financial  disaster,  to  the  cultivation  of  these  crops,  is,  to  say  the  least,  mis- 
taking effect  for  cause. 

Hog  and  hominy  is  a  very  good  catch-cry,  but  it  does  not  reach  the  root  of 
the  matter.  The  lack  of  business  system  with  the  majority  of  farmers  is  the 
true  reason  why  they  do  not  get  rich.  We  venture  the  assertion  there  cannot  be 
found  a  farmer  with  half  the  business  system  of  a  successful  merchant  who  is 
not  getting  rich  at  farming.  We  have  in  our  mind's  eye  men  in  the  country  who 
have  a  balance  to  go  to  the  progressive  side  of  their  account  at  the  end  of  every 
year.  It  is  not  because  they  raise  their  -own  hog  and  hominy,  but  because  they 
personally  superintend  every  department  of  their  farms,  they  get  the  wages  value 
out  of  their  laborers,  they  keep  an  account  of  all  money  expended,  they  have  a 
place  for  all  their  farming  implements  and  keep  them  in  that  place  while  not  in 
use  and  not  left  exposed  to  weather.  Above  all  they  use  judicious  economy, 
which  every  successful  business  man  does  in  his  affairs. 

They  do  not  come  to  town  at  every  opportunity  and  carry  home  with  them 
more  corn  in  another  shape  than  hominy  than  their  brains  can  stand.  They  do 
not  allow  a  commission  merchant  to  keep  their  accounts,  they  do  not  have  an 
irresponsible  overseer  to  do  work  which  they  ought  to  do,  they  do  not  break  up  a 
cart  or  so,  and  kill  a  mule  or  so  during  each  year,  and  then  curse  these  crops 
because  the  price  is  not  high  enough  to  pay  for  all  sorts  of  extravagance.  The 
conclusion  of  the  whole  matter,  to  an  impartial  observer,  is  that  hog  and  hominy 
is  a  good  thing,  but  business  system  and  economy  are  better. 

FARMING    AS    A    PROFITABLE    BUSINESS. 

Farming  does  not  mean  simply  stirring  the  soil,  sowing  the  seed  and  harvest- 
ing the  crops,  but  from  the  beginning  of  the  year  to  its  end  there  should  be  a 
constant  production  in  every  possible  manner.  While  the  crops  are  growing  the 
future  food  is  being  prepared,  but  as  it  is  harvested  it  should  be  made  still  more 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  539 


serviceable  by  being  converted  into  some  higher-priced  product.  While  an  acre 
of  land  may  produce  fifty  bushela  of  corn  on  its  part,  yet  that  corn  may  nearly 
all  find  its  way  back  to  the  soil  that  produced  it,  only  that  portion  being  sold  that 
will  repay  the  cost  and  labor  of  converting  it  into  beef,  pork,  wool,  milk,  muscle 
or  whatever  it  may  contribute.  The  farmer  who  can  so  manage  as  to  secure  the 
largest  crops,  and  return  to  his  soil  the  larger  portion  by  disposing  of  that  which 
is  more  readily  salable  in  some  other  shape,  will  gradually  become  wealthy, 
though  the  actual  receipts  may  be  apparently  small. 

Farming  is  a  continuous  operation.  It  is  the  changing  of  products  from  one 
kind  to  another,  according  to  demand  for  each.  In  estimating  the  value  of  a 
bushel  of  corn  produced  on  the  farm,  and  to  feed  to  stock  it  must  be  regarded  as 
cheaper  to  the  farmer  than  to  any  other  person,  since  he  does  not  have  to  trans- 
port it  to  market;  and  when  charging  it  to  his  animals  as  food  he  should  deduct 
from  the  market  cost  the  expense  which  he  would  otherwise  incur  in  bagging,  hand- 
ling, hauling  and  freight.  The  true  value  of  the  corn  is  that  which  it  produces. 
The  rule  of  charging  interest  for  the  corn  as  a  crop,  and  also  on  the  beef  or  milk 
derived  from  it,  often  causes  the  accounts  to  appear  unfavorable.  It  is  the  final 
disposition  of  the  crop  that  regulates  its  value.  If  it  disappears  from  the  farm  in 
the  carcass  of  the  steer  it  stands  in  the  same  position  as  if  the  steer  grew  upon 
the  land  instead  of  the  corn,  the  corn  being  only  a  component  part  of  the  steer 
in  the  shape  of  marketable  beef.  If  the  crop  be  fed  to  the  cow,  and  the  milk  sold 
off  the  farm,  the  crop  is  simply  sent  away  in  the  milk  cans  in  place  of  bags,  and 
instead  of  being  compelled  to  sell  the  entire  crop  in  order  to  realize  a  certain 
sum,  the  change  of  form  by  conversion  into  some  other  product  results  in  the 
securing  of  an  equal  sum  from  only  a  portion  of  the  crop.  Hence  the  farmer 
should  aim  to  sell  as  little  as  possible  off  the  farm.  That  is,  he  should  endeavor 
to  secure  the  largest  sum  possible  with  the  smallest  amount  of  product  by  con- 
verting all  crops  into  those  that  are  less  bulky  and  command  the  higher  prices. 
But  the  farming  business  requires  system.  It  calls  for  the  use  of  all  kinds  of 
suitable  machinery  and  stock.  As  no  manufacturer  of  cotton  goods  can  afford  to 
weave  his  goods  with  hand  looms,  neither  can  the  farmer  expect  to  make  farming 
profitable  unless  he  takes  advantage  of  the  opportunities  open  to  him.  If  his 
crops  are  to  be  fed  on  the  farm  and  rendered  serviceable  in  producing  something 
else  through  the  agency  of  stock,  such  stock  must  be  perfectly  adapted  to  the  pur- 
poses designed.  The  largest  possible  increase  at  the  least  cost  and  in  the  shortest 
period  of  time  should  be  the  rule  and  upon  this  depends  the  turning  point  btween 
profit  and  loss. 

WHAT   CONSTITUTES   GOOD    FARMING? 

An  answer  to  the  above  question  suggests  thought  in  many  directions.  A 
proper  attention  to  every  matter  concerning  the  farm,  whether  it  be  attention  to 
stock,  care  of  implements,  careful  cultivation  of  crops,  timely  repair  of  building, 
fences,  or  implements,  providing  what  is  necessary  for  the  successful  carrying  on 
of  all  farm  operations,  all  go  to  make  up  good  farming.  There  is,  however,  one 
pretty  sure  index  to  good  farming,  and  that  consists  in  the  condition  of  the  farm 
from  year  to  year,  by  way  of  comparison. 

In  business  the  success  of  a  man  is  frequently  measured  by  the  accumulation 
of  his  bank  account,  or  the  increased  value  of  his  stock  in  business;  so  it  is  with 


540  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


the  farmer  if  from  year  to  year  there  is  an  improvement  of  his  farm  in  the  extent 
of  its  fertility,  if  his  crops  also  increase,  and  at  the  same  time  his  manure  pile  is 
gradually  growing  larger,  it  is  a  sure  sign  that  good  farming  is  heing  practised. 
Because  a  farm  is  producing  larger  crops  is  not  of  itself  an  evidence  of  good 
farming;  some  peculiar  modes  may  be  adopted  that  will,  by  robbing  the  soil 
for  a  time,  appear  to  be  profitable,  but  which  in  the  end  proves  otherwise. 

Many  farms  are  put  through  a  sort  of  skinning  process,  which  renders  them 
poorer  year  by  year.  Any  systenrwhich  will  rob  the  farm  is  bad  farming,  and 
should  be  abandoned.  The  same  principle  may  be  applied  to  the  care  of  animals. 
Feeding  so  sparingly  as  to  allow  the  animal  to  decline  in  flesh  is  loss  to  the 
farmer,  even  though  he  has  fodder  to  sell  in  consequence.  There  are  farmers 
who  seem  to  have  failed  to  discover  these  points,  and  go  on  upon  adownward  course. 

LESSENING   THE    COST   OF    PRODUCTION. 

The  farmers'  products  constitute  wealth  to  the  country,  no  matter  how  grown, 
but  they  are  not  wealth  to  the  farmer  himself  unless  grown  at  less  cost  than  they 
will  bring  in  the  market.  It  is  the  very  small  margin  between  cost  and  selling 
pricethatisthe  basis  of  national  prosperity.  What  the  farmers  of  this  country  make 
above  cost  of  production  is  that  which  they  can  invest  in  bettering  the  conditions 
of  their  living.  For  two  or  three  years  past  expenses  have  eaten  up  all  the 
farmers' profits.  This,  however  it  may  be  disguised,  is  the  cause  of  the  business 
depression  that  has  prevailed  during  this  period.  As  farmers  all  over  the  world 
seem  to  be  laboring  under  the  same  difficulty,  it  becomes  a  contest  as  to  which 
can  produce  most  cheaply.  If  American  farmers  would  succeed  in  this  contest 
they  must  allow  no  needless  wastes,  and  make  every  stroke  tell. 

We  have  learned  much  about  economy  in  production  during  the  past  few 
years,  and  it  is  probable  that  other  like  lessons  are  in  store  for  us.  With  the 
enormous  amount  of  available  land  to  cultivate,  and  the  labor-saving  implements 
to  till  it,  we  are  not  likely  to  have  high  prices  for  agricultural  products  for  many 
years  to  come,  perhaps  never.  Success  in  farming  must  therefore  depend  on 
close  economies  rather  than  on  high  prices.  This  was  the  traditional  policy  of 
farmers  the  world  over  until  recently.  We  got  out  of  it  during  the  high,  prices 
that  prevailed  during  the  war,  when  for  a  time  it  seemed  that  to  extend  operations, 
cultivate  larger  areas,  and  have  more  to  sell  was  the  easiest  way  to  make  money. 
In  those  days  we  made  too  much  money.  Our  currency  became  depreciated,  and 
this  soon  led  everybody  into  expensive  habits,  which  are  much  easier  to  get  into 
than  to  unlearn. 

Undoubtedly  the  greatest  mistake  of  modern  farmers  is  in  trying  to  culti- 
vate too  much  land.  We  are "  following  the  ideas  thit  prevailed  before  the  war, 
when  extended  operations,  however  conducted,  were  almost  necessarily  profitable. 
Tli  is  has  long  since  ceased  to  be  the  fact.  For  fifteen  years  or  more  the  fewer 
acres  a  man  tilled  with  the  same  capital,  the  larger  his  profits.  Instead  of  making 
money  by  purchasing  additional  farms,  there  has  been  more  advantage  in  selling 
a  portion  of  what  he  originally  owned  and  using  more  capital  in  thoroughly  cul- 
tivating the  remainder.  It  is  the  intensive  rather  than  the  extensive  system  of 
farming  that  must  prevail  in  this  country  in  the  future. 

It  is  also  necessary  now,  as  it  was  thirty  or  forty  years  ago,  that  farmers 
should  themselves  do  all  they  can   in  working  their  land.     Hired  help  get  most 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  541 


of  the  benefit  from  labor-saving  machines,  and  the  farmer  who  expects  to  have 
these  run  exclusively  by  hired  labor  will  find  himself  left  on  the  wrong  side  of 
the  ledger  account.  It  is  not  possible,  at  present  prices  of  farmers'  produce,  to 
grow  crops,  harvest  and  market  them  exclusively  with  hired  labor.  A  farmer 
who  has  land  free  of  debt,  and  two  or  three  boys  to  help  him,  can  grow  crops 
cheaply  enough  to  make  some  money;  but  in  most  cases  it  will  be  no  more  than 
fair  compensation  for  the  work  of  himself  and  his  family.  We  speak  now  of 
ordinary  farming  on  land  of  average  fertility. 

Where  is  this  to  end?  Is  farming  never  again  to  be  profitable?  Most  cer- 
tainly it  will,  but  it  will  be  after  farmers  have  learned  by  bitter  experience  not 
to  try  to  compete  with  the  West  in  growing  large  areas  of  grain,  yielding  not 
more  than  half  what  it  should  per  acre.  If  a  majority  of  farmers  who  have 
failed  to  succeed  had  known  enough  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago  to  sell  half  their 
land  and  use  the  money  in  bringing  up  the  other  half  to  the  highest  fertility, 
their  efforts  would  have  been  crowned  with  success.  By  this  time  they  would 
have  had  money  enough  from  their  few  acres  to  purchase  more.  One  reason  for 
this  is,  that  the  small  farmer  generally  goes  into  one  or  two  specialties,  and  thus 
relieves  his  business  from  the  strong  competition  in  grain-growing  which  Eastern 
farmers  unaided  are  not  able  to  meet. 

farmers'  rights. 

One  of  the  aggravating  experiences  of  a  farmer's  life  is  to  go  out  on  a  sum- 
mer morning  into  his  melon  patch  to  pluck  some  melons  to  lay  away  in  his  cool 
cellar  or  ice  bouse  with  which  to  treat  a  party  of  invited  guests,  only  to  find  that 
some  villainous  prowler  has  visited  his  grounds  in  the  night  and  carried  away 
the  very  finest  fruit  of  the  vines  which  had  cost  him  so  much  labor,  and  which 
he  had  been  daily  watching  against  the  time  of  ripening.  Numbers  of  our  read- 
ers, Ave  doubt  not,  can  fully  estimate  the  severity  of  such  a  disappointment  from 
having  been  despoiled  in  this  manner  themselves. 

Sometimes  it  is  an  orchard  that  is  raided,  and  trees  are  stripped  of  choice 
apples,  peaches,  and  pears,  and  boughs  broken  down.  Sometimes  the  vineyards 
are  robbed  of  their  finest  clusters.  There  is  in  every  community  a  class  of  idle, 
thriftless  but  very  hungry  people,  who  imagine  that  the  world  owes  them  a  liv- 
ing, whether  they  make  an  effort  for  it  or  not,  and  so  they  break  through  and 
steal  the  goods  of  their  neighbors.  And  why  not  despoil  the  farmer?  His  fruits 
and  melons  grow  out  of  the  earth  even  while  he  is  sleeping,  and  thus  cost  him  but 
little.  Many  people  in  the  cities  think  farmers  have  no  rights  which  they  arc 
bound  to  respect,  and  often  disregard  them  when  riding  or  strolling  on  the  high- 
ways. 

The  farmer's  house  is  his  castle,  and  his  acres  whether  few  or  many  are  his 
domain  over  which  he  alone  has  rule,  and  right  to  say  who  shall  have  the  increase 
thereof.  And  toiling  through  summer's  heat  and  winter's  cold  for  the  subsistence 
of  the  rest  of  mankind,  he  ought  surely  to  have  ample  protection  of  his  rights. 
Special  and  severe  laws  should  be  enacted  against  all  depredators  of  his  garden, 
orchard  or  field.  They  lie  open  day  and  night  to  the  hand  of  the  prowler  who 
chooses  his  times  and  opportunities  when  the  eye  of  the  master  is  turned  awav 
or  closed.     They  cannot  be  guarded  by  locks  and  bolts  as  can  be  the  property  of 


(542) 


So  Near  and  yet  so  Far, 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  543 


the  dweller  in  the  city.  Surely  the  farmer  has  enough  losses  from  devouring 
insects,  floods  and  droughts  without  being  at  the  mercy  of  robbers.  When  he 
visits  town  or  city  he  does  not  go  behind  the  counter  of  the  merchant  and  help 
himself  to  dry  goods  or  groceries.  He  does  not  regale  himself  unbidden  on  the 
sweetmeats  and  pastries  of  the  confectioner.  They  do  not  belong  to  him,  and  lie 
knows  it  very  well.  If  he  wants  any  of  these  things  he  buys  them,  pays  their 
price,  and  nobody  is  thereby  despoiled.  The  farmer's  commodities  ought  to  be 
fust  as  safe  from  intrusion.     This,  at  least,  is  our  opinion  of  the  matter. 

STAND-STILL   FARMERS. 

Despite  of  the  advancement  that  is  being  made  in  the  various  branches  of 
agricultural  science,  there  are  still  some  farmers  belonging  to  the  class  who  "never 
learn,  and  never  forget  anything" — stand-still  farmers. 

Despising  anything  like  "book-larnin' "  they  are  content  to  plod  along  in  the 
old  ruts,  made  smooth  and  venerable  by  the  easy,  slow-measured  pace  of  past 
generations.  Shunning,  as  they  would  the  plague,  any  organization  of  their 
fellow-farmers  whose  object  is  to  "develop  a  higher  manhood"  among  its  mem- 
bers, and  where  questions  pertinent  to  the  advanced  state  of  the  farming  of  to-day 
are  discussed,  they  are  not  abreast  with  the  times,  and  fall  an  easy  prey  to  every 
sharper  and  swindler. 

Their  ignorance  of  the  plainest  laws  of  physiology,  and  of  the  medical  prop- 
erties and  action  of  the  commonest  and  most  useful  remedies,  subjects  them  to 
losses  and  vexations  that  are  unknown  to  the  live,  reading,  thinking  farmer. 

Such  men  may  be  seen  toiling  through  mud  ankle  deep  sowing  clover-seed, 
allowing  the  precious  days  of  the  early  corn-planting  season  to  pass  by  when 
their  ground  is  all  ready,  or  during  the  fall  rains  when  all  ready  to  sow  wheat,  all 
because  the  "sign  "  is,  or  is  not  right,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Not  long  since  one  of  these  men  told  us  in  all  candor  and  seriousness,  that 
the  most  effectual  remedy  he  had  ever  tried  for  collar  galls  on  horses,  was  the 
skull-bone  of  a  dog  rnbbed  over  the  parts  affected;  another's  sure  cure  for  Poll- 
evil,  was  a  glass  bottle  pounded  fine  and  poured  into  the  ear. 

We  once  saw  a  farmer  take  a  young  and  valuable  horse  that  had  taken  a  heavy 
cold,  and  was  evidently  suffering  Avith  pneumonia,  bleed  the  animal  and  put  him 
out  on  the  meadow  without  covering,  although  the  day  was  quite  cold;  as  may  be 
supposed,  the  horse  soon  died. 

Another  case — a  man  puts  a  valuable  mare  in  his  apple  orchard  at  night, 
the  trees  bending  and  the  ground  almost  covered  with  fruit.  Next  morning  the 
mare  is  sick;  owner  doesn't  know  what  to  do  for  her;  so,  in  great  alarm,  he  starts 
a  man  off  in  haste  with  the  animal  to  the  nearest  "  doctor,"  only  to  have  her 
tumble  down  and  die  at  her  journey's  end. 

Both  these  men  were  past  middle  age,  and  had  had  the  care  of  horses  all  their 
lives.  All  this  loss  and  worriment  might  have  been  avoided  by  the  possession  of 
a  little  of  the  despised  "book  larnin',"  coupled  with  a  few  grains  of  j^rudence. 

Such  a  lack  of  information  on  subjects  of  such  vital  importance  to  their  pecu- 
niary interests  is  inexcusable,  if  not  criminal,  and  would  better  befit  the  wild 
Indians  of  the  far  West  than  the  sons  of  our  own  enlightened  section;  yet  these 
incidents  ;.:e  facts,  "nothing  has  been  extenuated,  nor  aught  set  down  in  malice," 


544  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 

and  what  is  more,  these  are  not  isolated  cases,  their  name  is  legion.  "What  shall 
we  do  to  arouse  the  Rip  Van  Winkle  sleepers?  Shall  we  ask,  Am  I  my  brother's 
keeper?  or  say  in  the  language  of  a  former  cabinet  officer,  "Gentlemen,  this  is 
not  my  funeral." 

No!  No!  We  would  fain  extend  a  fraternal  hand  to  lift  them  to  a  higher 
plane  of  agricultural  knowledge,  and  were  these  people  to  ask  us  for  counsel,  we 
should  say  "go  subscribe  for  some  live  paper,"  and  attach  as  much  importance 
to  reading  as  you  do  to  smoking  your  old  pipe;  connect  yourself  with  the  nearest 
organization  of  farmers,  attend  its  meetings  as  regularly  as  you  take  your  meals, 
for  as  iron  sharpeneth  iron,  so  doth  a  man  sharpen  the  countenance  of  his  friend. 
Do  these  things,  and  the  "sign"  farming  and  "  skull-of-a-dead-dog "  cures  will  be 
things  of  the  past. 

PROGRESSIVE  AGRICULTURE. 

Progressive  agriculture,  as  some  appear  to  understand  it,  means  going  ahead 
without  regard  to  safety  or  expense.  The  young  progressive  farmer,  who  never 
hoed  an  acre  of  corn  or  mowed  an  acre  of  grass,  fancies  that  by  applying  "  busi- 
ness principles  "  to  agriculture,  he  can  roll  up  a  fortune  in  a  few  years.  He  must 
have  a  farm  as  large  as  his  father  had  in  his  old  age;  must  live  in  a  better  house 
than  his  parents;  he  must  drive  a  better  horse;  ride  in  a  better  carriage;  sport  a 
finer  watch;  live  in  a  more  fashionable  style;  play  the  gentleman  at  more 
expense;  cut  larger  swells;  speak  louder  and  be  known  further  than  his  old  fogy 
ancestors  ever  dared  to  dream  of. 

The  young  progressive  farmer  has  no  idea  of  getting  rich  by  the  little;  he  is 
bound  to  have  a  pile  all  at  once.  He  is  not  going  to  bring  up  lambs  by  hand,  sell 
turnips  at  twenty-five  cents  a  bushel,  cany  chickens  to  market,  wear  patched 
clothes,  and  cart  potatoes  around  like  a  peddler.  Not  he!  talk  to  him  about  cul- 
tivating a  farm  of  fifty  acres!  Why,  he  wants  four  or  five  hundred  acres,  and  he 
will  demonstrate  by  figures  that  the  more  land  he  cultivates  the  larger  his  per- 
centage of  profits  will  be. 

Talk  to  one  of  these  progressive  farmers  about  experience,  and  he  will  laugh 
at  you.  Why,  he  is  sure  that  he  knows  a  thousand  things  that  would  astonish 
his  father.  Experience!  To  be  sure,  he  has  not  had  it  himself,  but  he  knows  who 
has,  and  what  it  is.  He  wants  to  start,  not  at  the  bottom  of  the  hill,  but  at  the 
top.  He  don't  believe  in  climbing  up  slowly,  working  and  waiting,  and  though 
he  may  be  willing  to  work,  he  is  not  anxious  to  wait. 

Instead  of  beginning  with  much,  they  ought  to  begin  with  little.  Instead  of 
a  large  farm  they  ought  to  have  only  a  small  one.  Their  experience  is  small,  their 
judgment  is  weak,  and  their  wants  ought  to  be  few.  And,  beginning  with  a  few 
acres,  they  will  soon  learn  how  to  proceed  to  insure  the  best  results. 

THE  PROGRESSIVE  FARMER. 

The  typical  American  farmer  now  is  the  sound,  intelligent  man  who  believes 
that  progress  is  the  law  of  our  race;  who  holds  that  no  man  of  enterprise  can 
afford  to  stand  still  while  the  world  goes  forward — that  inactivity  means  simply 
stagnation  and  decay,  and  that  the  surest  proof  of  vitality  and  vigor,  both  of  mus- 
cle and  brain,  is  the  steady,  forward  movement  of  wise  and  practical  men,  who 
are  always  intent  on  working  out  better  methods,  and  always  ready  and  willing 
to  enrich  the  general  fund  of  knowledge  with  the  fruits  of  their  experience.     When- 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS  545 


ever  such  farmers,  in  the  course  of  their  investigations,  succeed  in  bringing  to 
light  new  facts  or  new  processes,  they  give  a  fresh  impulse  to  husbandry  and 
make  their  countrymen  their  debtors.  These  are  the  men  who  by  improved 
methods  and  hy  increased  production,  are  creating  from  year  to  year,  new  values 
in  agriculture,  and  new  sources  of  national  wealth. 

FARM    WORK   IN   WINTER. 

Prof.  B.  Puryear,  of  Richmond  College,  says  to  the  farmer  the  winter  is  the 
season  of  comparative  leisure  and  ease.  The  weather  is  frequently  such  that  all 
farm  work  is  suspended,  and  his  labor  is  restricted  to  the  care  of  his  stock  and  the 
comfort  of  his  family.  The  season  affords  him  special  privileges  and  exemptions, 
which  he  should  be  prompt  to  utilize  and  enjoy. 

And  yet  it  is  true  that  the  way  in  Avhich  he  spends  the  winter  will  be  an 
important  factor  in  the  determination  of  his  success  or  failure,  when  come  the 
long,  hot  days  of  toil.  There  are  certain  duties  incumbent  on  him  in  winter,  to 
which  it  is  opportune,  and  to  some  it  may  not  be  useless,  to  invoke  special  atten- 
tion. 

1.  The  most  obvious  and  imperative  duty  of  the  farmer  at  this  season  of  the 
year  is  the  comfort  of  his  domestic  animals.  His  mules  and  horses  should  emerge 
from  the  winter  in  improved  condition.  His  cattle,  hogs  and  sheep  should  have 
throughout  the  season  an  ample  investiture  of  fat  to  keep  them  warm.  It  is  hard 
to  say  whether  the  man  is  more  wicked  or  more  wasteful,  who  exposes  his  domes- 
tic animals  to  the  untempered  severity  of  winter.  It  is  vastly  cheaper  to  keep 
them  in  good  condition  than  to  have  them  lean  and  lank  and  weak.  The  object 
of  food  is  not  only  to  build  up  the  system  and  repair  its  constant  waste,  but  also 
to  furnish  fuel  for  the  development  of  animal  heat.  Indeed,  the  larger  part  of 
nearly  all  food  is  used  up  only  in  the  production  of  heat.  The  temperature  of  the 
body  must  be  maintained  at  the  normal  point,  ninety-eight  degrees  Fahrenheit,  or 
death  ensues.  The  more  rapidly  heat  is  lost  from  the  body,  the  greater  must  be 
the  amount  of  food  and  tissues  burnt  off  in  the  blood  to  maintain  the  normal 
temperature.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  animal  be  kept  warm  and  comfortable, 
less  heat  being  lost  from  the  body,  a  smaller  amount  of  food  will  be  required  for 
the  generation  of  heat,  and  a  larger  amount  will  be  converted  into  fat  and  the  vital 
tissues.  An  animal  shivering  in  the  cold,  even  with  generous  rations,  gets  lean 
rapidly.  Why?  Simply  because  its  fat,  the  most  combustible  of  its  tissues,  is 
burnt  off  rapidly  to  compensate  for  the  large  amount  of  heat  lost  from  its  body  to 
the  cold  atmosphere.  The  plain  question  that  confronts  us  then  is  this:  Shall  we 
burn  up  our  grain  and  provender  in  the  bodies  of  our  animals  to  keep  them  warm, 
or  shall  we  provide  for  them  dry,  warm  and  comfortable  quarters?  The  cost  of 
the  erection  of  convenient  and  comfortable  shelter  for  our  domestic  animals  will  be 
repaid,  over  and  over,  in  the  diminished  amount  of  food,  which  with  such  protection 
they  will  require. 

The  foregoing  by  no  means  exhausts  the  advantage  and  the  benefits  which 
belong  to  the  policy  here  recommended.  The  gains  of  the  owner  are  greater  in 
sundry  other  ways.  Losses  by  death  are  fewer;  the  reproductive  power  of  his 
animals  is  increased  by  their  good  condition;  and,  instead  of  requiring  half  the 
summer  to  repair  winter  ravages,  they  continue  to  put  on  fat  and  flesh  almost 

35 


54C.  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


without  a  cliock  the  year  round,  so  that  when  they  come  to  the  shambles,  their 
greater  weight  and  the  superior  quality  of  the  meat  make  additional  recompense 
for  the  can:-  they  have  received.  Work  animals  begin  the  heavy  work  of  the 
coming  year  with. renewed  strength,  do  more  work,  and  do  it  better,  and  so  save 
the  owner  from  those  vexations,  disappointments  and  losses,  which  may  always 
be  expected  when  weak  teams  are  the  reliance  for  the  heavy  work  of  the  farm. 

There  is  another  consideration  which  cannnot  be  measured  by  dollars  and 
cents,  but  which  we  hope  will  not  be  considered  inappropriate  even  to  the  pages  of 
an  industrial  journal.  Thoughtful  care  of  our  domestic  animals  is,  in  the  highest 
sense  of  the  term,  an  educational  process.  It  is  educational  in  a  double  sense, 
for  it  not  (inly  exercises  and  informs  the  mind,  but  also  softens  and  refines  th< 
heart.  A  man  who  thoughtfully  provides  for  the  comfort  of  the  dumb  beasts,  thai 
must  perforce  look  to  him  for  support,  is  made  by  the  fact  a  better  and  more 
intelligent  citizen,  and  is  a  better  man  in  all  the  social  relations  of  life.  As  soon 
as  he  addresses  himself  to  this  matter,  a  great  many  interesting  and  important 
questions  spring  up  and  engage  his  attention.  He  is  dealing  with  life  and  health, 
nutrition  and  growth,  indeed,  with  all  the  facts  and  phenomena  of  the  animal 
organism,  and  if  his  mind  be  at  all  active  and  inquisitive,  he  will  seek  to  know 
what  light  can  be  thrown  from  anatomy,  physiology,  hygiene,  thermotics,  chem- 
istry, upon  the  subjects  that  engage  his  daily  thoughts.  These  and  kindred  sci- 
ences he  will  study  in  a  way  more  or  less  formal;  he  will  learn  something  about 
them  from  the  occasional  lecture,  from  the  discussions  at  his  club,  from  conversa- 
tion with  his  friends,  from  formal  treatises  as  he  may  have  time  and  inclination,  and 
largely,  perhaps  chiefly,  from  the  pages  of  agricultural  publications.  Instead  of 
following  with  unthinking  faith  the  traditional  routine,  his  mind  is  active  in  quest 
of  the  knowledge  that  affects  his  livelihood.  He  thus  gets  out  of  the  mechanical 
ruts;  he  learns  to  observe,  to  collect  and  explain  facts,  and  to  form  from  them 
logical  conclusions.  This  intellectual  activity,  this  constant  accumulation  of 
knowledge,  makes  him,  in  all  respects  and  every  way,  a  man  of  larger  and  of 
broader  views,  fitting  him  better  not  only  for  his  special  work,  but  for  all  the 
duties  and  functions  of  life. 

But  this  intelligent  oversight  of  our  domestic  animals  is  educational  also  in 
a  moral  sense.  The  very  fact  that  they  engage  our  attention  begets  kindliness 
of  feeling,  which  they  soon  learn  to  reciprocate  in  unmistakable  ways.  With 
gladness  they  hear  the  master's  voice  and  greet  his  coming.  The  best  emotions 
of  his  heart  are  evoked  as  he  pats  and  praises  his  pets.  This  constant  contact 
with  the  dumb  animals  that  depend  on  his  care  and  almost  clamor  for  his  notice 
softens  and  refines  his  nature  and  makes  him  always  and  everywhere  more  gen- 
erous, more  kindly,  more  pitiful.  His  family,  his  friends,  his  neighbors,  and 
society  at  large  share  in  the  benefit  of  the  kindly  feelings  thus  engendered  and 
nurtured.  The  shepherd  folding  his  ninety  and  nine  and  going  to  the  bare  moun- 
tains in  search  of  the  lost  lamb,  which  finding,  he  bears  on  his  bosom  home,  is 
the  divine  illustration  of  the  point  in  hand.  None  better  could  be  given  or  con- 
ceived. The  world  seeks  no  stronger  evidence  of  a  man's  goodness  of  heart  than 
kindness,  nor  of  its  badness  than  brutality  to  his  beasts. 

2.  We  believe  thoroughly  in  plowing  in  the  fall  and  winter  all  fields  intended 
for  cultivation  next  year.  This  work  is  done  when  a  cooler  atmosphere  makes 
labor  less  irksome,  and  when   the   farmer    is    loss  pushed    and  hurried    in    his 


"Vords  of  Wisdom. 


(547) 


54S  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


work.  It  will  be  done  then  with  unusual  satisfaction.  All  the  vegetation  turned 
under  rots  during  the  winter  and  becomes  thoroughly  assimilated  with  the  soil. 
The  winter  freezes,  expanding  the  water  as  it  congeals,  makes  the  soil,  when 
plowed  in  spring,  light,  porous,  and  mellow.  The  subsequent  cultivation, 
both  from  the  cleanness  of  the  land  and  its  mellow  condition,  is  vastly  easier,  so 
that  labor,  when  it  is  most  pressing,  is  more  rapidly  and  successfully  accom- 
plished. We  believe  that  the  lighter  labor  in  spring  and  summer  is  itsell  a  suffi- 
cient warrant  for  winter  fallowing,  to  say  nothing  of  other  advantages  that  fol- 
low. By  all  means,  then,  let  farmers  who  have  not  already  finished  fallowing 
their  land  take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  that  yet  may  offer. 

3.  But  the  winter  is  the  time  when  the  farmer  should  reinvigorate  his  wasted 
energies,  both  physical  and  intellectual.  The  long  nights  and  the  blazing  fires 
suggest  ease,  comfort,  cheer,  and  mirth.  With  a  zest,  seasoned  and  heightened 
by  congenial  companionship,  let  him,  like  others,  have  at  times  his  sumptuous 
symposia,  and  "thank  the  gods  for  all  the  good  they  give."  Such  festivities 
sweep  from  the  brain  the  cobwebs  of  care,  and  expand  and  exalt  the  social  affec- 
tions. The  labors  yet  to  come  are  met,  therefore,  with  braced  heart  and  bright- 
ened hope,  and  even  richer  harvests  follow  as  the  result. 

The  farmer's  great  work  in  winter,  however,  is  to  post  himself  in  the  activi- 
,ti3S  of  the  world,  and  particularly  to  study  the  needs,  the  demands,  the  trend 
and  drift  of  his  own  calling.  Farming  is  becoming  less  and  less  insulated;  it 
is  getting  to  be  more  and  more  interlaced  with  the  great  questions  that  engage 
the  thought  of  the  world.  The  wonderful  progress  of  modern  science  has  stimu- 
lated it  into  healthful  activity,  and  put  within  its  grasp  the  means  of  influence 
and  power.  It  is  responding  to  the  stimulus.  The  farmers,  who  employ  more 
laborers  and  represent  more  capital  than  all  other  occupations  put  together,  are 
already  asking  why,  with  such  resources  at  their  command,  they  are  made 
"hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water."  They  are  already  studying  the  hostile 
legislation  that  puts  its  wasting  hand  upon  the  leading  interest  of  the  world.  As 
they  have  leisure  and  opportunity,  let  them  study  agriculture  alike  in  its  prac- 
tice and  principles,  and  the  causes  that  retard  or  promote  its  progress  and  devel- 
opment, and  so,  learning  to  know,  and  hence  to  maintain,  their  rights,  they  may 
give  to  the  world  another  demonstration  that  "  knowledge  is  power." 

FARM   MANAGEMENT. 

To  make  farming  a  success,  or  to  use  a  common  expression,  "make  it  pay," 
requires  good  management.  We  have  known  good  farmers,  men  that  understood 
well  the  making  of  crops  and  handling  farm  implements,  run  behind  and  finally 
conclude  that  farming  did  not  pay,  simply  for  the  want  of  ability  to  manage  the 
business  as  it  should  be  done.  With  those  who  know  little  about  the  business 
there  seems  to  be  a  prevailing  opinion  that  any  one  can  "farm  it"  as  they  term 
it,  and  if  a  boy  is  too  dull  and  stupid  to  set  up  as  a  merchant,  or  enter  the  pro- 
fession, he  is  considered  smart  enough  to  make  a  farmer.  When  tin  fact  is,  there 
is  no  occupation  that  a  man  can  engage  in  that  requires  more  tact  or  better  iudg- 
ment  than  agriculture.  And  Ave  are  glad  1o  see  that  this  opinion  is  becoming  more 
general  every  year.  As  an  evidence  of  the  fact,  it  is  only  r.ecessary  to  refer  to 
the  increase  of  books  and  papers  devoted  to  agriculture      This  shows  that  more 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  549 


information  is  wanted  in  regard  to  matters  pertaining  to  the  farm,  and  that 
farmers  are  trying  to  educate  themselves  up  to  the  high  calling  of  their  profes- 
sion. The  different  Agricultural  Colleges,  if  conducted  properly,  will  result  in 
much  good  by  imparting  correct  ideas  to  young  men  who  desire  to  become  suc- 
cessful farmers,  it  is  being  understood  that  farmers  require  education  as  well  as 
those  engaged  in  other  pursuits,  and  it  ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  very  favorable 
outlook.  For  the  reading,  thinking  farmer  should  also  improve  in  ability  to 
conduct  the  different  farm  operations,  as  here  lies  the  secret  of  success  or  failure. 
Together  with  a  better  education,  there  should  be  a  natural  inclination,  a  prefer- 
ence for  the  business,  that  what  is  done  should  be  thoroughly  done.  This  care- 
less, haphazard,  slip-shod  farming  is  altogether  too  prevalent,  and  has  ruined 
many  a  farm  where  good  managment  would  make  it  pay. 

OUR   SURPLUS    LANDS. 

It  is  a  matter  of  paramount  importance  to  the  prosperity  of  any  community 
or  State  to  have  its  surplus  lands  occupied  by  an  industrious,  enterprising,  and 
moral  population.  We  have  but  to  look  at  the  condition  of  any  thinly-settled 
district  to  be  convinced  of  the  evils  arising  from  sparse  population.  In  such 
communities  we  find  few  of  the  conveniences  that  make  life  agreeable  or  endura- 
ble. Social  intercourse  is  interrupted;  churches  and  schools  are  few  and  poorly 
attended;  roads  are  of  the  poorest  kind;  there  are  no  railroads,  newspapers,  or 
public  libraries;  arts  and  trades  are  neglected;  agriculture  does  not  flourish;  igno- 
rance and  pauperism  abound;  prejudices,  vices,  and  often  crimes  clog  the  wheels 
of  progress;  and  the  whole  cumbersome  and  rotten  fabric  rests,  like  an  incubus, 
upon  the  breasts  of  the  State,  with  these  contaminating  influences  extending  and 
ramifying  into  every  crevice  and  pore  of  society. 

This  condition  and  these  results  of  sparse  population,  which  might  be  shown 
in  more  repulsive  colors,  should  be  sedulously  guarded  against  by  every  commu- 
nity having  a  common  interest  in  a  common  cause.  To  do  this  effectually,  care 
must  be  taken  to  multiply  farms  and  homes  to  the  whole  extent  of  the  available 
territory.  "What  is  the  best  way  of  doing  this?  To  our  mind  the  method  is  sim- 
ple and  practical  enough. 

Let  land-holders  unite  in  a  written  compact  to  sell  off,  at  a  nominal  figure, 
say  one-half  of  their  surplus  lands,  to  actual,  industrious  settlers;  reserving  to 
themselves  the  remainder  as  a  guarantee  of  remuneration  when  an  increased 
population  shall  have  created  a  demand  for  and  enhanced  the  value  of  real  estate. 
Motives  of  patriotism  no  less  than  of  self-interest,  it  seems  to  us,  would  induce 
land-holders  to  such  a  course. 

To  find  occupants  for  these  lands,  let  the  first  choice  be  given,  and  the  first 
efforts  made  be  to  induce  our  native  born  white  men  who  are  without  homes  to 
settle  thereon.  Even  were  it  necessary  in  some  cases  to  bestow  a  deed  of  gift  of 
thelands  to  such  settlers,  the  land-holders,  the  community,  and  the  State  would 
eventually  be  benefited.  After  settling  every  native  white  man  in  a  home  of  his 
own,  then  by  all  proper  available  means  it  would  be  well  to  seek  to  introduce  immi- 
gration from  the  old  world,  but  of  such  individuals  only  as  would  be  a  useful 
acquisition  in  an  industrial  and  social  point  of  view. 


550  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


PROSPERITY  A  PPKOACHrNG. 

The  depression  of  the  farming  interests  all  over  this  continent,  its  cause,  and 
the  probable  duration  of  it,  are  prolific  subjects  for  the  best  thought  of  the  coun- 
try. That  most  farmers  have  had  "  a  hard  row  of  stumps  to  hoe  "  during  tlx- 
last  few  years  is  a  fact  which  admits  of  no  argument,  and  this  brings  up  at  once 
the  question  "  What  is  the  icason  for  this?"  It  is  conceded  that  the  immediate 
reason  lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  an  over-production  of  the  staples,  such  as  wheat, 
corn,  potatoes,  etc.,  necessarily  forcing  such  sharp  competition  in  selling  that  the 
price  is  materially  reduced.  This  being  the  ease  we  must  look  into  this  quests  n 
of  over-production.  One  of  the  strong  economic  writers  of  the  day.  Mr.  C.  W. 
Davis,  sa}rs,  and  he  brings  the  figures  to  prove  it,  that  the  acreage  of  wheat  la; id 
reached  the  maximum  several  years  ago,  and  that  extensive  additions  to  that 
acreage  are  now  practically  impossible.  He  takes  issue  with  other  writers  who 
have  pictured  limitless  areas  of  a  prospective  Avheat  empire  stretching  northward 
in  the  great  interior  of  the  Northwest  British  territories.  He  shows  that  the  pre- 
vailing low  prices  of  wheat  began  with  the  enormous  development  of  wheat  laud 
in  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas,  and  that  the  product  of  these  millions  of  acres 
simultaneously  opened  to  cultivation,  necessarily  glutted  the  market.  The  capac- 
ity of  production  being  already  practically  reached,  it  is  estimated  that  the  increas- 
ing ratio  of  consumption  will,  as  early  as  1895,  advance  prices  far  beyond  the  cost 
of  production  and  inaugurate  an  era  of  unexampled  agricultural  prosperity. 

Assuming  that  the  present  population  of  the  United  States  is  65. 000,000,  it  is- 
estimated  that  the  excessive  production  at  present  ratio  is  sufficient  to  supply 
corn  for  five  and  one-half  additional  millions  of  people,  wheat  for  fourteen  more 
millions,  cattle  for  six  millions,  and  swine  for  eleven  millions.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  acreage  that  can  be  devoted  to  agriculture  is  rapidly  diminishing  and 
the  products  cannot  keep  pace  with  the  increase  in  population.  In  proof  of  this 
it  is  cited  that  whereas  nearly  forty-eight  millions  of  acres  of  new  land  were 
brought  under  cultivation  in  the  five  years  between  1874  and  1870,  only  twelve 
millions  of  acres  in  the  five  years  ending  with  1889. 

It  is  asserted  that  existing  data  demonstrate,  that  for  each  unit  of  population 
under  the  existing  order  of  things  there  is  now  required  1.15  acres  of  corn,  0.57  of 
an  acre  of  wheat,  and  1.53  acres  of  other  staple  products — a  total  of  3.15  acres  per 
capita.  Using  this  data  asa  basis  for  future  estimates, andapplyingthem  to  that, 
relating  to  diminishing  area  of  lands  open  to  development,  a  conclusion  is  arrived 
at  which  will  certainly  gratify  the  hearts  of  those  agriculturists  avIio  are  now 
struggling  through  an  unprosperous  era.  Assuming  the  substantial  correctres* 
of  the  estimates  of  area  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  andthathome  require- 
ments will  be  such  as  to  employ  3.15  acres  per  capita,  the  answer  to  the  question, 
When  will  the  farmer  be  prosperous?  resolves  itself  into  a  calculation  as  simple 
as  the  following: 

Acres.         Actps. 

Jnnimrv,  l8o^,  a  population  of  72.000,000  will  require  in  staple  crops  an  area  of 226,Soo,ooo 

Area  i»w  employed  in  growing  such  crops .    .  211,000,000 

Additions  to  be  marie  to  such  area  in  four  years 12,000,000  223,000,000 

Acreaye  deficit  January,  1 894 3,800,000 


This  deficit  should  be  sufficient  to  neutralize  any  possible  understatement  of 
the  area  now  in  cultivation.     When  this  stage  of  the  problem  is  reached,  farm 


These  for  a  Cen  i 


(651) 


552  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


property  will  appreciate  in  value,  as  well  as  farm  products;  and  then,  too,  improved 
methods  of  fertilizing  and  cultivating  will  have  to  be  resorted  to,  in  order  that 
the  yield  may  be  increased.  The  farmer  will  no  longer  be  "  in  the  soup,"  but  he 
will  be  on  top  of  the  heap,  happy,  prosperous  and  a  capitalist.  It  is  a  consumma- 
tion devoutly  to  be  wished. 

SKILL   IN   FARMING. 

A  great  many  people  have  the  iaea  that  the  man  who  farms  does  not  require 
any  skill  in  the  carrying  on  of  his  dceupation — that  skill  belongs  to  professional 
men,  and  is  necessary  for  them  only.  Now,  a  man  who  farms,  from  the  nature 
of  his  calling,  must  essentially  be  a  man  of  skill,  and  then  a  man  of  strength, 
and  not  first  a  man  of  strength  and  then  a  man  of  skill.  A  man  can  overcome 
difficulties  much  more  successfully  through  skilful  operation  than  through  the 
*  operation  of  mere  physical  strength.  The  day  for  purely  physical  strength  has 
long  gone  by  and  men  who  would  farm  with  profit  must  farm  with  skill.  The 
prevalent  idea  is  like  this,  that  a  dairyman  among  farmers  is  a  man  whose  sole 
occupation  consists  in  producing  or  manipulating  or  selling  milk.  He  may  per- 
haps rise  to  be  a  manufacturer  of  the  products  of  milk,  but  beyond  that  meager 
outline  of  work  men  think  he  requires  to  know  nothing  and  do  nothing.  I  will 
try  and  make  my  meaning  clear,  and  speak,  first,  as  to  why  a  man  needs  skill  in 
carrying  on  the  work  of  a  dairy  farm.  It  is  his  business  to  find  food  for  the 
others  of  his  race,  because  most  of  the  food  we  consume  from  our  tables  comes 
as  a  product  of  some  dairy  farmer's  skill,  if  the  single  commodity,  called  fish,  be 
excepted.  If  you  go  through  the  whole  list  you  will  find  that  most  of  them 
belong  to  the  products  of  dairy  farming.  The  man  who  finds  food  for  all  the 
world  must  be  a  skillful  man,  because  his  occupation  demands  skill.  It  gives  him 
a  sphere  for  the  exercise  of  skill  of  the  highest  order.  As  a  man  produces  food 
he  will  have  to  seek  that  food  from  two  sources  of  supply,  from  plants  and  from 
animals,  and  through  these  from  all  the  resources  of  nature  that  are  put  there  to 
be  brought  out  by  the  application  of  his  skill.  But  he  is  more  than  a  producer, 
he  becomes  a  manufacturer  of  foods  such  as  are  made  by  animals  on  the  farm — 
milk,  choose,  butter,  beef  and  things  of  that  sort.  In  that  way  you  see  a  man 
requires,  first,  the  deepest  and  highest  and  farthest  reaching  of  skill  that  he  may 
control  the  forces  of  nature  and  make  them  operate  for  his  purpose.  He  requires 
skill  for  that,  he  requires  skill  to  understand  the  operation  of  the  machinery 
whereby  he  elaborates  raw  products  into  finished  goods.  You  sec  there  are 
avenues  for  the  exercise  of  skill.  His  judgment  must  first  determine  the  kind  of 
plant  that  will  render  him  the  most  service  directly,  or  indirectly,  through 
animals.  A  man  would  never  think  of  growing  strawberries  for  the  production 
of  milk.  In  that  case  his  cow  would  consume  more  value  in  strawberries  than 
she  would  produce  in  milk. 

We  have  known  a  cow  to  cat  two  baskets  full  of  strawberries  but  they  did  not 
increase  her  milk  supply  in  the  least.  We  havo  merely  given  that  absurd  illustra- 
tion  to  show  that  while  men  do  not  grow  strawberries  as  a  rule  for  the  feeding  of 
dairy  cows,  they  sometimes  grow  a  product  on  their  farm  that  is  in  manner  but 
not  in  degree  ns  extravagant  for  the  production  of  milk.  A  man's  skill  shall 
solve  for  himself  the  question  of  the  cheapest  food  so  far  as  its  potentiality  and 
efficacy  is  concerned.  There  is  room  for  skill  here,  surely.  Then  a  man's  skill 
shall  not  merely  select  the  kind  of  plants  that  he  shall  grow,  but  his  skill  shall 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  553 


select  the  varieties  of  the  plants.  In  the  growth  of  oats  a  man  may  select  any 
one  of  200  varieties,  and  if  he  selects  thorn  in  a  haphazard  fashion,  they  will  serve 
him  in  a  haphazard  way.  Our  friend,  Professor  Saunders,  told  us  that  hy  care- 
ful selection  of  single  grains  of  a  variety  of  the  oat  plant,  he  obtained  three 
thousand  nine  hundred  odd  grains  from  the  planting  of  one  seed.  If  we  can  be 
skillful  in  selecting  seeds  of  equal  vitality  and  vigor,  we  would  not  merely  get  a 
thirty-fold  but  a  three-hundred-fold  service  from  the  crops  that  we  grow.  A  man 
growing  crops  may  even  get  a  five-hundred  return  from  the  seed  if  he  will  sow 
tho  right  sort.  Then  a  man's  skill  shall  make  preparation  for  the  furnishing  of 
food,  for  the  seed  which  he  plants,  and  many  a  man  by  failing  to  supply  food  for 
the  plants  which  grow  on  his  fields  is  unable  to  find  food  for  himself.  Beneficent 
nature  is  always  just  and  generous  and  she  will  richly  repay  a  man  for  the  appli- 
cation of  thought  and  skill  that  he  may  bestow  on  her.  The  tiller  of  the  soil 
will  find  the  proper  kind  of  plant  and  place  it  in  the  ground.  A  man's  skill 
makes  preparation  for  its  food  by  cultivation.  When  a  man  cultivates  his  soil 
he  is  not  merely  probing  about  with  instruments  and  tools;  if  he  does  this  he  is 
exercising  no  skill.  A  man's  skill  shall  look  right  into  the  soil  and  shall  go  on, 
so  acting  upon  and  acting  through  it  that  his  skill  shall  reach  up  through  the 
soil  and  govern  the  sun  that  shines  over  his  farm. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  farmer  to  exercise  his  skill  in  such  a  way  on  the  soil 
that  he  may  harness  the  old  sun  every  morning  and  make  it  do  his  will.  He 
cannot  do  that  if  he  has  not  skill.  The  sun,  with  his  strength,  energy,  and 
potentiality,  thrills  down  for  our  service  when  he  tries  to  store  these  into  plants. 
We  eat  to  get  strength,  that  we  may  control  the  strength  and  do  something. 
Whence  comes  the  strength  ?  From  the  old  sun.  We  want  from  food  strength  and 
sunshine,  and  when  we  get  really  strong  butter,  we  get  strength  and  no  sun- 
shine. The  old  sun  is  streaming  like  this  on  all  the  fields;  if  he  comes  to 
a  man's  farm  whose  fields  have  no  plant  food,  then  the  old  sun  looks  into  that 
man's  soil,  and  finding  no  material  into  which  to  store  his  strength,  he  merely 
loafs  around  that  field.  When  a  horse  pulls  us  in  a  wagon,  the  horse  is  merely 
expending  what  he  got  from  the  sun;  when  the  engine  is  puffing  along,  it  is  only 
expending  what  the  old  sun  stored  in  the  fuel  centuries  ago.  When  Ave  eat  our 
own  food  we  are  merely  getting  for  our  use  the  energy  that  the  old  sun  accumulated 
in  it  under  the  direction  of  the  skill  of  some  man  whose  right  it  was  to  rule  his 
acts  and  make  him  subservient  to  him.  A  man  who  would  be  a  successful  farmer 
needs  to  be  a  man  of  skill  and  then  a  man  of  strength.  If  a  man  goes  at  his 
work  with  his  fists  he  is  not  so  successful  as  if  he  goes  at  it  with  his  head,  because 
with  the  latter  he  could  clear  a  way  for  the  application  of  the  strength  which  he 
has.  Therefore  let  a  man  exercise  his  skill  in  such  a  way  that  all  the  powers  in 
nature  will  serve  him,  and  that  he  will  have  dominion  over  the  sun  and  over  the 
water  in  the  soil.  A  man  not  only  needs  skill,  but  he  needs  to  apply  his  skill. 
The  man  who  applies  his  skill  to  the  growth  of  a  plant  can  do  so  best  along  two 
lines.  First,  along  the  line  of  skillfully  adapting  suitable  plants  of  conditions 
aird  circumstances  of  his  farm  and  locality,  and  then  along  the  line  of  handling 
plants,  that  the  strength  of  the  old  sun  shall  not  be  wasted  or  lost.  First,  lethim 
try  to  get  within  his  grasp  some  of  nature's  powers  for  his  service,  and  then  let 
him  so  use  that  power  back  out  into  the  world  that  he  will  not  lose  anything,  but 
thereby  increase  its  intensity. 


554  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


PERNICIOUS  WEEDS. 

These  may  be  destroyed  if  frequently  hoed  down  and  some  may  be  killed  if 
only  cut  down  once.  The  crops  of  the  farmer,  and  especially  of  the  truck  farmer, 
should  be  kept  well  stirred  so  that  most  of  the  weeds  he  has  to  contend  with  mav 
he  killed  before  or  as  soon  as  they  appear  above  the  ground.  If  they  get  a  fair 
start  they  are  hard  to  manage,  and  the  labor  of  extirpation  will  be  doubled  or 
trebled.  The  worst  of  our  weeds  tare  the  worm  seed  and  dog  fennel,  must  be 
eradicated  when  young  or  they  will  become  extremely  troublesome  by  sprouting 
and  extending  from  the  deep  roots.  They  are  among  our  worst  pests.  Purslain 
is  a  troublesome  weed  in  gardens,  that  spreads  an  extraordinary  number  of  fine 
seeds,  which,  when  mixed  in  the  soil,  will  continue  to  vegetate  year  after  year. 
It  should  be  destroyed  when  young.  It  is  easy  to  cut  up  or  off,  but  if  any  part  is 
left  slightly  covered  with  soil,  it  will  take  root  in  a  day  or  night  and  in  two  or 
three  days  will  be  as  rampant  as  ever.  Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  leaf  and  the 
paucity  of  stomata,  this  plant  may  be  upon  the  surface  for  many  days  in  the  hot 
sun,  with  or  without  roots,  without  dying. 

We  have  many  other  noxious  and  troublesome  weeds  of  persistent  growth 
and  tenacity  of  life,  that  infest  our  fields  and  gardens  ;  the  popular  names  of 
some  are  crab-grass,  with  tough,  bunchy  roots,  hog-weed,  May-weed,  Canada  this- 
tle, wild  onions,  wild  daisy,  or  ox  eye,  white  clover,  wire-grass,  &c.  Weeds  con- 
sume the  food  intended  for  the  crops.  They  should  be  plowed  or  hoed  up  as  soon 
as  they  appear,  and  the  sooner  done  the  less  labor,  and  the  crops  reeeive  the  ad- 
vantage of  stirring  the  soil. 

WEEDS  AND  WEEDING. 

This  weed  that  succeeds  wheat  and  other  crops,  known  as  bitter  weed,  ragweed, 
&c,  is  not  to  be  considered  a  pest.  In  Virginia  after  small  grain  crops  are  taken 
off,  it  soon  occupies  the  whole  surface  of  the  field,  shades  the  exposed  soil,  and 
when  the  ground  is  ready  to  be  fallowed,  it  is  up  waist  high  or  more,  according  to 
the  strength  of  the  soil  or  the  seasonableness  of  the  weather.  The  amount  of  vege- 
table matter  it  returns  to  the  soil,  when  the  growth  has  been  rampant  in  some  fields 
is  immense.  This  vegetable  matter  when  turned  under  in  the  fall  and  allowed  to 
rot  is  highly  beneficial  to  succeeding  crops.  It  is  a  question  with  some  of  our 
farmers  whether  this  should  be  done  in  a  green  or  dry  state.  The  water  in  the 
weed  affords  no  manure,  but  in  a  green  state,  decomposition  takes  place  much 
more  rapidly  and  affords  food  for  plants  much  sooner  than  when  put  under  in  a 
dry  state.  Some  farmers  argue  that  if  green  crops  are  turned  under,  which  is 
generally  done  with  a  two  or  three-horse  plow  and  drag-chain,  by  means  of  which 
the  whole  growth  is  completely  buried,  that  the  land  is  killed  for  a  time  by  the 
sour  gases  arising  from  rapid  fermentation,  caused  by  the  great  mass  of  sappy, 
green  material;  and,  if  done  at  all,  it  should  be  done  late  in  the  fall  for  oat  or 
corn  land  the  next  spring.  We  think  farmers  generally  have  no  fears  as  to  such 
a  result  as  this.  As  a  general  thing  the  quantity  thus  covered  could  not  pos- 
sibly heat  so  as  to  effect  soil  injuriously,  and,  besides,  it  is  turned  under  Avith  less 
compactness  than  most  other  green  crops.  We  are  of  opinion  that  a  crop  of  rag- 
weeds, well  turned  under  in  a  green  state,  will  afford  as  much,  or  nearly  as  much, 
humus  and  plant  feed,  suitable  for  the  next  crop,  as  almost  any  other  soiling  green 
crop.  The  subject  of  Aveeds  should  be  more  generally  discussed  by  our  agricultural 
writers.     T.  IT.  P.  Wallis,  of  Tennessee,  has  given  a  valuable  essay  on  this  subject. 


CHAPTER  XXT. 
Soulhei  ii  Immigration. 


BY    THOMAS    WHITKnivM).    coMMISSIONKR    OF    AORIOUJ/TTTRE    OF    VIRGINIA. 


m 

i 


OR  VARIOUS  REASONS  the  Northern  section  of  the  United 
}~q  States  acquired  population  faster  in  proportion  to  area  than 
t^MQy  the  South.  Perhaps  the  people  settling  in  that  section  were 
^wwp^xf^  more  given  to  commerce  and  manufactures  than  those  settling 
^,,'^L^jr^  the  warmer  States.  Certain  it  is,  that  at  an  early  day  com- 
l^Jx.''H'^y^'~meTCe'  navigation,  manufactures,  trade,  and  the  mechanical 

ge  part  of  the  population 
onies.     To  make  comfort- 


t*  Mcv^gV^:^  arts  occupied  the  attention  of  a  lar 
^h^^^^k:  °^  wnat  nac*  been  t,ne  Northern  col 
.J^j^l- :.-?:'     "able  and  profitable  homesteads,  with  meadows  and  dairies  and 
"5^^^j^fr%#-       orchards  on  well-kept  farms,  was  the  Northern  agricultural 
idea,  while  large  plantations,  extensive  clearings,  and  fields 
of  tobacco  and  cotton  was  that  of  the  South. 

The  Northern  people  quickly  discovered  riches  in  the  mines  of  coal  and  iron, 
and  furnaces  everywhere  sent  up  smoky  signals  of  thrift  and  industry.  The  busy 
brain  of  this  people  saw  and  utilized  the  advantages  of  manufacturing,  not  only 
the  products  of  these  mines  and  forests,  but  the  avooI,  leather,  and  cotton  of  the 
South.  These  industries  naturally  attracted  the  tide  of  emigration  from  Europe. 
They  gathered  all  the  artisans  and  skilled  workmen,  and  such  capital  as  escaped 
from  the  old  world  found  a  resting  place  in  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia. 
The  Northern  States  became  thickly  populated,  and  sent  their  sons  West,  leading 
and  controlling  the  tide  of  emigration  that  poured  into  the  Northern  cities.  Up 
to  the  war  between  the  States  the  South  appeared  content  with  profitable  agri- 
culture. Mining  and  manufacturing,  except  tobacco  and  a  little  cotton,  were 
almost  unknown.  Very  little  was  said  about  Southern  immigration.  There 
appeared  to  be  no  netd  of  it.  Labor  was  abundant.  It  was  property,  and  its 
money  basis  its  main  value.  Small  farms  and  intensified  farming  were  occa- 
sionally found  around  cities  and  towns,  but  they  were  the  fancy  farms  of  the 
wealthy.  The  independent  monied  men  were  the  planters  on  large  estates.  All 
along  the  years  from  1837  prominent  men,  with  voice  and  pen,  occasionally,  like 
prophets,  raised  a  Avarning  voice  in  view  of  the  fact  that  our  people  were  going 
West,  and  calling  attention  to  our  cheap  lands  and  sparse  population,  and  urging 
the  improvement  of  our  soil.  In  1842,  Hon.  AVilliam  C.  Rives  addressed  the 
Agricultural  Society  of  Albemarle  county,  Virginia.  The  following  extract  from 
his  address  reads  as  if  it  had  been  delivered  in  1890: 

"  Should  any  one  doubt  whether  we  shall  derive  from  the  reduced  surface, 
better  cultivated,  a  product  equal  to  that  of  the  whole  under  inadequate  culture, 


SOUTHERN  IMMIGRATION.  557 


let  him  recollect  the  instructive  story  told  by  old  Columella,  in  his  'De  re  rus- 
tica,'  of  a  Roman  vine-dresser,  who  had  a  vineyard  and  two  daughters;  when 
his  eldest  daughter  was  married  he  gave  her  a  third  of  the  vineyard  for  a  portion, 
and  yet  he  had  the  same  quantity  of  fruit  as  before;  when  his  second  daughter 
was  married  lie  gave  her  the  half  of  what  remained,  and  stdl  the  produce  of  his 
vineyard  was  undiminished. 

"  This  anecdote  of  the  Roman  agriculturist,  gentlemen,  points  the  full  force 
of  its  moral  against  the  fatal  mania  for  emigration  which  has  hitherto  carried  off 
so  large  and  valuable  a  portion  of  our  population  to  seek  wider  domains  for  them- 
selves and  families  in  the  prairies  of  the  West.  It  is  not  more  land  we  need.  We 
have  enough  and  more  than  enough  already,  if  properly  cultivated  and  improved, 
for  ourselves  and  our  children  after  us.  It  is  industry,  improvement,  good  hus- 
bandry we  want,  to  develop  the  natural  capabilities  of  our  soil,  and  to  make  it 
adequate  to  every  reasonable  wish,  and  even  to  the  fondest  dreams  of  prosperity 
and  wealth.  With  these,  seconding  the  gifts  of  Providence  by  which  we  are  sur- 
rounded, we  shall  have  nothing  to  envy  in  the  untamed  abundance  of  the  West, 
tempting  us  from  the  cherished  scenes  of  our  childhood  and  the  hallowed  tombs 
of  our  ancestors.  I  am  happy  to  believe,  gentlemen,  that  a  brighter  day  is  now 
dawning  upon  us,  and  that  the  eminent  natural  advantages  and  superior  capabili- 
ties of  Virginia  are  beginning  to  be  appreciated  at  their  true  worth,  by  the  citi- 
zens of  our  sister  States,  as  well  as  to  be  more  and  more  felt  by  her  own  children, 
while  emigration  from  our  borders  has,  in  a  great  measure,  closed,  other  States 
are  beginning,  in  their  turn,  to  send  to  us  tributes  of  their  moral,  industrious  and 
enterprising  population,  attracted  hither  by  the  advantages  of  our  climate,  ©ur 
numerous  navigable  rivers,  our  water  power,  our  mineral  resources,  our  favorable 
geographical  position,  our  kind  and  improvable  soils." 

Wise  as  were  such  counsels  they  had  little  weight  with  Legislatures  or 
people.  The  war  between  the  States  came  and  ended,  and  the  development  of  the 
great  mineral  and  timber  resources  of  the  South  became  a  necessity.  The  man 
with  2,000  acres  into  whose  tall  forests  no  axe  had  come,  and  whose  estates  had 
never  been  disfigured  by  mines  or  cut  up  with  roads,  who  had  lived  in  indepen- 
dence and  comfort  on  the  proceeds  of  his  plantation,  was  a  poor  man.  He  could 
neither  cultivate  nor  sell  his  surplus  lands,  open  his  mines,  nor  fell  his  forests. 
Along  the  Blue  Ridge  from  Alabama  to  Maryland  this  was  the  case.  Along  the 
tidewater  from  the  Chesapeake  Bay  to  the  Mississippi,  the  immense  crops  of  corn, 
wheat,  tobacco,  cotton  and  sugar  were  gone,  fields  were  growing  up,  ditches  and 
drains  filling,  enclosures  gone,  tobacco  barns  and  gin  houses  and  even  stables 
going  to  decay.  Immigration  had  become  a  necessity.  Labor  was  abundant  but 
demoralized.  Still  it  could  be  profitably  handled  with  capital,  brains  and  energy. 
What  the  South  needed  was  capital  in  the  hands  of  a  large  population  of  good 
people.  It  needs  but  this  now  to  give  to  the  section  unparalleled  prosperity.  An 
urgent  need  also  of  the  entire  section  is,  the  sale  at  low  rates  of  at  least  10,000,000 
acres  of  lands  in  every  State. 

That  the  South  has  in  soil,  climate,  productions,  conveniences  of  transpor- 
tation, markets,  social,  educational  and  religious  surroundings  advantage  over 
the  Western  States  and  territories,  is  susceptible  of  easy  proof.  It  is  as  impor- 
tant that  the  native  Southern  people  should  be  made  to  understand  the  advan- 
tages of  their  section  as  that  foreigners  should  be  informed  what  it  offers,  and  it 


a 
g 

5 
m 

Id 
►4 


O 

a 

o 


§ 


SOUTHERN  IMMIGRATION. 


>5» 


ia  the  patriotic  duty  6f  every  well-informed 
tho  facts  and  arguments  to  insure  theii 

The  industrious,  steady  man  with  a  family 
make  a   home  and  good  living  in  a  healthful 


living  in 
of 


man  to  sec  that  his  neighbors  havq 
the  South. 

with  a  i\'\v  hundred  dollars,  can 
land    with   a  delightful   climate. 


Long  days  without  extremes  of  heat  or  cold,  rainfall  or  drought,  mean  clear 
money,  and  profit  to  the  farmer.  On  the  cheap  unimproved  lands  of  the  South 
Atlantic  slope,  with  its  grasses,  its  fruit,  fish  and  game,  a  poor  man  can  do  better 
than  he  can  on  the  public  lands  of  the  great  West  as  a  free  gift.  Tho  corre- 
spondence of  immigration  societies  and  real  estate  agencies  discloses  the  fact  that 
thousands  who  went  West  and  settled  on  government  lands  now  want  to  come 
South,  and  are  prevented  by  mortgages  they  were  compelled  to  give  to  erect  build- 
ings on  their  homesteads.  The  Immigration  Departments  of  the  Southern  States 
have  thousands  of  such  letters  from  men  in  Canada,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Minne- 
sota, Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Iowa  and  Dakota.  The  Northwestern  farmer  is  dis- 
satisfied. The  winters  are  severe  and  fuel  is  scarce  and  high.  Long  winters  cut 
down  profits  on  stock  fed  eight  months  in  the  stalls.  Short  summers  curtail  the 
range  of  vegetables  and  fruits,  and  distance  to  markets  eats  up  the  profit  on  large 
crops.  He  wants  a  better  climate,  nearer  market,  cheaper  fuel,  and  better  water. 
The  Southern  farmer  has  too  much  land.  He  wants  capital.  He  needs  stock 
and  implements.  He  is  suffering  because  he  owns  too  much  unfilled  land.  The 
Northern  landholder  wants 
to  sell  to  emigrate,  the  South- 
ern landholder  wants  to  sell 
to  keep  from  emigrating. 
The  South  needs  a  particu- 
lar class  of  immigrants.  All 
the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
States  are  under  a  system  of 
governmen t — State,  coun ty 
and  district — giving  educa- 
tional, religious  and  social 
privileges  and  advantages. 
In  very  few  are  there  any 
public  lands,  State  or  Fede- 
ral. Agricultural  labor  is 
abundant  in  the  rural  dis- 
tricts, and  the  cities  and 
towns  are  supplied  with  such 
as  they  need.  The  landing 
at  the  Southern  ports  of  ship 

loads  of  emigrants  from  an}-  Decides  to  g0  somET 

country  without  means  of  support,  however  good,  honest  and  industrious,  would 
be  a  calamity  to  the  emigrant  and  to  the  State.  It  is  not  labor  or  population 
that  the  South  needs  and  desires.  It  is  families  with  means  to  buy  homes,  how- 
ever humble,  however  small,  and  support  themselves  and  grow  up  to  become  citi- 
zens of  the  new  South. 

The  sale  of  three-fourths  of  the  land  in  the  South  Atlantic  States,  leaving 
one-fourth  to  be  cultivated  by  the  original  owner  with  increased  capital,  will  not 


560 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


mingling 


only  infuse  new  life  and  vigor  into  native  farmers  and  planters,  but  into  State 
and  county,  and  lay  the  foundation  for  a  section  held,  controlled  and  governed  in 
future  years  by  a  population  of  thrift,  intelligence,  integrity  and  patriotism. 
Proof  of  this  is  being  already  seen  in  Virginia,  Tennessee  and  Georgia.  Indus- 
tries are  springing  up  everywhere.  Northern  settlers  are  generally  prosperous. 
New  industries  havo  been  introduced.  Poultry,  fruit,  bees  and  dairies  have  been 
greatly  increased.  Small  industries  in  wood,  leather,  straw,  etc.,  have  been  intro- 
duced in  and  around  the  villages.  The  welcome  which  the  South  has  given  to 
immigrants  from  foreign  lands,  but  especially  from  the  North,  gives  promise  of 

an   honest  desire  to   have 
them,     and 


proves  that 
in  the  marts  of 
trade,  and  fields  of  indus- 
try, as  citizens  of  the  same 
States,  having  the  same  in- 
terests, will  sweep  away  all 
the  prejudices  and  distrusts 
of  the  past. 

The  South  offers  won- 
derful inducements  to  citi- 
zens of  the  other  States  and 
foreign  countries  who  are 
seeking  a  field  for  the  in- 
vestment of  capital.  Its 
mines  of  iron,  coal,  copper, 
zinc,  sulphur  and  manga- 
nese, are  wonderful  in  quan- 
tity and  quality,  and  their 
location  for  advantages  in 
smelting  and  washing  is  so 
greatthatphenomenalcities 
are  springing  up  from  the 
Gulf  to  the  Chesapeake  "bay, 
Its  climate  is  unsurpassed. 
In  winter  its  Gulf  line  from 
Florida  to  New  Orleans  is 


A  Satisfied  Emigrant  (ten  years  at'ier  moving). 


thronged  with  the  fragile  of  the  North  gathering  new  life  in  the  balmy  breezes 
of  the  semi-tropics,  and  in  summer  the  panting  denizens  of  the  far  Southern 
cities  meet  their  Northern  friends  at  the  watering  places  in  the  Blue  Ridge  and 
Appalachian  range.  Its  water  transportation  and  steamboat  navigation,  winter 
and  summer,  on  coast  and  river,  quadruples  the  balance  of  the  States.  Its  range 
of  cereals,  fruits  and  vegetables  are  equal  to  anj^.  From  the  Chesapeake  to 
Florida  are  the  finest  fish  and  oysters  in  bay  and  river.  Its  fowls  both  wild  and 
domestic  are  abundant  and  excellent  in  quality.  The  South  may  adopt  the  apos- 
trophe of  Capt.  John  Smith,  of  Virginia,  "Heaven  and  earth  never  agreed  better 
to  frame  a  place  for  man's  habitation." 

Some  statistics  may  here  be  given: 

In  tobacco  and  cotton  the  Southern  States  head  the  word's  list 


SOUTHERN  IMMIGRATION.  561 


In  iron  the  Southern  States  surrounding  the  Southern  Appalachian  chain 
will  shortly  furnish  enough  for  the  world. 

The  coal  and  coke  oi*  the  South  with  only  a  few  years  development  are  now 
at  the  front. 

In  manganese  it  is  admitted  that  the  South  will  soon  furnish  the  world's 
chief  supply. 

Southern  zinc  supplied  the  material  for  Italian  cannon  some  years  ago  and 
the  mines  have  been  doubled  in  the  last  year. 

Alabama,  Georgia,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Virginia  and  West  Virginia,  and 
even  North  and  South  Carolina  are  smoking  with  furnaces  and  dotted  with  new 
cities.  Florida  and  South  Carolina  will  supply  the  country  with  phosphates  and 
Georgia  and  Virginia  with  sulphur. 

Timber  for  the  supply  of  the  coming  100  years  is  in  the  Gulf  States,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  mountain  vallys  that  pierce  the  centre  States.  Here  is  employ- 
ment for  millions  of  population  and  the  prospect  for  a  market  for  the  products 
of  thousands  of  new  acres.  Here  is  the  opening  for  capital  and  industry,  a  place 
for  the  farmer,  planter,  grazier,  dairyman,  fruit  culturist,  vine-dresser,  bee-keeper 
and  poultry  man,  on  fertile  lands  secure  from  storms,  from  the  rigors  of  winter  and 
the  tropical  sun  of  summer.  Here  the  skilled  artificer  in  brass  and  iron  and  the 
cunning  workman  in  machinery  will  soon  find  abundant  work,  and  a  full  reward 
for  his  skill  and  labor. 

The  statistical  tables  will  show  that  in  the  Southern  States  there  is  nearer  a 
medium  rainfall,  nearer  a  medium  range  of  the  thermometer,  less  epidemic  and 
a  better  health  rate  than  in  any  section  of  as  extended  area  elsewhere. 

The  educational  advantages  of  the  South  are  better  than  in  any  other  country 
of  as  little  financial  ability  and  as  sparse  a  population.  The  taxes  of  the  South- 
ern States  are  less  than  any  other-  section  of  equal  extent.  The  South  has  as 
moral,  law  abiding  population  as  any  section,  and  as  many  churches,  and  chari- 
table institutions,  as  any  section  of  equal  extent.  Testimony  to  these  facts  has 
been  borne  by  prominent  public  men  through  the  press  of  the  country  and  by  dis- 
tinguished foreigners  who  have  traveled  and  sojourned  in  the  section. 

Why,  then,  it  maybe  asked  has  not  this  fertile,  this  goodly  land  been  before 
occupied,  developed,  and  cultivated? 

The  answer  is  that  the  North  with  the  prestige  and  power  of  the  National 
Government  conquered  the  South  and  has  had  control  of  the  government  all 
these  years.  Many  of  its  people,  its  press,  its  authors  were  prejudiced  against 
the  section.  It  had  a  bad  name,  many  spoke  against  the  land  and  people  through 
ignorance,  some  from  prejudice.  The  South  could  not  get  the  ear  of  the  world, 
nor  can  it  fully  get  it  now.  But  light  has  broken  in,  the  young  men  are  coming 
on,  the  sections  are  meeting,  the  people  are  mingling  and  "the  crowning  day  is 
coming  bye  and  bye."  Another  trouble  was,  our  legislatures  have  clone  little  and 
Congress  has  done  less.  Very  few  organizations  had  any  patriotism  in  them. 
There  was  no  regular  system  to  induce  select  immigration,  but  little  organization 
to  protect  the  immigrant  and  secure  him  the  worth  of  his  money.  Every  influx 
of  immigrants  to  a  section,  however  small,  put  up  the  prices  and  checked  the 
move.  Most  men  were  "on  the  make."  The  first  stream  of  immigration  after 
the  war  was  badly  handled  in  the  South.     Multitudes  of  foreigners  were  brought 


562 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


in  who  had  no  money,  they  brought  families,  bought  land,  could  not  pay  the 
prices,  and  scattered — they  losing  their  time  and  landowners  their  money. 

Matters  have  improved.  The  States  must  take  hold  of  this  subject  witk 
liberal  provisions.  They  must  secure  the  help  of  railroads,  offer  inducements, 
and  see  that  the  immigrant  is  protected.  He  must  have  official  assistance  and 
advice,  so  that  he  will  feel  that  his  person  and  property  are  under  the  care  of  those 
who  will  see  that  he  has  a  fair  chance  in  his  new  home.  The  people  who  own 
these  lands  if  they  understand  their  own  welfare — if  they  desire  to  get  money 
for  the  uncultivated  acres,  to  secure  capital,  to  advance  their  agricultural  affairs, 
must  see  that  those  who  lay  upon  these  lands  the  taxes  to  support  the  State, 


'  There's  where  I  was  Born.' 


appropriate  some  of  the  money  to  secure  for  the  Southern  States  the  valuable 
population  seeking  new  homes.  The  Western  States  have  expended  hundreds 
where  the  South  has  tens,  to  secure  population. 

The  South  is  settled,  organized  with  all  the  appliances  of  refined,  intelligent 
society.  It  will  take  effort  of  brains  and  money  to  secure  such  a  population  by 
immigration  as  it  ought  to  have,  but  it  can  be  done  if  wise  and  patriotic  men 
make  the  effort.  It  is  gratifying  to  know  that  in  all  the  Southern  States  som« 
Northern  men,  and  men  from  Europe,  men  of  intellect,  capital  and  high  standing 
are  aiding  the  South  in  this  effort  to  rehabilitate  itself.  They  deserve  the  thanks 
of  the  people,  for  among  them  are  some  who  wore  the  Blue,  and  are  now  work- 
ing as  earnestly  for  the  development  of  our  section  and  the  building  of  its  cities, 
as  those  who  wore  the  Gray. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


!3lcjricultuiv>l  €ftucaltou. 


BY    PROF.    .1.    S.     NK.WMAN,    OK    ALABAMA. 

GRICULTURE  in  every  country  passes  through  two  distinc- 
tive periods,  viz:  The  destructive  and  the  reconstructive. 
During  the  first  period  the  farmer  apparently  acts  upon  the 
assumption  that  soil  is  inexhaustible.  He  disregards  at  once 
the  necessity  for  protection  from  surface  washing,  the  restora- 
tion of  vegetable  matter,  and  the  return  of  plant  food  removed 
in  the  crops  sold  from  the  land.  If  he  went  systematically 
to  work  to  destroy  the  fertility  of  the  soil  he  could  not  adopt 
more  effective  means  of  accomplishing  this  end  than  the  sys- 
tem of  farming  generally  practiced  upon  virgin  soils,  which 
were  so  generous  in  their  returns  for  the  labor  of  the  husbandman,  as  to  preclude 
the  idea  of  restitution  or  the  adoption  of  measures  precautionary  against 
impoverishment.  That  the  soil  was  intended  to  be  the  generous  mother  of  untold 
generations — that  it  was  the  great  reservoir  of  latent  energy  from  which  plants 
directly,  and  animals  indirectly  through  the  plants,  should  during  countless  ages 
"  multiply  and  replenish  the  earth,"  seems  to  have  been  entirely  unrecognized 
by  the  destructionists.  It  requires  neither  skill  nor  learning  to  destroy.  The 
barbarians  at  one  swoop  destroyed  the  civilization  of  Greece  and  Rome — the 
results  of  the  cumulative  energies  of  centuries.  So  a  single  generation  has  often 
marred  the  beauty  and  destroyed  the  productive  capacity  of  virgin  soils  teeming 
with  latent  energy  sufficient,  if  wisely  pro- 
tected, and  economized,  to  supply  food  and 
raiment  to  millions.  These  energies,  how- 
ever, have  been  neither  protected  nor  econo- 
mized. Millions  of  acres  of  fertile  fields  have 
been  rendered  barren  wastes  and  deserted  by 
the  destroyers  who  sought  new  empires  to 
conquer  in  their  march  to  the  West.  The  bur- 
ied valleys  and  corrugated  hills  bear  mourn- 
ful testimony  of  man's  prodigality,  and  the 
old-field  pines,  with  which  nature  in  shame 
has  mantled  her  bare  bosom,  entrust  a  funeral 
dirge  to  each  passing  breeze.     When  farming  ColonU1  Wa£hing  Machine 

meant  wearing  out  the  land  so  that  the  apparent  profits  only  represented  a  cor- 
responding diminution  of  capital,  it  was  indeed  true  that  "  any  fool  could  farm." 
But  how  different  is  the  case  now  that  we  must  take  this  legacy  of  dilapidation 

(563) 


664 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


and  not  only  rebuild  the  waste  places,  but  while  doing  so  WTest  a  living  from 
exhausted  nature.  Ignorance  of  the  laws  of  being  may  destroy  health,  but  the 
hand  of  the  skillful  physician  is  required  to  restore  it.  Violations  of  natural 
laws  are  ever  accompanied  by  a  penalty,  whether  it  be  a  moral  or  a  physical  law. 
The  whole  universe,  animate  and  inanimate,  bows  to  the  will  of  the  Creator  as 
expressed  in  natural  law. 

It  is  considered  a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  engineer  be 
familiar  with  the  laws  of  being  of  the  locomotive  which  he  controls,  and  which 

draws  the  precious  freight  of  human  life,  and 
yet  it  is  regarded  a  matter  of  small  import- 
ance that  the  soil,  at  once  the   source   and 
support   of  all  life,   should  be   entrusted  to 
those  so  utterly  ignorant  of  the  laws  which 
control  its  productiveness  as  to  render  it  an- 
nually less  capable  of  furnisbing  the  means 
of  subsistence  to  the  increasing  millions  de- 
pendent upon  the  labor  of  the  husbandman. 
Tn  view  of  these  considerations  the  necessity 
*of  educating  at  least  the  captains  who  com- 
mand the  host  of  tillers  of  the   soil   is   too 
Hand  washing.  plain  to  admit  of  argument. 

Yet  Ave  find  the  most  unreasonable  and  unreasoning  opposition  to  every 
agency  established  for  the  elevation  of  agriculturists  and  the  advancement  of 
their  interests.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  this  opposition  is  found  in  its  most 
malignant  form  amongst  those  who,  with  their  children,  would  reap  the  most 
direct  and  immediate  benefit.  This  can  be  explained  only  on  the  hypothesis  of 
ignorance  and  prejudice  which  are  generally  companions.  Another  class  oppose 
them  because  they  fear  the  emancipation  of  the  farmer  from  their  control  and 
profitable  use. 

In  the  colleges,  the  School  of  Agriculture  is  opposed  by  the  old-fogy  professors 
of  Latin,  Mathematics,  English,  Physics, 
etc.,  who  resent  its  introduction  as  an  in- 
novation upon  the  traditional  curriculum. 
Let  us  consider  for  a  moment  what  is  the 
scope  and  character  of  this  pons  asinorum 
upon  which  so  many  otherwise  well-inform- 
ed men  stumble.  We  state,  as  a  basis  of 
this  discussion,  that  the  votaries  of  no  other 
avocation  are  brought,  in  their  daily  life, 
into  such  close  and  varied  association  j 
with,  and  dependence  upon,  natural  laws 
as  the  agriculturist,  and  consequently  in  no  p 
other  avocation  is  the  necessity  for  a  knowl- 
edge of  these  laws  so  imperative.  There  is 
no  other  avocation  in  which  knowledge  of 
the  natural  sciences  is  brought  into  such  constant  and  practical  use.  Agriculture, 
then,  should  be  taught  as  an  applied  science.  Natural  history,  chemistry,  physics, 
political  economy,  and  mechanics  are  placed  under  contribution  and  their  appli- 


Boilcr  Washer,  A.  D.  1S74. 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION. 


565 


cation  to  the  arts  of  agriculture  should  constitute  a  large  part  of  the  course  of 
instruction  given  by  the  chair  of  agriculture.  Much  confusion  has  resulted  from 
the  fact  that  many  boards  of  trustees  have  failed  to  grasp  a  proper  conception  of 
the  vast  scope  and  importance  of  the  subject,  and  the  proper  field  to  be  occu- 
pied by  the  chair  of  agriculture. 

Some  have  supposed  that  a  knowledge  of  chemistry  constituted  the  necessary 
qualification  for  the  professor  of  agriculture.  Others  have  underrated  the  impor- 
tance of  a  knowledge  of  the  natural  sci- 
ences, and  gone  to  the  other  extreme  of 
making  the  chair  of  agriculture  a  mere 
manual  labor  school,  in  which  it  was 
taught  merely  as  an  art.  As  a  natural 
consequence  of  these  blunders,  the  chair 
has  too  often  become  a  laughing  stock 
and  a  disgrace.  If  the  chair  is  filled  by 
one  familiar  with  the  related  sciences, 
but  ignorant  of  the  art,  the  smart  boy 
reared  and  trained  upon  the  farm,  feels 
that  he  knows  more  than  his  teacher, 
and  proclaims  the  latter  a  failure,  and 
proclaims  truth.  If  the  professor  of  agri- 
culture, on  the  other  hand,  is  merely  an  oscillating  Rubber,  a.  d.  issa 
experienced  farmer  without  knowledge  of  the  related  sciences,  his  blunders  soon 
become  by-words  with  his  science-taught  students,  and  failure  is  written  on  his 
epitaph. 

This  is  simply  a  photograph  of  the  chair  of  agriculture  in  many  of  the  col- 
leges representing  its  changes  of  front  as  the  pendulum  describes  the  extremes  of 
its  arc.  An  attempt  to  teach  agriculture  was  a  new  departure  and  men  had  not 
been  trained  to  the  new  work.  Even  if  the  electing  powers  had  imbibed  the 
proper  conception  of  the  character  of  the  work  to  be  done,  men  fully  qualified  to 
perform  it  were  not  to  be  found,  who  were  willing  to  tread  the  unbeaten  track. 

Those  who  knew  enough  to  comprehend 
the  vastness  of  the  subject  shrank  from 
an  attempt  to  occupy  a  field  so  vast  in  ex- 
tent, in  which  the  first  furrow  had  yet  to 
be  run,  without  having  even  the  rubbish 
and  snags  removed.  Those  who  had  not 
advanced  far  enough  to  see  more  than  a 
small  part  of  the  field  to  be  occupied,  enter- 
ed only  to  be  lost  in  the  wilderness  of  their 
own  ignorance. 

The  undertaking  is  still  surrounded 
with  more  difficulties  than  environ  any 
other  school,  for  the  reason  that  no  settled 
course  of  instruction  has  been  adopted  as  in 
other  departments  of  study,  nor  are  text- 
books yet  prepared  which  meet  the  demands  of  the  lecture-room.  This  renders 
the  lecture-room  work  much  more  laborious  to  the  teacher  who  can  instruct  by 


Vertical  Rubber,  A.  D.  1883. 


566 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


original  lectures,  and  utterly  impracticable  to  him  who  cannot  so  instruct. 
It  is  claimed  by  some  that  the  chair  of  agriculture  is  superfluous  since  the 
related  sciences  are  taught.  This  view  can  only  be  held  by  those  who,  however 
well  informed  in  sciences  themselves,  are  in  blissful  ignorance  of  the  various  and 

profitable  applications  of  these  sciences  to  the 

art  of  agriculture.     It  is  the  application  of 

(for  science   is  knowledge  and 


knowledge 

nothing  more)  to  the  art  which  the  student 
needs  and  which  must  be  taught  or  failure 
and  disappointment  are  inevitable.  No 
matter  how  learned  one  may  be  in  all  the 
mysteries  of  science  as  taught  in  the  school, 
unless  he  has  a  far-reaching,  varied  and  in- 
timate acquaintance  with  the  details  of 
practical  agriculture,  horticulture,  pomology 
and  stock-breeding,  combined  with  a  knowl- 
edge of  characteristic  soils  in  the  section 
of  country  from  which  his  pupils  come,  he 
must  be  a  slave  to  text-books,  which  teach 

Hand-Wringer.  &g  mU(jh  errQr  ag  tmth_       JJjg  effortg  &t  teach- 

ing can  but  prove  disappointing  to  his  pupils,  his  patrons  and  himself.  The 
progress  of  agricultural  education  has  been  almost  fatally  retarded  by  teachers 
who  were  but  ''  blind  leaders  of  the  blind."  This  brings  us  to  the  consideration 
of  a  proper 

COURSE  OF   STUDY 

for  those  who  wish  to  make  agriculture  their  profession.  The  so-called  disci- 
plinary studies  should,  with  the  exception  of  English  and  mathematics,  be  com- 
pleted in  the  freshman  class  or  in  some 
good  high  school  before  entering.  Mathe- 
matics may,  if  necessary  to  embrace  trig- 
onometry and  surveying,  extend  through 
the  sophomore  year,  but  should  with  proper 
training  at  the  high  school  end  with  the 
freshman  year.  English  should  extend 
through  the  entire  course  and  be  made  as 
thorough  as  possible. 

Before  entering  college,  however,  at 
least  one  year  should  be  spent  in  actual 
labor  upon  a  Avell-equipped,  systematically 
conducted  farm,  devoted  to  diversified  agri- 
culture. Boys  thus  trained  have  been  found 
to  profit  most  from  the  lectures  in  the  col- 
lege course.  Art  ever  precedes  science. 
While  the  boy  during  this  year  learns  how  to  perform  only  in  a  mechanical  way 
the  various  operations  in  the  farm  garden,  orchard,  vineyard,  and  stock  yard, 
without  understanding  the  reasons  for  them  or  the  principles  involved,  wlien 
these  are  explained  in.  the  lecture  room,  ho  is  prepared  to  grasp  them  much  more 
readily  and  thoroughly  than  one  who  has  enjoyed  no  such  privilege. 


■■saw     -?=s? 

U,  S.  Patent  Wringer,  A.  D.  1*17. 


AGK1C  U LTURAL  ED U CATION. 


567 


No  more  of  the  college  student's  time  should  be  occupied  in  manual  laboi 
than  can  be  profitably  employed  as  part  of  the  instruction  of  the  classes.  Such 
labor  as  ordinary  plowing  and  hoeing,  digging  ditches,  milking  cows,  <fcc,  thai 
can  be  learned  by  the  most  ignorant  in  half  an  hour,  should  occupy  very  little  of 
the  valuable  time  of  the  cadet.  Enough  field  labor  should  be  required  to  illus- 
trate thoroughly  the  teachings  of  the  lecture  room.  Indeed,  to  express  it  con- 
cisely, the  farm  or  experiment  station  con- 
nected with  the  college,  should  be  utilized 
as  a  laboratory  in  which  theories  are  put 
into  practice  by  the  hand  of  the  student. 
To  illustrate :  The  means  of  protecting 
lands  from  surface  washing  are  thoroughly 
discussed  in  the  lecture  room,  the  con- 
struction of  terraces  and  hillside  ditches 
explained  and  their  comparative  efficiency 
passed  under  review,  the  principles  involved, 
the  instruments  used  in  laying  them  off, 
and  the  implements  employed  in  their  con- 
struction explained.  The  classes  are  then 
taken  to  the  field  and  required,  under  the 
eye  of  the  professor,  to  put  into  practice 
what    they   have  learned   in    the  lecture 

room  Adjustable!  Roller,  A.  I>.  1855. 

Again,  in  teaching  pomology,  commence  with  a  full  and  detailed  discussion 
of  the  propagation,  selection,  transplanting,  cultivation  and  pruning  of  trees  and 
vines,  in  the  light  of  the  most  advanced  thought  and  practice,  and  require  the 
students  to  perform  all  of  these  operations  under  the  immediate  instruction  of  the 
professor,  each  in  its  proper  season.     In  a  three  year's  course,  the  student  sees  the 

yearly  development  of  the  cutting  he  planl  - 
ed,  the  bud  he  inserted,  or  the  tree  he  trans- 
planted, and  observes  the  effects  of  each 
year's  work  done  by  his  own  hands.  He 
assists  in  the  weighing  and  manipulation 
of  the  chemicals  for  experiments,  notes  the 
different  methods  of  preparing  and  culti- 
vating the  soil,  and  observes  the  effects  of  a 
multitude  of  experiments  upon  the  growth 
and  fruitage  of  the  plants  subjected  to 
treatment.  There  is  education  in  this,  and 
the  student  is  gradually  lead  to  love  the 
labor  of  the  farm  which  seemed  before 
mere  drudgery.  Paying  students  for  work 
upon  the  farm  while  at  college,  while  afford- 
ing the  means  of  procuring  an  education 
to  a  few  impecunious  young  men,  is  wrong 
in  principle,  and  holds  out  a  wrong  incentive  to  the  student.  He  "should  look  for 
his  reward  in  the  instruction  he  receives  from  it,  and  with  this  incentive  he  secure? 
the  maximum  good  and  feels  the  deepest  interest  in  the  work. 


Roller  Wringer,  A.  D.  1862. 


568 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Adjustable  Holler,  A.  D.  1872. 


There  is  no  more  reason  for  paying  the  student  for  work  in  the  laboratory  of 
agriculture  than  in  those  of  chemistry  or  natural  history,  and  the  adoption  of  the 
system  of  paying  for  the  work  done  by  students  in  their  laboratory  degrades  the 
study,  and  by  placing  it  upon  a  false  basis  diverts  the  attention  of  the  student 
from  the  true  object  of  the  exercise.     Instead  of  a  student  of  the  application  of 

science  to  the  most  important  of  all  arts,  he 
becomes  a  mere  hireling  giving  an  equiva- 
lent of  muscular  force  for  a  stipulated  sum  of 
money.  The  intellectual  feature  of  the  exer- 
cise is  lost  in  the  reward  of  muscular  force. 
In  shapingthe  lecture-room  course  it  must  be 
constantly  remembered  that  the  farmer  has 
daily  need  of  knowledge  of  the  soil,  of  plants, 
of  fertilizing  agents,  and  of  the  habits  and 
needs  of  all  species  of  live  stock. 

After  the  student  has  been  taught  the 
origin  of  soils  and  the  agencies  supposed  to 
have  produced  them,  he  must  be  impressed 
with  the  fact  that  in  their  relation  to  pro- 
duction they  must  be  studied  both  as  to  their 
physical  and  their  chemical  properties. 

The  various  agencies  by  which  their 
physical  condition  may  be  either  bene- 
fically  or  injuriously  affected,  as  regards  their  productiveness,  must  pass  under 
review  in  the  lecture  room.  This  involves  the  influences  of  air,  water,  frost,  vege- 
tation, the  plow,  exposure  to  the  sun,  shade,  saturation,  drainage,  surface  wash- 
ing, the  means  of  preventing  the  latter, 
sub-soiling,  the  effects  of  stirring  while  wet, 
tramping  by  stock  when  wet;  indeed  any 
and  everything  which  affects  the  physical 
condition  of  soils  in  their  agricultural  rela- 
tions must  be  made  familiar  as  the  founda- 
tion upon  which  every  other  consideration  | 
rests. 

The  student  having  the  facts  in  connec- 
tion with  the  operation  of  all  of  these  agen- 
cies brought  to  his  attention  with  the  ex- 
planation of  how  they  act  upon  different 
classes  of  soils,  and  upon  the  same  soiL 
under  different  climatic  influences,  has  his 
powers  of  observation  and  reasoning  stim- 
ulated to  activity,  and  Avhether  effects  are 
1  raced  back  to  their  causes,  or  the  causes 
followed  down  to  their  effects,  he  realizes 

that  in  proportion  to  his  knowledge  of  the  physical  properties  and  suscep- 
tibilities of  his  soil  will  bo  secured  in  preserving  or  increasing  its  pro- 
ductiveness. He  learns  that  the  soil  which  he  must  cultivate  contains  matter 
derived   from    three   distinct   kingdoms — the   mineral,  the   vegetable,  and   the 


Adjustable  Holler,  A.  D.  1 

the   physical  properties 
preserving   or    increas 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION. 


569 


Roller,  A.  D.1877. 


animal — and  is  load  by  pleasant  and  logical  sequence  from  the  consideration  of 
the  physical  properties  to  the  chemical  constituents  of  soils,  and  is  shown  how 
inseparably  the  two  are  interwoven  with  each  other.  Ho  is  surprised  to  learn 
that  the  air  he  breathes  is  at  once  the  most  active  agency  in  affecting  the  physi- 
cal condition,  and  the  chemical  composition  of  his  soil,  and,  perhaps  for  the  first 
time,  though  he  may  have  spent  months 
between  the  plow-handles,  understands  why 
he  plows.  He  is  next  taught  that  the  soil 
must  not  only  be  brought  into  proper  phy- 
sical condition  in  order  to  secure  profitable 
returns  for  his  labor,  but  there  must  be  cer- 
tain chemical  substances  present,  and  that 
these  substances  must  be  capable  of  being 
dissolved  in  water. 

Another  important  step  is  now  taken 
in  the  ascending  scale — plants  are  intro- 
duced as  the  only  agencies  by  means  of 
which  the  dead  matter  of  the  earth  can  be 
transformed  into  life.  Being  a  thing  of  life 
it  must  be  fed,  but  is  capable  of  feeding  only 
upon  liquids  and  gases,  apart  of  which  it 
takes  from  the  soil  and  part  from  the 
air.  If  the  plant  must  be  fed  and  a  por- 
tion of  its  food  is  derived  from  the  soil, 
of  what  does  this  food  consist,  in  what  form  must  it  be  presented,  and 
from  what  sources  can  it  be  obtained  if  necessity  arises  for  its  artificial  sup- 
ply? The  sophomore  has  by  this  time  made  sufficient  progress  in  his  study  of 
chemistry  to  understand  what  is  meant  by  oxygen,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid,  calcium,  magnesia,  soda,  pot- 
ash, sulphur,  carbon,  chlorine,  &c,  and  can 
be  readily  made  to  understand  the  relations 
which  they  bear  to  soil,  air,  and  plants,  and 
the  important  part  played  by  water  as  the 
vehicle  of  plant  food. 

The  student  is  then  ready  to  be  intro- 
duced to  the  subject  of  feeding  plants  by  the 
application  of  these  chemical  substances  to 
the  soil,  and  is  prepared  to  understand  a 
thorough  discussion  of  fertilizers  in  connec- 
tion with  different  characters  of  soil  and 
different  species  of  plants.  If  not  already 
instructed  in  the  school  of  natural  history 
in  structural  botany,  he  must  be  introduced 
to  this  subject  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  enable 
him  to  understand  the  general  classification 
of  plants  as  regards  their  manner  of  growth,  the  office  performed  by  the  organs 
of  vegetation,  the  circulation  of  the  sap,  the  physical  and  chemical  forces  brought 
into  play,  the  assimilation  and  organization  of  the  fluids  of  the  plant,  its  rela- 


Flat  Iron. 


570 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


Sad  Iron,  A.  D.  1852. 


tions  to  meteorological  conditions  both  above  and  below  ground.  The  organs  of 
reproduction,  too,  must  be  explained  and  understood  as  the  immediate  means 
leading  to  the  object  for  which  the  plant  is  usually  grown.  The  student  must  be 
made  to  gi'asp  the  life-history  of  the  plant  in  its  relations  to  soil  and  air,  and  to 
understand  that  this  organism,  is  only  a  factory  intended  to  convert  a  maximum 

amount  of  the  substances  of  soil  and  air 
into  commodities  suited  to  the  tise  of  a 
higher  order  of  organisms,  and  that  the 
profit  which  he  may  derive  from  this  fac- 
tory will  depend  upon  his  knowledge  of 
the  laws  governing  the  work  of  its  machi- 
nery and  those  influencing  the  supply  of 
available  material. 

The  general  principles  serve  as  a  solid 
foundation  upon  which  to  build  the  re- 
mainder of  this  beautiful  structure  of  agri- 
cultural education — an  edifice  containing 
such  a  maze  of  secret  chambers  that  no 
life  has  yet  been  long  enough  to  explore 
them  all.  The  farther  one  pursues  these 
paths  of  pleasantness  and  of  peace,  pry- 
ing, it  seems,  into  God's  sacred  mind,  the  more  enchanting  becomes  the 
scenery  in  the  long  hallways  bordered  with  recesses  leading  to  new  stores  of 
knowledge,  inviting  the  microscopic  eye  of  science  to  perpetual  research.  The 
ground-work  having  been  well  and  deeply  laid,  useful  cultivated  species  of  plants 
are  studied  in  the  concrete,  taking  special  note  of  the  character  of  soil  best 
adapted  to  supply  their  needs  and  all  the  conditions  which  favor  their  maxi- 
mum production  from  the  necessary  conditions  of  vigorous  germination  to  those 
most  favorable  to  the  fullest  development 
of  its  finished  product.  This  continued 
through  the  catalogue  of  field  and  garden 
crops  embraces  a  vast  amount  of  practical 
information  in  which  fundamental  princi- 
ples are  given  a  concrete  application  and 
the  student  equipped  for  embarkation  upon 
the  voyage  of  actual  life  in  the  field  and 
garden. 

It  has  been  aiready  stated  that  the  plant 
is  regarded  as  a  factory  for  the  preparation 
of  food  for  animals  and  food  and  raiment 
for  man.  The  student  is  next  introduced 
to  the  various  species  of  domestic  animals, 
poultry,  bees,  (fee,  and  is  taught  to  regard  all 
of  these  as  machines  devoted  to  the  conver-  smoothing  iron,  a.  d.  ists. 

sion  of  cheap  vegetable  matter  into  the  more  valuable  products,  beef,  mutton, 
pork,  milk,  wool,  eggs,  honey,  <fec.  The  final  destiny  of  all  being  the  use  of  man, 
for  whose  special  benefit  this  mundane  sphcro  was  prepared. 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION. 


571 


afcjM 


The  study  of  domestic  animals  in  their  relations  to  vegetation  and  their  com- 
parative capabilities  of  converting  this  into  more  valuable  and  useful  products 
occupies  the  first  half  of  the  junior  year,  each  species  and  breed  passing  under 
review  their  origin,  habits,  needs,  and  adaptation  to  different  localities  and  for  dif- 
ferent purposes  considered  in  detail. 

The  second  half  of  the  junior  year  is  devoted  to  the  most  interesting  part  o- 
a  course  of  study  embracing  the  whole  field  of  agriculture — the  aesthetics  of  agri- 
culture— pomology.  This  is  treated  in  the 
full  light  of  vegetable  physiology,  the  prin- 
ciples of  which  must  be  applied  at  every 
step  from  the  nursery  to  the  fully  devel- 
oped tree.  The  propagation  of  trees  and 
vines  is  taught,  illustrated,  and  practiced 
in  every  practicable  variety  of  method.  So 
with  their  cultivation,  protection  against 
insect  and  fungus  enemies,  pruning  and 
training.     This  completes  the  junior  year. 

The  senior  year  commences  with  a 
series  of  lectures  upon  political  economy 
in  its  special  application  to  the  business  of 
the  farmer,  the  considerations  which  should 
guide  in  the  selection  of  a  farm,  its  equip- 
ment and  management,  the  relation  between  ironinC  Machine,  a.  d.  is78. 
fixed  and  working  capital,  the  employment  and  management  of  labor,  &c. 

The  theory  and  practice  of  scientific  stock  feeding,  with  economic  applica- 
tion to  climate  and  available  vegetation  and  the  results  sought  to  be  produced, 
occupy  five  months  of  this  session,  the  remainder  being  devoted  to  landscape 

RiS 


Ironing  Machine,  A.  D.  1881. 


gardening,  with  special  application  to  the  improvement  and  ornamentation  of 
rural  homes. 

A  course  of  instruction  in  the  school  of  agriculture  has  thus  been  roughly 
outlined,  somewhat  as  the  "contents"  give  an  indication  of  the  subjects  treated 
in  a  book.     Given  in  detail  it  would  fill  several  large  volumes.     For  the  want  of 


572 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


suitable  text-books  nearly  the  whole  course  must  be  taught  by  lecture.  Practical 
field  work,  or,  more  correctly  speaking,  laboratory  work,  is  interspersed  through- 
out the  course  as  instructive  employment  can  be  had  and  the  weather  will  per- 
mit. What  has  been  written  has  special  reference  to  the  school  of  agriculture 
proper,  in  which  the  subject  is  treated  as  an  applied  science.  Pari  passu,  with 
the  progress  of  this  course  the  student  pursues  his  English  in  all  classes,  mathe- 
matics through  trigonometry  and  surveying,  which  ends  with  the  sophomoi'3 
year;  chemistry,  general,  industrial,  and  agricultural,  with  two  years  laboratory 
practice;  physics  two  years,  natural  history  in  its  different  branches  three  years, 
natural  history  and  political  economy  half  session  each.  All  of  these  are  placed 
under  contribution  to  the  study  of  agriculture  in  its  broadest  sense.  Agriculture 
will  never  take  its  proper  position  commensurate  with  its  dignity  and  importance 
until  it  is  recognized  as  a  profession  to  worthily  occupy  which,  special  training  is 
necessary. 

[Note. — The  cuts  in  this  article  are  intended  to  show  the  development  and 
improvement  in  the  patents  obtained,  and  the  comparative  saving  of  labor,  by 
the  hard-worked  females  who  usually  have  to  perform  this  =lass  of  work.] 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


Valuable  Hints. 


PICKERY  in  horse  dealing  is  as  old  as  the  hills,  and  is  pro- 
verbial. The  principal  means  of  fraud  are  false  records 
'and  pedigrees  given  to  animals  at  auction  sales;  the  falsi- 
ification  of  marks  whereby  the  age  of  the  horse  is  determined, 
and  snaking  the  general  appearance  of  the  animal  conform  to 
the  supposed  age;  hiding  malformations  and  lameness,  and  hid- 
ing temporarily  the  constitutional  diseases  which  would  be 
apparent  to  the  buyer  if  the  horse  were  in  its  normal  state.  The 
trickery  of  these  swindlers  in  hiring  private  stables  unused  by 
the  gentleman  owners  and  then  publishing  enticing  advertise- 
ments have  been  frequently  exposed.  Whenever  he  can  he  hires 
a  stable  and  entraps  the  unwary  buyer  by  selling  "his  dead  brother's  horses,"  or 
his  "  dear  sister's  pet  ponies,"  while  he  sheds  tears  over  the  merits  of  his  deceased 
relatives  and  implores  the  buyer  to  treat  his  pets  with  every  care  and  kindness. 
He  also  advertises  for  sale  "a  contractor's  stable,"  and  ropes  in  the  farmers  who 
want  draft  horses  with  brutes  that  would  not  realize  a  fair  price  from  the  skinners. 
Now  as  to  methods  employed  to  deceive  the  victim.  To  add  to  the  appear- 
ance of  a  poor  horse,  "  bearing  reins  "  and  "bur  bits  "  are  frequently  used.  The 
latter  have  very  fine,  sharp-pointed  tacks  in  the  bit  bar  and  at  the  sides  of  the 
mouth,  which  irritate  the  animal  and  make  him  appear  spirited.  Stimulating  drugs 
and  spirits  are  also  given.  Oil  is  mixed  with  the  food,  and  oleaginous  matter  mixed 
with  arsenic,  antimony,  and  other  drugs, is  fed  to  the  animal  to  add  to  the  glossi- 
ness of  the  coat.  This  makes  a  jaded  horse  appear  fat  and  well-fed  for  a  few  days, 
after  which  he  falls  away  to  a  skeleton  and  is  utterly  useless.  In  old  horses  the 
hollow  cavity  over  the  eyeball  is  inflated  by  means  of  an  aspirating  needle  or  blow- 
pipe. This  frequently  causes  impregnation  of  gases  in  tissues,  from  which  the 
horse  is  relieved  by  death  in  a  few  days,  the  buyer  having  been  previously  relieved 
of  his  cash. 

A  horse's  step  can  be  changed  by  adding  or  decreasing  the  weight  in  the 
shoes,  in  certain  regions  of  the  foot,  according  to  requirements.  Lameness  in 
one  foot  is  frequently  concealed  by  producing  the  same  defect  in  the  other.  This 
is  called  "  making  the  horse  go  level."  Sand  and  quarter  cracks  in  the  hoofs  are 
filled  up  with  soap,  wax,  gutta  percha,  and  various  cements;  and  one  of  the  oldest 
tricks  known  to  conceal  age  is  to  pare  down  the  soles  of  the  feet  to  give  the  foot 
a  younger  appearance.  This  invariably  vitiates  the  inner  structures  of  the  foot,  and 
ruins  the  horse  after  he  has  been  driven  a  few  days. 

When  the  ears  of  old  horses  lie  back,  they  are  made  to  stand  up  by  the  inser- 
tion of  very  fine  wires  through  their  edge  down  to  the  base.  Paralysis  of  the 
contracting  muscles  of  the  lips  from  which  they  hang  down,  is  remedied  by  prick- 

(5731 


574 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


ing  the  opposite  muscles  under  the  lower  jaw  and  by  the  external  application  of 
aconite  and  belladonna. 

Total  and  milky-white  blindness,  which  is  shown  by  the  formation  of  a 
whitish  opacity  of  the  lens,  is  hidden  by  painting  the  eyeball  or  cornea  with  a 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  which  blackens  the  skin  and  conceals  the  defect. 
Horses  suffering  from  miopia,  or  short-sightedness,  which  are  generally  known 


Futlicr.  I  am  Tired  oi  Farming, 


as  jibbers,  owing  to  their  habit  of  shying  at  real  or  imaginary  objects,  are  fre- 
quently made  totally  blind  to  conceal  the  fault. 

A  blind  horse  can  be  known  by  its  habit  of  nervous  moving  and  twitching  of 
the  ears,  which  are  pricked — one  forward  and  one  backward — as  if  to  catch  sounds 


VALUABLE  HINTS.  575 


from  opposite  directions.  Fine  wires  and  threads  are  introduced  into  the  ears  to 
eorrect  this,  but  they  rot  out  in  a  few  days  when  sloughing  sets  in,  and  the  fault, 
again  becomes  apparent.  The  ears  of  nervous  and  irritable  horses  are  frequently 
plugged  with  cotton  soaked  in  laudanum  or  aconite  to  deaden  the  nerves,  and  so 
dull  the  hearing. 

Cases  of  "  roach  back  "  are  always  apparent,  being  accompanied  by  a  droop- 
ing of  the  loins.  The  humpiness  of  the  back  is  concealed  by  rubbing  that  por- 
tion of  the  spine  with  irritating  liniments,  which  cause  the  horse  to  relax  the  oppo- 
site muscles,  and  so  hollow  his  back  to  alleviate  the  pain  inflicted.  In  the  case 
of  "hollow-backed"  horses  the  irritants  are  applied  under  the  belly,  which  has 
the  reverse  effect  on  the  muscles,  causing  the  horse  to  hump  the  spine.  These 
horses  are  usually  shown  by  dealers  with  a  saddle  on,  to  hide  the  defects  from 
the  purchaser. 

Gray  hairs  are  dyed,  false  tails  and  manes  are  stitched  on  the  skin,  and  in 
the  case  of  vicious  horses  which  will  not  work,  the  hair  is  frequently  shaved  off 
the  sides  and  neck  where  the  harness  is  supposed  to  have  worn  it  off.  These 
things  are  pointed  to  as  attesting  the  fact  that  the  animal  is  a  good  worker. 
Minute  examination  by  a  competent  and  reliable  judge  will  reveal  any  of  the 
above  "fakes,"  and  protect  the  buyer  from  being  imposed  upon. 

The  bony  excrescences  on  the  hock  joint,  known  as  spavins  and  curbs,  can 
always  be  detected  by  feeling  the  joint  affected.  Spavins  are  of  two  kinds — 
"bone  spavin"  and  "bog  spavin."  The  first  is  a  bony  substance  which  forms  on 
the  inside  of  the  leg,  just  below  the  knee-joint,  and  the  latter  is  a  like  substance 
on  the  outside  of  the  leg  near  the  same  joint.  The  presence  of  these  can  be 
immediately  determined  by  pressing  the  finger  upon  the  part,  when,  if  there  is  a 
spavin,  the  bony  substance  will  pass  under  or  above  the  joint  and  protrude  on 
the  opposite  side.     Spavins  are  always  oh  the  hind  legs. 

Sharpers  conceal  the  acute  prominence  of  the  bony  substance  by  blistering 
all  around  it,  producing  a  swelling  which  prevents  it  being  seen.  The  other  leg 
is  similarly  treated  until  a  swelling  is  produced,  when  the  twolegs  match.  When 
the  horse  is  to  be  sold  he  is  trotted  out  for  awhile  until  he  is  thoroughly  warmed 
up.  If  he  goes  a  little  stiff,  the  sharper  tells  his  victim  that  the  animal  has  been 
in  the  stable  for  some  time,  but  that  with  exercise  and  regular  work  he  will  be 
all  right.  The  purchaser  gets  the  horse  home  and  finds  the  reverse  is  the  case, 
for  as  soon  as  the  animal  is  cooled  off  he  goes  stiff  and  lame  again,  and  is  com- 
paratively worthless. 

There  are  numerous  quacks  who  travel  about  the  country,  pretending  to  cure 
spavin  in  a  night,  on  the  no  cure  no  pay  principle.  They  produce  the  swelling 
described,  which  hides  the  bony  protrusion  for  a  time,  pocket  the  owner's  money, 
and  walk  off.  Soon  the  swelling  subsides,  and  the  spavin  again  shows  itself 
Round  the  swelling  the  skin  is  always  tender,  and  the  horse  shrinks  when 
touched  in  that  region.  The  same  frauds  are  practiced  in  case  of  "  splints,'' 
which  appear  on  the  inner  side  of  the  fore  legs,  between  the  corpus,  or  knee,  and 
the  fetlock  joint. 

In  atrophied,  or  what  is  known  as  "  sweeney,"  the  shoulder  muscles  are 
inflated  with,  a  blow-pipe,  as  are  depressions  caused  by  broken  ribs.  They  can 
be  detected  in  the  same  manner  as  the  inflation  of  the  cavity  over  the  eye  as 
before  described,  though  not  without  difficulty.     Cases  are  on  record  where  a  man 


670 


PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


has  taken  his  horse  to  a  sales-room  suffering  from  these  defects,  and  actually 
repurchasing  his  own  animal  after  it  had  been  "faked  up"  in  this  manner. 

To  produce  apparent  snap,  vim,  or  spirit  in  a  horse,  internal  doses  of  ginger 
orcantharides  are  given,  and  external  means  are  truly  ingenious,  although  unseen 
and  unsuspected  by  the  buyer. 

The  whip  is  constantly  used  in  a  dealer's  stable,  and  when  the  horse  is  being 

sold  is  always 
kept  before 
his  eye  in  an 
apparently 
ac  c  idental 
manner,  hav- 
ing been  free- 
ly adminis- 
tered before 
the  horse  is 
placed  on 
view.  This 
accounts  for 
the  alacrity  of 
the  animal 
Avhen  brought 
out.  As  he 
has  been  used 
to  recognize 
the  whip  at 
long  distan- 
ces, it  keeps 
h  i  m  excited 
while  benig 
sold.  This  ex- 
citement ab- 
solutely pre- 
vents even  an 
expert  exam- 
iner from  re- 
cognizing the 
defects  and 
constitution- 
al ailments  of 
the  horse 
when  be  i  n  g 
shown. 

Knowing 
this     fact, 

many  conscientious  examiners  will  not  certify  to  a  horse  in  a  dealer's  stable  when 
examining  for  a  customer,  but  will  require  the  animal  to  be  taken  to  a  strange 
place,  where  it  is  removed  from  its  usual  surroundings  and  can  be  examined  at 
leisure. 


VALUABLE  HINTS. 


577 


The  "invigorating  comb"  or  "tickler"  is  quito  a  pet  instrument  with  horse- 
sharpers.  It  is  a  piece  of  leather  fitting  into  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  is  stud- 
ded with  fine  tacks  or  needles.  The  dealer  uses  this  on  the  horse  frequently 
when  stroking  or  patting  it,  until  the  animal  gets  so  nervous  that  when  even 
touched  by  the  fingers  or  open  hand  it  will  exhibit  a  great  amount  of  spirit  and 
vim,  which  the  green  cus- 
tomer takes  as  a  sign  of 
high  breeding  and  "  frisk- 
iness."  For  horses  that 
have  a  habit  of  "back- 
ing," similar  tacks  and 
needles  are  put  in  tho 
padding  of  the  dealer's 
breeching  and  crupper, 
so  that  the  animal  must 
go  forward  or  suffer  tho 
torture  of  the  "tickler," 
which  is  one  of  the  most 
ingenious  oi  the  dealer's 
aids  in  swindling. 

Another  trick  with 
balky  or  backing  horses 
is  to  harness  them  to  a 
light  wagon  with  one 
wheel  tied.  The  horse 
then  pulls  what  is  appar- 
ently an  equivalent  to  a 
great  weight,  but  in  real- 
ity without  the  "tickler" 
would  not  pull  a  pound, 
and  is  actually  not  draw- 
ing more  than  he  would 
if  he  were  pulling  a  bob- 
sleigh on  a  good  sleigh- 
ing track.  In  selling  trot- 
ters, the  dealer  always 
takes  care  to  show  them 
on  a  crowded  track  with  a 
light  and  rickety  wagon. 
A  fictitious  pedigree  and 
record  are  given  and  as 
in  most  cases  they  cannot 
be  verified  or  contradict- 
ed, the  buyer  is  complete- 
ly at  the  dealer's  mercy. 

Springhalt  is  a  regular  but  spasmodic  high  lifting  of  the  hind  feet  up  as  far 
as  the  belly,  and  is  caused  by  an  irritation  of  the  nerves  of  the  flexor  muscles, 
and  detracts  greatly  from  the  value  of  the  horse.     It  is  counteracted  by  pricking 

37 


Asleep 


57*  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


the  front  of  the  hock  joint  Avith  red  hot  needles  until  the  joint  thickens  and  the 
limb  stiffens  so  that  it  cannot  be  lifted  high.  The  dealer  explains  that  the  stiff- 
ness of  the  animal  is  due  to  the  want  of  exercise.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the 
trickster  overdoes  the  remedy,  and  the  horse  will  not  lift  his  foot  at  all.  It  is 
therefore  easily  detected  if  the  horse  is  carefully  examined.  The  same  treatment 
is  adopted  to  hide  the  swelling  on  the  posterior  portion  of  the  back  joint,  called 
"  curb."     It  is  easily  detected  by  manipulating  the  joint  with  the  fingers. 

Horses  troubled  with  heaves  or  broken  wind  are  not  given  any  bulky  food  or 
much  water.  So  far  the  treatment  is  legitimate,  but  the  swindler  gives  the  horse 
arsenic,  antimony,  carraway  seeds,  ginger  and  lime  water,  all  of  which  only  afford 
temporary  relief.  On  the  day  of  the  sale,  however,  the  horse  is  given  large  quan- 
tities of  bird  shot  in  blouses  of  fat  or  tallow.  This  with  the  previous  treatment, 
allays  all  symptoms  of  the  disease  until  the  dose  has  been  got  rid  of. 

"Whistlers,"  or  "roarers,"  gain  their  name  from  a  local  affection  of  the 
larynx.  The  only  sure  method  of  detecting  this  trouble  is  by  listening  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  neck  near  the  throat.  Chronic  cases  of  this  kind  are  a  gold  mine  to 
the  horse  sharp,  as  the  same  horse  is  sold  time  and  time  again.  When  showing 
them,  these  horses  are  hitched  to  a  rattling  wagon,  and  are  run  on  a  noisy  thor- 
oughfare where  their  defect  cannot  be  noticed.  The  driver  invariably  keeps  them 
away  from  the  intending  buyer  until  the  breathing  has  become  normal  after  the 
exercise. 

The  horses  are  sold  on  a  guarantee  of  one  day's  trial,  and  the  treatment 
nearly  always  lasts  long  enough  to  cover  the  time  of  the  guarantee,  after  which 
the  victim  is  glad  to  return  the  horse  to  the  dealer  for  often  less  than  half  the 
purchase  money.  "Crib-biters"  and  "wind-suckers"  are  strapped  tightly  around 
the  throat,  the  strap  having  a  small  needle  concealed  in  it,  which  sticks  into  the 
larynx  whenever  the  animal  inflates  his  throat,  and  this  breaks  him  of  his  habit 
for  a  time.  A  crib-biter  may  always  be  detected  by  the  front  teeth,  or  nippers, 
being  worn  away  more  than  is  natural  for  the  age  of  the  animal.  Both  these  bad 
habits  usually  appear  in  old  horses,  and  are  said  to  be  due  to  irritation  of  the 
stomach.     They  are  incurable. 

"Wavers,"  or  horses  who  sway  their  head  from  side  to  side,  are  kept  under  un- 
due excitement  by  dealers  to  hide  their  fault.  The  only  method  of  detecting  it  is 
to  endeavor  to  keep  the  horse  standing  perfectly  still  and  motionless.  This  is  one 
of  the  surest  tests  of  the  good  breeding  of  a  horse,  as  no  horse  with  bad  hab- 
its, diseases,  or  faults  can  be  trained  to  remain  perfectly  quiet. 

Blind  staggers  or  fits  can  not  be  detected  in  a  horse  except  by  a  protracted 
trial.  This  trouble  is  caused  by  a  rush  of  blood  to  the  brain,  and  is  almost  equiv- 
alent to  epileptic  fits  in  the  human  being.  A  horse  sufferingwith  blind  staggers 
is  a  constant  menace  to  his  driver's  life,  to  say  nothing  of  the  lives  of  others  ami 
the  damage  which  is  daily  done  on  the  streets  by  horses  of  this  description. 
When  seized  with  a  fit  the  horse  becomes  completely  beyond  control  and  will  rush 
into  a  store  window  or  at  any  object  he  sees.  The  willful  sale  of  such  horses 
should  be  made  a'penal  offense. 

Glanders  is  a  most  malignant  disease,  and  is  most  frequently  diagnosed  by  a 
tunning  or  discharge  from  the  nose  and  from  small  tubercles  under  the  jaw.  In 
most  cases  the  discharge  is  from  one  nostril  only,  and  the  sharper  plugs  it  up 
with  oakum  or  a  sponge,  which  absorbs  the  discharge  and  so  deceives  the  pur- 


oo  Much  for  Grandpa. 


79) 


580  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


chaser.  If  both  nostrils  are  affected,  plugging  cannot  be  resorted  to,  as  the  horse 
cannot  breathe  through  his  mouth.  Such  animals  are  sold  with  the  plug  in  the 
nose,  and  the  purchaser  being  ignorant  of  the  fact  soon  finds  that  inflammation 
has  set  in  through  the  plug  adhering  to  the  nostril,  which  intensifies  the  disease 
it  was  intended  to  hide.  Glanders  is  incurable,  being  a  specific  blood  poison, 
and  is  infectious  to  persons  handling  such  horses. 

Farcy  is  a  disease  shown  by  obtuse  swellings  on  the  skin  which  finally  sup- 
purate. It  can  be  detected  by  close  examination,  but  is  not  often  noticed  by  the 
unwary  purchaser,  although  it  renders  a  horse  almost  worthless. 

"Dummies"  are  equivalent  to  idiots  in  the  human  race.  They  can  not  be 
made  amenable  to  any  training  or  control,  but  will  go  where  they  want,  regard- 
less of  the  driver's  will.  They  are  sometimes  "runaways  "  or  "bolters,"  and  are 
sometimes  animals  which  no  amount  of  whipping  will  induce  to  move.  Like  the 
"  roarer,"  they  are  the  pet  of  "  skin  "  dealers  and  swindlers,  as  the  purchaser 
almost  invariably  brings  them  back  and  is  glad  to  receive  perhaps  half  of  what 
he  paid  for  the  horse  under  a  fraudulent  warranty  so  carefully  worded  that  the 
law  cannot  touch  the  sharpers.  The  dealer  sells  the  same  horse  over  and  over 
again,  the  animal  being  a  constant  source  of  income  to  the  blackleg. 

In  order  that  the  habits  of  the  horse  may  not  be  noticed  at  the  sale,  the  ani- 
mal is  copiously  bled  before  being  shown  and  tried  before  the  victim.  This  will 
insure  his  not  exhibiting  his  bad  habits  for  a  few  days.  As  this  class  of  animals 
are  often  fine-looking  with  no  malformations,  it  is  hard  to  detect  them.  The 
only  sure  test  is  for  the  buyer  to  take  the  horse  by  the  bridle  and  turn  him  quickly 
in  a  circle  several  times.  If  he  is  a  dummy  this  will  cause  giddiness,  and  the 
animal  will  rear  up  and  fight  the  air  with  its  fore  feet.  This  is  an  infallible  test. 
Broken-backed  horses  have  no  power  in  their  hinder  quarters,  and  cannot  go 
backward.  If  an  attempt  is  made  to  "  back"  the  horse,  his  hinder  quarters  will 
give  away,  and  he  will  assume  a  sitting  position.  Unless  this  test  is  applied,  the 
purchaser  is  very  liable  to  be  taken  in  by  the  sharp. 

"Never  look  a  gift  horse  in  the  mouth,"  is  an  old  proverb,  but  the  buyer  of 
a  horse  should  be  most  careful  to  study  the  teeth  and  mouth  of  any  horse  he 
intends  to  pay  for,  and  if  possible  have  him  examined  by  an  expert  who  is  not 
in  league  with  the  dealer.  The  age  of  horses  has  been  determined  by  the  marks 
on  and  growth  of  the  teeth  since  the  days  of  Solomon.  This  is  proved  conclu- 
sively from  ancient  Egyptian  bas-reliefs,  in  which  men  are  seen  examining  the 
animal's  mouth  in  the  same  manner  as  is  now  done  by  experts.  Such  reliefs  are 
to  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum  in  London. 

The  condition  of  the  teeth  is  the  only  accepted  standard  by  which  ages  are 
judged.  As  after  twenty  years  the  average  horse  will  not  yield  a  profit  from  his 
labor  above  his  keep,  a  splendid  field  is  open  to  sharpers  who  are  skillful  enough 
to  falsify  the  condition  of  the  horse's  mouth  and  to  make  him  appearyears  younger 
than  he  actually  is,  unless  a  careful  examination  is  made.  The  horse  attains 
maturity  at  five  years,  and  at  that  time  has  lost  his  foal  or  milk  teeth,  and  has 
got  his  full  set  of  horse  teeth,  which  are  equivalent  to  the  second  teeth  in  the 
human  being. 

At  seven  years  of  age  they  have  also  been  in  use  for  three  years,  and  at  eight 
years  of  age  the  cup  is  worn  out  of  the  outside  or  "corner"  teeth  after  they  have 
also  completed  three  years'  of  service.     These  six  teeth  are  the  indication  of  age 


Teacher  and  Scholar. 


(581) 


582  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


in  the  lower  jaw.  In  the  upper  jaw  the  teeth  shoAv  the  change  as  to  wear,  except} 
that  two  years  are  to  be  added  to  the  age  of  the  animal,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  cups  in  the  center  are  not  worn  out  until  the  tenth  year,  the  middle  teeth  j 
in  the  following  year,  and  the  corner  teeth  Avhen  at  twelve  years  old.  All  these] 
upper  teeth  also  do  three  years'  service  before  the  marks  are  obliterated. 

There  is  another  peculiarity  about  the  corner  or  outside  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,1 
namely,  that  they  are  not  always  worn  out  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  year,  as  some 
horses  have  a  foul  structure  of  the  mouth,  similar  to  an  undershot  jaw,  which 
prevents  the  corner  teeth  from  meeting,  and  results  in  the  cups  not  being  worn' 
out  at  the  end  of  their  three  years'  use.  For  this  reason  the  teeth  of  the  upper, 
jaw  are  not  infallible  proof  of  age,  and  experts  generally  base  their  judgment  on 
the  lower  teeth. 

The  horse  having  turned  twelve  years  of  age,  the  cups  or  marks  are  gone, 
and  the  teeth  have  assumed  a  narrower  but  deeper  or  thicker  shape. 

The  thickening  and  narrowing  of  the  teeth  continue  as  the  horse  grows  older, 
and,  in  order  to  deceive  the  public,  the  horse  sharp  closes  his  doors  and  "  bishops  " 
the  mouth  by  cutting  the  teeth  to  the  desired  age  as  nearly  as  he  can.  To  do 
this  two  kinds  of  cutters  or  nippers  are  used,  which  cut  off  the  tooth  which  has 
grown  too  far  out  of  the  gum  down  to  the  length  which  it  would  be  at  the  age 
which  the  dealer  intends  to  claim  for  the  horse. 

OUR   COOKS. 

A  writer  in  the  "Rural  New  Yorker"  says:  There  is  no  topic  of  greater  inte- 
rest to  a  woman  than  her  neighbors'  cooks,  and  as  we  have  fallen  upon  rather 
a  novel  and  effective  method  of  dealing  with  ours,  the  outcome  naturally  of  the 
exigencies  of  our  surroundings,  we  think  perhaps  an  account  of  our  policy  may 
prove  helpful  to  others  placed  in  somewhat  the  same  situation. 

We  live  in  Southern  Kentucky,  in  a  rich  agricultural  district,  where  the  only 
dependence  for  domestic  help  is  the  negro.  Now,  negroes  make  the  best  house- 
servants  in  the  world  when  they  have  a  mind  to  work,  but  unfortunately  they  do 
not  continue  in  that  way  of  thinking  very  long  at  a  time.  Only  the  direst  neces- 
sity, as  unpleasant  family  relations  or  the  absence  of  any  place  they  can  call 
home,  will  compel  the  women  to  go  out  to  work,  and  then  it  is  for  a  short  time 
only,  until  they  can  make  a  little  money  to  buy  clothes.  As  our  family  is  large, 
we  need  two  competent  girls  for  cooking,  dining-room  service  and  chamber  work, 
the  milking  and  laundry  departments  being  otherwise  provided  for;  but  in  order 
to  keep  two  girls  with  us  all  the  time  we  are  obliged  to  hire  four,  the  two  most 
efficient  being  engaged  by  the  year,  with  the  proviso  that  if  they  get  sick,  wish  to  go 
away  on  a  visit,  or  to  stop  and  rest  awhile,  we  will  let  them  off  and  call  in  the 
other  two,  who,  however,  are  at  liberty  to  work  elsewhere  whenever  they  choose, 
but  not  being  of  a  particularly  industrious  disposition  they  seem  amply  content  with 
what  employment  Ave  are  able  to  give  them,  of  course  receiving  wages  only  during 
the  time  they  are  actually  employed.  So  far  this  has  proved  an  excellent  arrange- 
ment. Whenever  Ave  find  one  of  the  girls  becoming  disaffected,  which  is  shoAvn 
by  a  neglect  of  her  Avork  and  an  indifference  as  to  whether  it  gives  satisfaction 
or  not,  we  ask  if  she  would  not  like  to  stop  and  rest  awhile,  making  her  feel  per- 
fectly free  to  do  so.     If  she  has  groAvn  tired  of  regular  work  she  usually  says  she 


VALUABLE  HINTS.  58.'; 


is  sick.     Negroes,  as  a  rule,  arc  very  proud  of  invalidism,  and   boast  of  their 
incurable  diseases  with  as  much  pride  as  we  do  of  our  good  health. 

This  plan  Ave  find  mucli  preferable  to  the  old  way  of  letting  them  go  on  doing 
their  work  worse  and  worse,  until  finally  our  patience  is  worn  threadbare  and  we 
are  obliged  to  dismiss  them,  when  the  girls  go  away  with  such  unpleasant  thoughts 
associated  with  the  place  that  they  never  wish  to  return.  But  if  checked  in  time, 
before  they  '  wear  out,"  they  are  pretty  sure  to  return  after  a  week  or  two,  as  glad 
to  see  us  all  and  as  pleased  to  get  back  as  a  child  after  a  visit.  This  interval  also 
gives  them  a  chance  to  spend  their  earnings,  and  to  see  a  little  of  hard  living 
among  the  negroes  who  will  not  work.  For  although  most  of  the  young  and 
middle-aged  negroes  in  this  section  have  acquired  some  education,  yet  they  are 
very  slow  to  learn  the  value  of  money.  They  are  a  simple-minded,  trusting 
people,  and  when  one  does  get  a  little  money  ahead  he  generally  lends  it  to  others 
who  are  too  lazy  to  work,  and  that  is  the  last  he  ever  sees  of  it.  Perhaps  this  is 
the  reason  why  they  set  so  little  value  upon  money,  knowing  that  it  seldom  brings 
them  anything  beyond  the  mere  necessaries  of  life — food  and  clothing.  High 
wages  are  no  inducement  to  them  when  necessarily  accompanied  by  regular  and 
efficient  service;  they  much  prefer  moderate  pay,  moderate  work,  and  plenty  of 
lime  to  do  it  in.  Negroes  are  decidedly  averse  to  rising  early;  they  hate  cold 
weather;  they  enjoy  having  an  abundance  of  good  things  to  eat,  and  at  night, 
after  their  work  is  done,  they  love  to  gather  around  a  big  wood  fire  and  be  socia- 
ble together.  We  allow  our  girls  one  afternoon  in  the  week,  and  usually  the 
whole  of  Sunday  after  the  morning's  work  is  finished,  our  Sunday  dinner  being 
cooked  on  Saturday  or  on  Sunday  morning,  when  part  of  it  is  left  in  a  warm 
oven,  tea,  of  course,  being  always  cold.  We  have  always  discouraged  visiting  on 
Sunday,  or  entertaining  company,  as  much  as  possible,  as  they  necessarily  entail 
extra  work  on  both  the  housekeeper  and  the  servants. 

As  our  colored  friends  have  little  entertainment  of  an  intellectual  nature, 
their  highest  enjoyment  consists  in  meeting  each  other;  so  if  there  happens  to 
be  a  gathering  of  the  clans  anywhere  within  reach,  as  a  picnic,  a  big  meeting, 
or  a  funeral — which  seems  to  possess  a  strange  sort  of  fascination  for  them — we 
always  try  and  let  them  go.  It  will  not  do  to  let  them  think  their  services  are 
indispensable,  else  they  will  want  to  break  away  entirely.  We  find  that  the  best 
way  to  keep  them  is  to  hold  the  reins  of  discipline  rather  slack — to  be  gentle,  j'et 
firm.  In  fact,  they  must  be  managed  pretty  much  as  though  they  were  children; 
if  found  fault  with  and  systematically  disapproved  of,  they  want  to  get  out  of  our 
sight  right  away;  to  make  them  happy,  they  must  be  treated  with  uniform  kind- 
ness and  consideration,  and  when  we  get  hold  of  one  who  cannot  stand  this  we 
get  rid  of  that  one  as  soon  as  possible.  Praise  is  a  much  more  powerful  incen- 
tive to  good  behavior  than  the  fear  of  incurring  displeasure,  and  while  they  will 
not  bear  any  sort  of  responsibility,  yet  they  will  willingly  perform  the  most 
menialservices  provided  themistressdirects  exactly  howit  shall  be  clone,  and  instead 
of  objecting  to  supervision,  there  is  nothing  they  like  better,  being,  in  fact,  prone 
to  consider  that  unless  the  work  is  worth  your  personal  attention  it  is  scarcely 
worth  doing  at  all.  We  employ  only  the  better  class  of  negroes  in  our  house- 
hold, and,  as  a  rule,  find  them  perfectly  honest.  All  day  long  the  door  of  the 
store-room  stands  unlocked,  where  the  barrel  of  white  sugar,  the  molasses,  meal. 
flour,  and  other  provisions  are  kept.     Our  influence  over  them  is  always  exerted 


584  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


to  improve  their  system  of  morality,  and  those  who  desire  to  carry  their  educa- 
tion, further  are  carefully  taught  by.  some  member  of  the  family,  while  books  and 
magazines  are  willingly  loaned  to  the  few  who  have  learned  to  read  Avell  enough 
to  enjoy  them.  In  sickness  we  have  no  better  friends  than  the  negroes,  wbo 
make  the  kindest  and  tenderest  of  nurses,  possessing,  as  they  do,  an  instinctive 
knowledge  of  what  attentions  will  be  most  acceptable.  No  people  in  the  world 
have  a  more  delicate  sense  of  the  principles  of  true  politeness,  or  evince  a  greater 
repugnance  to  wounding  another's  feelings. 

THE  FARM  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL. 

A  good  many  people  make  the  complaint — and  there  is  some  apparent  ground 
for  it — that  the  more  attention  given  to  the  education  of  the  young  folks  the 
greater  is  the  tendency  among  them  to  turn  their  backs  on  the  farm.  We  believe, 
though,  that  this  is  not  at  all  due  to  the  fact  of  education,  but  *isdue  to  the /crafts  of 
education.  The  school  room  is  not  a  place  where  learning  comes  wholly  from 
text-books  and  blackboards,  or  where  it  is  confined  to  language,  science  and  mathe- 
matics. The  pupil  manages  in  his  school  years  to  in  some  way  absorb  ideas  which 
shape  his  political  beliefs  and  control  his  ballot  ever  after.  More  positive  oj)inions 
are  fixed  in  the  mind  of  the  boy  before  the  voting  age  is  reached  than  are  ever 
by  any  influence  afterwards  changed.  In  the  same  way  estimates  of  the  relative 
dignity,  or  profit,  or  ease,  of  this  or  that  life  pursuit  are  formed;  and  when  the 
boy  throws  away  his  slate  and  grammar,  and  comes  before  his  father  ready  to  do 
something,  it  is  found  that  his  notions  of  what  he  shall  do  have  become  pretty 
well  settled  since  the  morning  when  he  trudged  off,  with  his  primmer  under  his 
arm,  big-eyed  with  wonder  as  to  what  a  school  might  be,  anyhow. 

The  years  of  connection  with  the  country  school  are  years  pregnant  with 
influences  bearing  on  character,  and  purpose,  and  life-work.  The  teacher  who 
realizes  this,  and  rises  to  a  full  appreciation  of  the  opportunity  and  the  duty 
which  are  alike  his,  will  not  allow  the  average  boy  to  leave  his  friendly  supervi- 
sion with  any  false  notions  as  to  the  relative  respectability  or  reliability  of  the 
business  in  which  his  father  is  engaged  and  other  pursuits  which  present  their 
attractions  to  the  enterprising  youth.  To  do  this  it  is  not  necessary  for  the 
teacher  to  indulge  in  any  buncombe  about  the  delights  of  farming,  but  simply  to 
talk  and  act  wholesome  common  sense  in  everything  in  his  intercourse  with  the 
hoys,  which  tends  to  increase  their  knowledge  of  the  world  and  its  ways.  The 
teacher  should  be  so  Avell  posted  in  the  dangers,  the  risks  and  the  vast  preponder- 
ance of  failures  in  metropolitan  pursuits,  and  really  show  (not  seem  to  show) 
such  a  deep  respect  for  agriculture  and  its  comparative  security,  that  the  boys 
shall  feel,  without  knowing  how  they  come  to  do  so,  that  after  all  the  farm,  is  a 
good  place  for  men  of  character,  enterprise  and  culture.  A  boy  who  has  had  a 
teacher  of  this  kind  can  be  sent  with  safety  to  college — and  if  he  then  decides  to 
leave  the  farm  there  are  usually  good  reasons  for  doing  so.  The  country  school 
oiighttobc,  among  many  other  good  things,  a  conservator  of  the  character  and 
make-up  of  our  farmers,  and  a  check  upon  the  tendency  of  bright  boys  to  emi- 
gr.ite  to  the  cities. 

MORE    LIGHT   FOR   BARNS. 

Here  and  there  we  see  an  old-style  barn,  built  by  our  grandfathers,  the  only 
window  being  a  single  row  of  small  panes  over  a  largo  door.    Through  this  coua.83 


VALUABLE  HINTS.  585 


all  the  light  admitted  to  tho  barn,  except  what  comes  through  tho  open  cracks 
between  tho  boards.  When  a  barn  of  this  kind  is  filled  with  hay  it  is  comfort- 
ably warm,  but  very  dark;  by  midwinter  the  hay,  being  half  consumed,  the  walls 
are  left  unprotected.  With  the  light  also  comes  in  tho  cold  wintry  winds  to  chill 
the  cattle.  Our  fathers  built  some  barns  Avarmcr,  covering  tho  walls  with  shin- 
gles or  the  cracks  with  narrow  battens.  The  light  being  thus  shut  out,  it  was 
necessary  to  have  windows,  so  they  put  in  just  enough  to  enable  them  to  see  to  feed 
their  cattle.  It  was  left  for  our  generation  to  build  barns  that  are  tight,  comfort- 
able, and  well  lighted.  But  even  at  present  many  farmers  do  not  realize  the  impor- 
tance of  light  in  a  cattle  barn.  Experiments  show  that  a  herd  of  milch  cows  do 
not  only  keep  in  better  health  and  condition  by  having  plenty  of  light,  but  they 
give  more  milk.  Every  barn  should  bo  provided  with  plenty  of  light  and  sun- 
shine on  tho  side  where  the  cattle  stand.  The  practice  which  is  far  too  prevalent, 
of  keeping  cows  in  a  damp  and  dark  basement,  is  not  a  good  one.  They  cannot 
have  the  sunshine  and  pure  air  so  necessary  for  good  health.  Windows  that  are 
exposed  may  be  protected  for  a  trifling  sum  by  covering  them  with  wire  netting. 
The  day  of  windowless  barns  has  passed;  but  some  of  our  new  barns  would  be 
improved  by  a  few  more  windows. 

HOW   TO    DESTROY    RATS. 

The  following  from  a  writer  in  the  "Farm,  Field  and  Stockman,"  is  valuablo: 
An  attempt  to  catch  rats  by  traps  or  by  poisoning  them  suddenly  will  fail.  Old 
rats  know  too  much,  and  can  only  be  caught  by  kindness.  To  destroy  them,  give 
them  a  good  meal  every  day.  Do  not  put  any  poison  in  the  food,  but  simply  prepare 
a  dish  for  them  daily,  as  a  free  lunch,  composed  of  corn  meal  moistened  with  milk, 
into  which  an  egg  and  a  little  salt  (to  season)  has  been  beaten.  At  first  they  may 
not  touch  it,  but  keep  it  before  them,  making  it  fresh  daily.  They  will  soon  try 
a  little,  and  if  not  injurious  their  suspicions  will  be  allayed.  In  a  week  or  ten 
days  they  will  expect  it,  and  every  rat  on  the  place  will  bo  at  the  appointed  place 
for  the  treat.  Give  plenty  of  it,  so  as  to  induce  all  the  rats  in  the  neighborhood 
to  join  in.  Do  not  be  in  a  hurry  to  poison  them.  If  they  eat  all  of  tho  food,  give 
them  a  larger  quantity  next  time.  As  soon  as  they  have  thrown  off  all  suspicion, 
go  to  your  druggist,  get  some  phosphorus  paste  or  other  rat  poison,  mix  it  with 
tho  food,  and  be  sure  }rou  give  them  enough  and  something  to  spare,  so  as  to 
induce  all  to  eat.  They  will  either  be  killed  or  become  so  suspicious  of  all  food 
as  to  leave,  and  not  a  rat  will  remain.  Hence,  to  destroy  rats,  take  plenty  of 
time,  gain  their  confidence,  and  finish  them  when  they  least  expect  it. 

PRESERVATION    OP    FORESTS. 

The  preservation  of  forests  is  one  of  the  first  interests  of  society,  and  conse- 
quently one  of  the  first  duties  of  government.  It  is  not  alone  from  the  wealth 
which  they  offer  that  we  may  judge.  Their  existence  is  of  itself  an  incalculable 
benefit  as  well  in  the  protection  and  feeding  of  the  springs  and  rivers,  as  in  their 
prevention  of  the  washing  away  of  the  soil  from  the  mountains  (and  uplands), 
and  in  the  beneficial  influence  which  they  exert  upon  the  atmosphere. 

Large  forests  deaden  and  break  the  force  of  heavy  winds  that  beat  out  the 
•eeds  and  injure  the  growth  of  plants.  They  form  reservoirs  of  moisture;  they 
shelter  the  growth  of  the  fields;  and  UDon  the  hill-sides,  where  the  rain  waters, 


58K  PROFITABLE  FARMING. 


checked  in  their  decsent  by  the  thousand  obstacles  they  present  by  their  roots  and 
by  the  trunks  of  trees,  have  time  to  filter  into  the  soil  and  only  find  their  way  by 
slow  degrees  to  the  rivers.  They  regulate  in  a  certain  degree,  the  flow  of  the 
waters  and  the  hygrometrical  condition  of  the  atmosphere,  and  their  destruction 
accordingly  increases  the  duration  of  droughts  and  gives  rise  to  the  injuries  of 
inundations  which  denude  the  face  of  the  mountains. 

Penetrated  with  these  truths,  legislators  have  in  all  ages  made  the  preserva- 
tion of  forests  an  object  of  special  solicitude.  In  the  exercise  of  their  right  of  emi- 
nent domain,  the  government  of  Europe  goes  beyond  what  is  necessary  or  would 
be  practicable  in  this  country,  not  hesitating  to  control  by  law  the  management 
of  private  forests  as  well  as  those  which  belong  to  the  State.  So  Professor  Maca- 
rel  says  on  this  point: 

"  The  general  law  of  France  is  that  owners  are  free  to  vary  within  certain  limits,, 
the  cultivation  and  working  of  their  lands,  but  as  to  the  woods  and  forests  the  pub- 
lic interests  demand  that  individuals  shall  not  be  free  to  clear  them  from  the  soil 
whenever  they  please.  From  hence  it  follows  that  the  administration  has  a  right 
to  pronounce  its  prohibition  against  clearing  whenever  it  is  deemed  that  the  pub- 
lic interest  requires  that  this  be  done.  The  law  of  Switzerland  lays  down  the 
same  principle  most  distinctly.  In  Sweden  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty 
years  ago,  private  owners  of  forests  were  required  to  plant  and  protect  from  cat- 
tle two  trees  for  each  one  cut." 

WORKING    CORN  IN  JULY CLIMATE  OF    GEORGIA. 

There  is  no  essential  difference  in  the  objects  and  details  of  cultivation  in 
July  as  compared  with  June.  Corn  has  generally  received  its  final  working, 
which  should  be  thoroughly  clone,  but  very  shallow.  We  used  to  think  that  the 
most  effective  hoe  work  in  the  corn  field  was  that  which  was  done  as  the  final 
"laying  by  "  of  the  crop,  when  the  straggling  bunches  of  grass  and  those  around 
grubs  and  stumps  that  had  eluded  the  plowman  so  long,  Avere  destroyed  by  the 
slower  but  surer  work  of  the  hoeman.  This  final  hoeing — if  there  be  time  to  give 
it — need  not  be  row  by  row,  but  a  sort  of  broad  casting  over  the  field,  several 
rows  being  taken  by  each  hand  at  one  time.  The  same  remarks  will  also  apply  to 
the  "laying  by"  of  cotton,  both  as  to  plowing  and  hoeing,  the  same  object  being 
had  in  view  in  both  cases,  the  encouragement  of  steady  plant-growth  and  devel- 
opment, We  utterly  disapprove  of  the  practice  of  "  hilling  up  "  corn  either  with 
plow  or  hoe.  It  is  aptly  described  by  some  one  as  "  taking  the  soil  from  where  it 
is  needed  and  putting  it  where  it  is  not  needed." 

PLOWING  CORN  OR  COTTON  IN   DRY   WEATHER. 

If  there  occur  prolonged  spells  of  dry  weather,  and  the  clean  condition  of  the 
crop — the  absence  of  grass  and  weeds — makes  it  unnecessary  to  use  plow  or  sweep 
for  their  destruction,  the  question  will  arise  whether  it  is  a  good  general  rule  to 
plow  a  corn  or  cotton  field  when  there  has  been  no  rain  since  last  plowing  and 
the  field  is  absolutely  clean  of  Aveeds.  The  question  will  occur  to  any  farmer  of  a 
few  years'  experience,  and  it  is  certainly  a  practical  one.  Some  farmers  believe 
in  plowing  deeper  as  the  ground  becomes  dryer,  claiming  that  deep  plowing  will 
"bring  up  the  moisture,"  in  the  sense  that  the  moist  soil  that  lies  several  inches 
below  the  surface  will  be  brought  to  the  surface ;  but  Ave  can  see  no  benefit  or 
advantage  in  removing  the  soil  with  its  contained  moisture. 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 


®f|c  yarm  anft  fireside. 


BY    CHARLES    II.    SMITH,    OF    GEORGIA,  (BILL  ARP.) 

HAVE  now  been  farming  ten  years  and  I  like  it;  I  like  it  better 
than  any  thing  that  I  have  tried.  They  say  that  a  rolling  stone 
gathers  no  moss,  and  a  man  who  is  a  Jack  at  all  trades  is  good 
at  none;  but  I  don't  regret  what  I  have  learned  about  carpen- 
tering and  merchandise  and  law,  for  my  experience  is  that  these 
pursuits  have  broadened  my  views  and  enlarged  my  charity  and 
given  me  a  better  knowledge  of  human  nature  than  I  would 
have  acquired  by  running  a  bee-line  all  my  life.  A  man  is  hap- 
pier with  a  variety  of  knowledge,  but  it  is  fortunate  for  man- 
kind that  some  folks  get  absorbed  in  one  thing  and  pursue  it 
diligently  and  develop  and  improve  and  invent  until  they  bring 

it  to  perfection.     A  wise  Providence  has  created  such  men  in  all  ages,  and  the 

world  is  indebted  to  them  for  its  progress  in  art  and  science. 

But  a  happy  combination  of  good  health,  good  appetite,  good  sleep  and  a 

good  conscience  is  more  apt  to  come  from  farming  life  than  any  other  occupations. 

A  city  man  can't  enjoy  his  dinner  without  whetting  his  appetite  with  some  sort 

of  a  drink,  and  that  is  a  poor  thing  to  grease  the  wagon  with;  it  cakes  and  cuts, 

and    wears  out  the    axles. 

City  folks    eat  their  meals 

more  from  habit  than  hun- 
ger, but  country  folks  love 

to    hear    the    horn    blow. 

Seven-tenths  of  the  people 

live    in    the  country,  but 

eight-tenths  of  the  whiskey 

and  wine  and  beer  is  drank 

in  the  towns;  and  most  of 

them  drink  it  because  they 

are  not  hungry  and  want  to 

be.     A  hungry  man  doesn't 

want  fluids;  he  wants  some- 
thing solid;  and  so  after  all 

the  fuss   about  temperance 

the  best  remedy  is  work,  toil, 

sweat;  for   a  laboring  man 

can't  cheat  his  stomach  with  juices.     Ben.  Franklin  said  that  man  was  a  bundle 

of  habits,  and  that  idleness  was  the  parent  of  vice :  so  it  is  best  for  a  man  to  raise 

(587) 


The  Old  Mare. 


yk 


w  fiit. 

VT 

\ 

Slftl 
SORTEM 

SEW 

£V 
F'ORS 
BJE- 

CERIt, 

LIU  • 


(58S) 


Everyuody  Dissatisfied  According  to  Horace. 


THE  FARM  AND  FIRESIDE.  689 


his  boys  in  the  country  where  they  will  got  habits  of  work  and  bo  away  from 
temptation.  A  man  can't  throw  off  his  habits  as  he  does  his  coat;  if  contracted 
in  youth  they  will  stick  in  manhood  and  old  age,  whether  they  be  good  or  bad. 
I've  got  an  old  mare  who  will  quit  a  good  pasture  to  go  into  a  poor  one,  and  it's 
just  because  she  got  into  a  habit  of  letting  the  bars  doAvn.  Habits  are  stronger 
than  principles;  they  are  not  cast  iron,  for  you  can  break  that,  but  they  are  more 
like  new  ropes  and  green  withes,  the  more  you  wet  'em  the  tighter  they  draw, 
especially  if  you  wet  'em  with  whiskey. 

A  farmer's  life  is  a  pretty  hard  one  in  some  respects,  especially  if  he  has  a 
sorry  farm  and  he  is  a  sorry  farmer;  he  had  better  quit  and  hire  out  by  the  day; 
but  the  average  farmer  can  be  about  as  happy  as  anybody.  The  law  of  compen- 
sation comes  in  and  balances  off  most  all  of  its  troubles.  There  is  an  indepen- 
dence about  it  that  belongs  to  no  other  calling.  The  farmer  belongs  to  nobody; 
his  time  is  his  own;  if  he  can't  get  rich  he  can  live  comfortably  and  raise  his  chil- 
dren to  industry,  and  that  is  the  best  legacy  in  the  world.  It  is  very  natural  for 
a  man  to  imagine  that  other  people  are  better  off  than  he  is  and  to  wish  that  he 
had  chosen  some  other  business;  very  few  are  content  with  their  lot.  Old  man 
Horace,  who  lived  two  thousand  years  ago,  alluded  to  this  when  he  said  "  How 
comes  it  that  most  men  are  dissatisfied  with  their  calling,  and  look  with  envy 
upon  those  who  are  pursuing  some  other?"  But  Horace,  like  all  other  poets, 
gave  the  preference  to  a  country  life.  He  argued  both  sides,  and  wound  up  by 
saying,  "  the  city  is  the  best  place  for  a  rich  man  to  live  in;  the  country  is  the 
best  place  for  a  poor  man  to  die  in ;  "  and  inasmuch  as  riches  are  uncertain  and 
death  is  sure,  a  man  had  better  move  to  the  country  as  soon  as  he  can  get  there? 
The  famous  poets  who  never  plowed  a  furrow  in  their  lives  go  into  raptures  over 
rural  life,  and  they  write  gushingly  of  fields  and  flowers  and  harvest  moons,  and 
mountains  and  brooks,  and  grand  old  woods,  and  setting  suns  and  happy  birds, 
and  tinkling  bells  and  the  Cotter's  Saturday  night.  All  this  is  very  pretty  and 
there  is  comfort  in  it,  but  I've  seen  better  fun  than  in  pulling  fodder  and  carry- 
ing a  load  of  it  all  over  your  head  and  shoulders  through  the  long,  hot  rows,  and 
stepping  like  a  blind  horse  over  morning-glory  vines  and  bending  corn-stalks. 
There  is  not  much  hilarity  in  waking  up  a  "yeller  jacket's"  nest,  or  getting  stung 
with  a  pack-saddle.  These  pack-saddles  are  as  pretty  as  a  rainbow — just 
like  most  all  of  the  devil's  contrivances — and  when  you  get  one  of  'em  crowded 
on  a  fodder  blade,  it  seems  like  forty  yaller  jackets  had  stung  you  all  at  once  and 
with  malice  aforethought.  Then  there  is  the  devil's  race-horse  that  flies  around, 
and,  Uncle  Isam  says,  "  chaws  tobakker  like  a  gentleman,  and  if  he  spits  in  your 
eyes  you'll  go  blind  in  a  half  a  second;"  and  one  day  he  showed  me  the  devil's 
darning-needle,  and  the  devil's  snuff-box,  which  explodes  when  you  mash  it;  and 
one  ounce  of  the  stuff  inside  will  kill  a  sound  mule  before  he  can  lay  down  to  die — 
that's  what  Uncle  Isam  says.  There  is  not  much  fun  in  picking  cotton  all  day  as 
hard  as  you  can  pick,  trying  to  get  two  hundred  pounds,  and  when  it  is  weighed 
turns  out  only  one  hundred  and  fifty.  There  is  not  much  fun  in  getting  up  in 
the  morning  and  finding  half  a  dozen  of  your  neighbor's  hogs  or  cows  in  your 
field,  and  having  to  run  after  them  all  through  the  wet  grass  and  can't  make  them  go 
out  at  the  same  break  they  came  in.  There  is  something  always  preying  on  some- 
thing, and  nothing  is  free  from  disaster  in  this  sublunary  world.  Flies  and  bugs 
and  rust  prey  on  the  green  wheat;  weevils  try  to  eat  it  up  when  it  is  harvested 


(500) 


Yeixow  J/vrKET's  Nest. 


THE  FARM  AND  FIRESIDE.  591 


and  put  away.  Rats  eat  the  corn;  moles  eat  the  gubers;  hawks  eat  the  chickens; 
(tho  minks  killed  nine  of  our  ducks  in  one  night);  dogs  kill  the  sheep;  cholera 
kills  the  hogs,  and  not  long  ago  one  of  my  mules  took  the  blind  staggers  and 
seven  men  came  along  and  told  me  what  to  do  for  him;  so  I  gave  him  lie  soap 
and  tartar  emetic,  and  salt  and  whiskey,  and  butter-milk  and  molasses,  and  epsom 
salts  and  kerosene  oil,  and  bled  him  in  the  mouth  and  rubbed  him  with  a  rail, 
and  sure  enough  he  got  well,  but  I  never  did  know  what  cured  him.  Then  there 
are  briars  and  bull-nettles,  and  tread-softs  and  smart-weed,  and  poison-oak  and 
Spanish  needles,  and  cockle-burrs  and  dog-fennel  and  snakes,  that  are  always  in 
the  way  on  a  farm,  and  must  be  looked  after  carefully,  especially  snakes,  which 
are  my  eternal  horror,  and  which  I  shall  always  believe  are  some  kin  to  the  devil 
himself — I  can't  tolerate  such  long  insects. 

But  still  I  like  farming;  I  like  its  latitude  and  longitude.  When  we  were 
penned  up  in  town  my  children  couldn't  have  a  sling  nor  a  bow  and  arrow,  nor 
a  chicken  fight;  nor  sick  a  dog  on  another  dog,  nor  let  off  a  big  Injun  whoop,  nor 
throw  a  rock  without  some  neighbor  making  a  fuss  about  it.  And  then  again, 
there  was  a  show  or  a  dance,  or  a  bazaar  or  a  missionary  meeting  most  every 
night,  and  it  did  look  like  the  children  were  just  obliged  to  go,  or  the  world  would 
come  to  an  end.  It  was  money,  money,  money,  all  the  time,  and  I  was  kept  on  a 
continual  strain;  and  company  kept  coming  and  going,  and  it  was  not  considered 
polite  for  me  to  take  off  my  coat  and  sit  on  my  piazza,  and  put  my  feet  on  the 
banisters  and  smoke  the  pipe  of  peace  and  tranquility.  But  now  there  is  not  a 
store  or  a  milliner  shop  within  five  miles  of  us,  and  we  all  do  most  of  our  work, 
and  the  boys  have  learned  what  it  costs  to  make  a  bushel  of  corn  and  a  barrel 
of  flour,  and  the  money  they  earn  by  honest  sweat  and  toil  is  not  the  same  kind 
of  money  they  used  to  get  from  their  mother  on  the  sly,  and  she  got  it  from  me. 
By  the  time  Mrs.  Arp  has  nursed  and  raised  a  lot  of  chickens  and  turkeys  and 
ducks,  she  is  so  proud  of  'em  she  won't  sell  'em,  and  don't  want  to  kill  'em;  and 
they  are  a  heap  better  and  fatter  than  those  we  used  to  buy.  We  have  got  a  great 
big  fire-place  in  the  family  room,  and  can  boil  the  coffee  on  the  family  hearth  if 
we  want  to. 

It  is  a  wonder  that  everybody  don't  go  to  farming.  Lawyers  and  doctors 
have  to  sit  about  town  and  play  checkers  and  talk  politics,  and  wait  for  some- 
body to  quarrel  or  fight  or  get  sick.  Clerks  and  bookkeepers  figure  and  multiply 
and  count,  until  they  get  to  counting  their  steps  as  they  walk,  and  counting  the 
flies  on  the  ceiling  and  the  flowers  on  the  papered  wall.  The  jeweller  sits  by  his 
window  all  the  day  long  working  on  the  little  wheels;  and  the  mechanic  strikes 
the  same  lick  all  the  year  round.  These  people  do  not  belong  to  themselves; 
they  are  penned  up  like  convicts  in  a  chain-gang;  they  can't  take  a  day  nor  an 
hour  for  recreation,  for  they  are  all  the  servants  of  their  employers.  There  is  no 
profession  that  gives  a  man  such  freedom,  such  latitude  and  such  a  variety  of 
employment  as  farming.  While  I  was  ruminating  on  my  piazza  this  morning  a 
boy  came  along  and  said  the  dogs  had  treed  something  down  in  the  bottom;  so 
me  and  the  boys  shouldered  the  guns  and  an  axe,  and  took  Mrs.  Arp  along  to  see 
the  sport.  We  cut  down  a  hollow  gum  tree  and  caught  a  possum  and  two  squir- 
rels, and  killed  a  rabbit  on  the  run,  and  had  a  good  time  generally,  and  it  was 
nobody's  business  but  ours.  We  can  stop  work  most  anytime  and  give  welcome 
to  a  passing  friend,  and  have  a  little  chat;  but  if  you  go  into  one  of  these  facto- 


I*    \  ^^j^J^^y-Li. 


THE  FARM  ANL>  FIRESIDE. 


593 


Ties  or  work-shops  or  printing  offices,  the  first  sign-boara  tnat  greets  you,  says: 
"Don't  talk  to  the  workmen."     Sociable  crowd  and  sociable  business,  isn't  it? 

There  is  a  power  of  trouble  in  the  world  that  we  who  live  in  the  country  do 
not  have,  and  know  nothing  about.  Here  there  are  no  floods,  nor  fires,  nor  pesti- 
lence, nor  falling  walls,  nor  shooting  scrapes;  no  scarcity  of  wood,  nor  of  food  or 
comfortable  clothing.  A  poor  man  in  the  country  is  safer  from  calamity  than  a 
rich  one  in  a  city.  A  man  who  makes  a  comfortable  living  on  a  farm  has  a 
greater  security  for  life,  liberty  and  happiness  than  any  other  class  that  I  know  of. 

I  may  be  mistaken,  but  it  seems  to 
me  a  little  higher  grade  of  happiness  to 
look  out  upon  the  green  fields  and  the 
leafing  trees,  and  the  blue  mountains  in 
the  distance,  and  hear  the  dove  cooing  to 
her  mate,  and  the  whippoorwill  sing  a 
welcome  to  the  night;  and  to  hunt  flow- 
ers and  sweet  shrubs  with  the  children, 
and  make  whistles  for  them,  and  see  them 
get  after  a  lizard  or  a  snake  or  a  jumping 
frog,  and  hunt  hens'  nests,  and  paddle  in 
the  branch  and  get  dirty  and  wet  all  over; 
and  to  watch  their  subdued  and  penitent 
looks  when  they  get  to  the  house  and  Mrs. 
Arp  exclaims:  "Mercy  on  me!  Did  ever 
a  mother  have  such  a  set?  Will  I  ever 
get  done  making  clothes  ?  You  put  these 
on  right  clean  this  morning,  and  now  just 
look  at  them.  There  is  not  another  clean 
rag  in  the  house.  I  declare  I  will  not 
stand  it.  Go  get  me  a  switch,  right 
straight — go!"  By  the  time  the  switch 
comes  the  tempest  is  over  and  some  dry 
clothes  are  found,  and  if  there  is  any  cake  PaddliIlg  in  the  maneh- 

in  the  house  they  get  it.  Blessed  mother!  happy  children!  What  would  they 
do  without  her?  Her  very  scolding  is  music  on  their  tender  ears.  There  are 
some  things  that  corner  in  the  domestic  circle  that  Wall  street  cannot  buy  nor 
money  kings  depress. 

And  now  our  dirty  little  sinners 

Are  digging  bait  and  catching  minners; 

The  little  busy  bee  is  humming, 

And  everything  says  Spring  is  coming. 

Everything  is  lively  now.  Over  the  meadows  the  new-born  lambs  are  skip- 
ping. Over  the  fields  the  little  boys  are  ripping.  On  such  pellucid  days  when 
the  skies  are  so  beautifully  blue,  the  sun  so  warm  and  cheerful;  when  the  jay- 
birds are  chanting  their  safe  return  from  purgatory,  and  the  crows  are  cawing 
over  the  sprouting  corn;  when  the  sheep-bells  tinkle  merrily  in  the  meadow, 
and  the  children  and  chickens  are  cackling  around,  it  seems  like  everything 
in  nature  is  happy,  and  everybody  ought  to  be.  But  some  folks  are  never  happy 
unless  they  are  miserable.     I  am  sorry  for  them. 


(594) 


THE  FARM  AND  FIRESIDE. 


595 


By  and  by  the  farmer  lays  by  his  crop,  and  if  the  seasons  have  been  kind 
and  the  corn  and  cotton  look  green  and  vigorous,  and  the  sweet  potato  vines  have 
covered  the  ground,  what  an  innocent  luxury  it  is  to  sit  on  the  piazza  in  the 
shades  of  evening,  with  the  feet  upon  the  banisters,  and  contemplate  the  beauty 
and  bounty  of  nature,  and  the  hopeful  prospect  of  another  year's  support!  It 
looks  like  even  an  Ishmaelite  might  feel  calm  and  serene,  and  if  he  is  still 
ungrateful  for  his  abundant  blessings,  he  is  worse  than  a  heathen  and  ought  to 
be  run  out  of  a  Christian  country.  Every  year  brings  toil  and  apprehension, 
but  there  always  comes  along  rest  and  peace  and  the  fruits  of  our  labors. 

In  due  time  comes  Autumn,  sweet  Autumn,  with  her  horn  of  plenty— the 
time  when 

The  earliest  fires  of  the  fall 

Have  hrightened  up  the  room ; 
When  the  cat  and  dog  and  children  all 

Have  bid  old  Winter  come. 
The  wind  is  running  at  the  nose, 

The  clouds  are  in  a  shiver; 
By  day  we  want  more  warmer  clothes, 
By  night  we  want  more  kiver. 

Persimmons  and  'possums  are  getting  ripe.  The  May-pops  have  dropped 
from  the  vines.  Chestnuts  and  chinkapins  are  opening,  and  walnuts  are  cover? 
ing  the  ground.  Wild  grapes  and  black 
haws  and  muscadines  hang  heavy  on  their 
stems.  Crawfish  and  frogs  have  gone  into 
winter  quarters,  and  snakes  and  lizards 
have  bidden  us  adieu.  All  nature  is  pre- 
paring for  a  winter  sleep — sleep  for  the 
trees  and  the  grass  and  the  flowers. 

Yes;  I  know  that  the  country  is  the 
best  place  for  children.  What  a  luxury  it 
is  for  them  to  go  bare-footed,  and  wade  in 
the  branch  and  go  seining,  and  climb  trees 
and  hunt  birds'  nests,  and  carry  the  corn  to 
mill,  and  run  pony  Taces,  and  break  the 
bull  calf.  They  mix  all  this  with  work, 
and  it  is  a  good  mixture.  There  is  not 
much  fun  in  toil,  but  it  is  the  common  lot, 
and  we  are  all  happier  when  at  work  than 
when  sitting  around  in  idleness.  The  man 
who  was  raised  a  pampered  youth  and  knew 
no  wants,  andhad  no  falls  nor  hair-breadth 
escapes,  no  stumped  toes  nor  mashed  fin- 
gers, no  horse  to  run  away,  no  colt  to 
break,  no  bull  calf  to  drive,  hasn't  been 
much  of  a  boy,  and  will  never  be  much  of  a  man.  He  has  no  marvellous  things 
to  tell  his  own  little  boys,  if  he  ever  has  any. 

When  boys  have  learned  to  farm  and  built  up  their  constitutions  and  settled 
their  habits,  is  time  enough  for  them  to  go  to  a  city  and  soar  to  more  ambitious 


Stumped  Toes. 


(596) 


'  Possum  "  Hunt. 


THE  FARM  AND  FIRESIDE.  597 


things;  but  the  country  is  the  best  place  to  raise  them.  When  a  young  man  gets 
married,  and  the  little  chaps  come  along  according  to  nature,  he  ought  to  get  on 
a  farm  to  raise  them.  Grandparents  ought  always  to  live  in  the  country.  What 
a  burlesque  it  is  on  childhood's  joy  to  visit  grandpa  and  grandma  in  a  city  and 
at  a  home  penned  up  by  brick  walls,  with  a  few  sickly  flowers  in  the  window  and 
a  little  garden  in  the  rear  about  as  big  as  a  wagon-sheet!  You  might  as  well  try 
to  raise  good,  healthy  colts  in  a  stable.  There  is  too  much  machinery  about  rais- 
ing children  nowadays.  The  old  back-log*  is  gone,  and  the  big,  open,  friendly 
fire-place,  and  the  cheerful,  blazing  family  hearth.  Now  it  is  a  hole  in  the  floor 
or  pipes  running  around  the  walls.  I  suppose  that  this  is  economy  in  a  town  or 
city,  but  it  is  my  candid  opinion  that  a  man  can't  improve  the  stock  that  way, 
or  keep  it  as  good  as  it  was;  the  children  Avill  be  picayunish  and  over-nice, 
and  sharp-featured,  and  potty  before  and  gimletty  behind;  they  won't  do 
to  bet  on  like  those  chaps  brought  up  around  a  fire-place  on  a  hundred-acre 
farm.  The  ever-changing  work  on  the  farm  brings  into  play  every  muscle  of  the 
human  frame.  We  plow  and  we  hoe,  and  harrow  and  sow,  and  gather  in  at  har- 
vest time.  We  look  after  the  horses  and  cows,  the  pigs  and  the  sows.  We  shear 
the  sheep  for  their  woolly  fleece,  and  pick  the  feathers  from  the  geese.  Our  flour 
is  ground  from  our  own  wheat,  our  lard  is  drawn  from  our  own  meat;  and  so, 
with  work  by  day  and  music  at  night,  the  farmer's  home  is  cheery  and  bright. 
It  is  poetry  and  prose  all  mixed  up.  There  are  too  many  fine  clothes  in  town  for 
the  average  man,  too  many  kid  gloves  and  parasols  and  new  bonnets,  too  many 
curtains  and  carpets  and  pictures,  and  a  thousand  things  that  run  up  the  outgo 
bigger  than  the  income. 

We  can  live  much  cheaper  in  the  country,  and  can  wear  out  our  old  clothes 
and  go  dirty  sometimes,  without  fear  of  company.  A  little  clean  dirt  is  healthy; 
city  folks  wash  their  children  too  much  and  too  often.  I  never  saw  a  right 
healthy  child  that  didn't  love  to  play  in  the  dirt  and  make  mud-pies  and  frog- 
houses.  Nevertheless,  I  am  in  favor  of  cleanliness,  especially  in  the  culinary 
business,  or  about  sausage  meat,  and  milk  and  butter.  The  other  day  I  saw  a 
country  woman  milking,  and  she  pulled  the  calf  away  by  the  calf's  tail,  and 
wiped  off  the  cow's  teats  with  the  cow's  tail.  There  was  most  too  much  tail  and 
too  little  water  in  that. 

Thomas  Jefferson  said:  "The  influence  of  large  cities  is  pestilential  to  health 
and  to  morals,  and  to  the  liberties  of  the  people  ";  so  let  every  good  citizen  move 
to  the  country  if  he  can. 

THE  MODERN  MAN  OF  UZ. 

BY  DR.  J.  J.  LAFFERTY 

Mr.  Robert  Beverley,  of  Virginia,  while  President  of  the  Farmers'  Congress  of 
the  United  States,  made  an  address  before  that  body  at  St.  Paul,  Minnesota.  He 
uttered  a  wail  over  the  hardships  of  his  bucolic  brethren,  and  predicted  sore  evils  to 
the  country  if  their  taskmasters — the  protected  manufacturer,  the  traffic  manager 
and  the  "corporation  Senator" — continued  to  make  the  life  of  the  farmer  "bitter 

*Sce  Frontispiece. 


"Now  Jtst  Look  at  Them!" 


THE  FARM  AND  FIRESIDE.  599 


with  hard  bondage."  The  men  in  fine  linen  and  faring  sumptuously  every  day 
turn  a  deaf  and  distant  ear  to  the  Lazarus  in  linsey-woolsey.  Pharoah  hardeneth 
his  heart. 

Our  bowels  melt  with  mercy  towards  these  Sudras  of  the  soil,  whom  the  high 
and  haughty  Brahmins  of  commerce  and  coin  "spurn  with  the  foot  as  a  stranger 
cur."  We  know  their  sorrows  and  sufferings;  the  trial  of  temper  in  stumpy 
fields;  the  vileness  of  plantain;  the  Avickedness  of  weeds;  the  deceit  of  cockle; 
the  "birth-sin"  in  wild  onion.  While  the  average  citizen  can  hardly  hold  his 
own  against  the  world,  the  flesh  and  the  devil,  the  unhappy  prisoner  of  "land- 
measure" — perch,  rod  and  rood — is  tormented  by  the  Apaches  of  the  vegetable, 
mineral  and  animal  kingdoms.  We  lift  up  a  lament  with  Brother  Beverley,  and 
chant  a  war-song  against  the  tobacco  worm  and  the  tobacco  tax. 

The  Virginia  Farmer  has  our  pity.  He  is  the  drudge — the  helot  of  political 
economy.  Everybody  rides  him;  nobody  curries  him.  He  is  the  victim  of  hog- 
cholera,  high  tariff  and  fraudulent  fertilizers.  Pastoral  poetry  may  delude  him, 
for  the  moment,  into  a  dream  of  rural  bliss,  but  the  sheriff  rudely  Avakes  him  to 
his  wretchedness. 

He  can't  strike  for  increase  of  wages  or  shorter  time  of  toil.  The  mechanic 
has  his  guild,  fixes  his  own  pay  and  hours  for  work.  The  cobbler  is  a  "  Knight; " 
the  plowman  a  dumb  driven  ox.  The  man  of  tools  follows  his  trade  often  in 
a  warm  factory,  and  always  sheltered  from  the  weather.  The  farmer  must  rise 
with  the  dawn,  face  the  storm,  and  forsake  the  field  only  with  the  departing  day. 

In  city  or  town,  superior  schools  train  the  child  of  the  poorest  laborer  for  ten 
months  in  the  year.  Short  sessions,  and  frequently  indifferent  instruction,  are 
furnished  the  country  patron.  And  indeed  the  boy  can  be  spared  but  for  a  brief 
period  from  the  farm. 

A  "war  tariff"  in  these  years  of  peace  plunders,  by  a  hundred  cunning 
devices,  the  landowner.  The  "  Robber  Barons"  of  monopoly  have  him  by  the 
throat  and  their  hands  upon  his  purse.  They  are  more  merciless  than  the  floods 
that  sweeps  away  his  crops.  The  torrents  devastate  once  in  a  decade.  A  barba- 
rous Revenue  raids  him  with  the  regularity  of  the  zodiac  and  the  hunger  of  the 
horse-leech. 

The  unhappy  planter,  like  the  eviscerated  man  in  Warwick's  almanac,  is 
beset  by  enemies  on  all  sides — man,  beast  and  insect.  The  earth  is  treacherous. 
Weeds  choke  the  good  grain;  wire-grass  entraps  the  innocent  timothy;  sassafra% 
flourishes  in  immortal  vigor  where  wheat  pines  and  perishes.  Let  the  husband- 
man set  out  a  vine  or  sprout  a  seed.  It  must  run  the  gauntlet  of  the  frost.  The 
mole  hunts  the  root  to  destroy.  The  grub  gnaws  it.  Caterpiller,  cut-worm,  borer, 
and  countless  enemies  winged  or  creeping,  with  tooth  or  sting,  prey  upon  it. 
Mildew,  rust  and  blight  fall  on  it.  Potato  bug,  turnip  beetle,  bean  weevil,  tomato 
worm,  leaf  slug,  onion  maggot,  rose  chaffer,  cabbage  lice,  lead  an  army  of  vegeta- 
ble pests  in  forays  upon  the  fruits  of  his  toil.  Every  invader  lays  eggs  by 
the  thousand  and  hatches  a  new  brood  in  the  run  of  a  single  sun,  to  ravage  the 
rewards  of  rural  industry.  The  air  is  dim  with  buzzing  vandals  and  the  earth 
alive  with  the  crawling  devourers. 

The  untaxed  cur  destroys  his  flock.  The  sly  fox  and  slippery  weazel  revel  in 
his  hennery.  The  hawk  by  day  and  the  owl  by  night  capture  the  survivors  of  the 
gapes,  straddles  and  cholera. 


(600) 


Colt  to  Break 


THE  FARM  AND  FIRESIDE. 


601 


His  capital  in  farm  stock  is  a  pecarious  investment.  Murrian  and  black-tonguo 
slay  his  cows.  The  bot-fly  is  ever  intent  on  fastening  its  deadly  egg  to  the  horse. 
The  scab,  the  fluke,  the  rot  ruin  the  fold. 

No  electric  light  shines  for  him  along  paved  highways.  In  the  short  dark 
days  of  winter  mud  imprisons  his  family  and  detains  his  harvest  in  the  barns  till 
rats  fatten  on  it  and  the  weavil  rears  a  myriad  progeny  for  future  foraging.  The 
hoof  that  escapes  dog  or  disease,  the  sacks  of  grain  saved  from  crow  or  mice,  find 
at  the  depot  the  priests  (or  rather  the  pirates)  of  commerce,  demanding  a  tenth 
of  the  increase  of  the  earth  for  transportation  over  railroads  built  out  of  the  taxes 
of  the  agriculturist. 

The  element  baffles  his  hopes.  The  Sabeans  make  incursions  upon  him 
and  levy  a  "  war  tariff"  on  his  property.  Eliphaz,  Bildad  and  Zophar,  with  the 
usual  lingual  limberness  of  the  small  statesman,  "  darken  counsel  by  words  with- 
out knowledge,"  and  rather  side  with  Satan  and  the  marauding  Chaldeans. 

The  modern  Job,  sitting  amid  his  broom-sedge  furrows,  with  the  larvae  of 
11  infant  industries  "  feeding  with  festering  ulcers  upon  his  life,  vexed  with  the 
gabble  of  the  Temanite,  the  Shuhite  and  the  Naamathite — is  it  a  strange  thing 
that  he  "aggravates  his  voice,"  roars  against  his  tormentors,  and  repines  at  his 
miserable  lot — despair  on  an  ash-heap  ? 


I  Mm  Jill  i 

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<  i  Ml  IS  ii 


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(602) 


Agricultural  Organizations, Page 

Agricultural  Fairs, 

Agricultural  Societies — in  Virginia, 

Agricultural  Societies,  National, 

Agricultural  Clerkship, 

Agricultural  Implements, 

Ammonia, ,    ...  96,  98, 

Aftermath, 

Abortion  in  Cattle, 405, 

Ayrshire  Cow, 

Absorbent  Powers  of  Soils, 

Apricot,  The  Russian, 

Asparagus,  Culture  of, 

Agricultural  Colleges, 563, 

Agriculture,  Progressive, 

Agricultural  Labor, 

Alabama, 557, 

Agriculture 563,  554, 

Apple,  The, 

Apples,  The  Location  and  Soil  for, 

Apples,  The  Planting  of, 

Apples,  The  Cultivation  of, 

Apples,  The  Manuring  of, 

Apples,  The  Mulching  of, 

Apples,  The  Cuttings  of, 

Apples,  The  Pruning  of, 

Apples,  The  Grafting  of, 

Apples,  The  Varieties  of, 

Apple-Tree  Borer, 

Berkshire  County  Agricultural  Society,  .... 

Binders, 

Burning  Rubbish, 110, 

Board  Drains, 

Blue  Grass, 

Bermuda  Grass, 

Beets,  Mangel  Wurzel, 

Budding  Illustrated, 

Blackberries,  Cultivated, , 

Beans, 

Beans,  How  to  Grow, 

Brahma  Chiekens 

Brown  Leghorn  Chiekens, 

BillArp, 

Commissioner  of  Agriculture, 

Crushing  Harrow, 

Cultivators, 41,  42, 


17 

17 

19 

19 

21 

29 

99 

171 

410 

410 

62 

342 

369 

572 

544 

559 

561 

565 

333 

333 

333 

335 

335 

335 

335 

336 

336 

336 

345 

17 

43 

112 

134 

157 

157 

225 

339 

342 

366 

381 

407 

447 

587 

23 

36 

43 


Characteristics  of  Soils, Page    61 

Clay  Lands, 62 

Compost  Heap, 72 

Composting  Manure, 73 

Clover  as  a  Fertilizer, 75,  76 

Commercial  Fertilizers, 100,  101 

Cultivation  of  Soil, 105,  106,  108,  112 

Cultivating  Wet  Soil, 109 

Crops,  What  to  Raise, 137 

Crops,  Choice  of, 137,  138,  139 

Crops,  Relative  Cost  of,  .   .   .       141 

Crops,  Rotation  of, 142,  143,  145 

Crops,  Schemes  of  Rotation  of,  ...   .  147,  149,  150 

Crab  Grass, 158 

Common  Millet, 160 

Clover,  Curing, 161 

Clover,  Cultivating  Seed, 161 

Clover,  as  a  Fertilizer, 161,  162 

Cutting  Hay, 167,  168,  169 

Curing  Hay, ■   •   .   .  168,  169 

Cereals, 177 

Corn,  Varieties  of, 180 

Corn,  Selection  of  Seed, 181 

Corn,  Preparation  of  Seed, 181 

Corn,  Soil  for, 182 

Corn,  Preparation  of  Soil  for, 182 

Corn,  Planting, 184 

Corn,  Hill  Planting, 184 

Corn,  Drill  Planting, 184 

Corn,  Cultivation  of, 185,  186,  187 

Corn  Crib,  Rat  Proof, 530 

Corn,  Working  in  July, 586 

Corn,  Plowing  in  Dry  Weather, 586 

Colorado  Beetle 214 

Cotton, 306 

Cotton  in  Asia, 306 

Cotton  Cloth, 307 

Cotton  in  China, 306 

Cotton  Plants, .  307,  308 

Cotton  in  the  United  States, 308 

Cotton  Fabrics, 307 

Cotton,  Cultivation  of, 308 

Cotton,  Planting 309 

Cotton,  Hoeing, 310 

Cotton,  Topping, 315 

Cotton,  Lintless, 315 


(603) 


604 


INDEX. 


Cotton,  New  Varieties  of, Page  318 

Cotton,  Gin,  .  .       321,  323,  326,  327,  330 

Cotton  Compost 327 

Celery, 359,  363 

Celery,  Raising, 383 

Cabbage, 359,  371 

Charleston,  S.  C, 359 

Cucumbers, 370 

Cattle  on  the  Farm, 403 

Cattle,  Stall  Feeding, 425 

Cattle  Sheds 426 

Cattle,  Modern  Barn  for, 426 

Cattle,  Enclosures  for, 428 

Cows  Udder, 418 

Churn,  Primitive, 420,  421 

Churning,  Temperature  for, 420 

Churn,  Vibrating, 424 

Churn,  Dutch, 425 

Churn,  Working  Body, 425 

Churn,  Rotary, 425 

Calves  and  Young  Cattle, 425 

Calves,  Raising, 423 

Chickens,  Care  of, 452 

Chicken  Cholera,  How  to  Prevent, 456 

Chickens,  .        i-4iSj^ 

Crops,  Wha'and  How  to  Sell, 531 

Common  Sense  Farming 538 

Capt.  John  Smith, 560 

Course  of  Study, 566 

Cooks 582 

Colt  to  Break, 600 

Cherry,  The, 341 

Cherry,  Propagation  of  the, 341 

Cherry,  Cultivation  of  the, 311 

Cherry,  Varieties  of  the, 341 

Codling  Moth 343 

Curculio,  The 343 

Cow,  The, 408 

Daniel  Webster's  Plow, 32 

Dibblers, 37 

Drills 41 

Drainage, 120,  121,  122 

Depth  of  Drains, 128,  129 

Drain  Tile, 130,  131 

Devon  Bull, 404 

Devon  Cattle, 405 

Diseases  of  Cattle, 403 

Dairy  Cow,  Test  of  the, 423 

Ducks, 462 

Duck  Pens  and  Yards, 402 

Drought, 3S9 

Drought,  Remedy  for, 391 

Drought,  Guard  Against, 394 

Drought,  Counteracting, 396 

Dew, 394 

Everglades  of  Florida, 122 


Esculent  Tubers, Page  207 

Early  Cluster  Cotton, 309,  310 

Egypt, 307 

Ellzey,  Dr.  M.  G., 397 

Eggs, 446 

Eggs  in  Winter, 457 

Exhaustion  of  Soil, 57 

Emigrant  Satisfied, . 560 

Farmers'  Assembly, 21 

Farmers'  Alliance, 25 

Farmers'  League, 25 

Farmers'  Rights 541 

Farmers',  Stand  Still, 543 

Farmers',  "  Book  Larnin'," 543 

Farmers,  The  Progressive, 544 

Farm- Yard  Manure, 59,  71,  84 

Farm  Work  in  Winter, 545 

Farm  Management, 548 

Farm  and  Country  Schools 584 

Farm  and  Fireside, 587 

Farming  as  a  Profitable  Business, 538 

Farming,  What  Constitutes  Good, , 539 

Farming,  Skill  in, 5J2 

Farmers'  Life  a  Hard  One, 589 

Foot  Planters, .   .   .  39 

Fixture  of  Soil, 61 

Fertilizers,  Application  of, 69,  70,  71 

Fish  Guano,      86,  87 

Forage  Plants 152 

Fodder,  Corn, 239 

Eurman,  Hou.  F.  C, 319 

Floriculture, 381 

Flower  Garden, 380 

Flat  Irons, 569 

Fig,  The, 341 

Grangers, 17,  28 

Gang  Plow, 33 

Grain  Cradle, 46 

Grain  Rakes, 46 

Gypsum, 95,  96,  98 

Grasses, 153 

Green  Meadow  Grass, 156 

Grass  Seed  Cultivation, 171 

Grazing  of  Mowing  Lands 173 

Gray.Jno.  P 316 

Guroberg,  Dr.  Frank, 324 

Grapes, 344 

Grapes,  Variety  of, 344,  346 

Grape  Vines,  Food  Elements  for, 345 

Grape  Vines,  Ashes  and  Bones  for, 346 

Grape  Vines,  Pruning 34S 

Grapes,  Keeping, 352 

Garden  Soil, 354 

Garden  Soils,  Melioration  of, 354 

Geese,  Breeding, 460 

Guineas  on  the  Farm 462 


INDEX. 


005 


Grooming  the  Horse, Page  403 

Gulf  States B59 

Georgia, 657,  5G1 

Garden,  The,  ."......, 353 

Garden,  The  Flower, 380 

Garden,  The  Farmers', 354 

Harrows, '.....  34 

Harrow  Teeth, 35 

Hand  Planters, 39 

Hand  Scythe, 44 

Head  Cutter,  etc., 50 

Hand  Flail, 51 

Humus  in  the  Soil, 78,  80,  81,  82 

Holland, 122 

How  Deep  to  Cultivate, 117 

Herds  Grass; 154, 155 

Hay  Caps, 170 

Humbolt, : 306 

Horticultural, 333 

Hudson  Co.,  N.  J., 359 

Holstein  Bull, .406 

Hot  Beds,  , 364 

Hot  Beds,  Ventilation  of, 365 

Hand,  J.  L.,  of  Georgia, 376 

Hog  Raising  and  Fattening, 441 

Hog,  Primitive  Scalding  of, 441 

Hog,  Patent  Scalding  of, 443 

Hen  and  Chicken  Rules, 464 

Hog  Cholera, 415 

Horses,  Trickery  in 573 

Horses,  Old, 573 

Horses,  Blind 574 

Horses,  Roach  Back, 575 

Horses,  Spring  Halt, 577 

Horses,  Heaves  in,        578 

Horses,  Whistlers  in, 578 

Horses,  Wavers  in, 578 

.Horses,  Blind  Staggers  in 578 

Horses,  Glanders  in, 578 

Horses,  Farcy  in 580 

Horses,  Age  of, 580 

Horses,  Planters', 39 

Horse,  The  Agricultural 397 

Horse,  The  Race 399 

Horse,  The  Trotting, 400 

Horse,  The  Draft,      .    , 401 

Horse,  The  Road, 402 

India, 306 

Intensive  Farming, 319 

Incubator  Chickens, 457 

Improved  Vegetables, 361 

Improved  Implements, 361 

Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits  and  Trees, 342 

Ironing  Machine, 571 

Immigration,  Southern, 555 

Industrious  Man, 559 


Immigration  Departments, Page  559 

Jersey  Cattle, 405 

Junior  Class,  ...••• 568,  570,  571 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass, 156 

Kentucky, 561 

Liquid  Manure, 73 

Lime, 88,  89 

Limestone  and  Lime, 90,  92 

Lime  in  Crops, 93,  95 

Leveling  Instruments, 121 

Lake  Okechobee, 123 

Locating  Barns, 124,  126,  128 

Lettuce,  Culture  of, 363 

Lima  Beans, 365,  366 

Live  Stock, 397 

Let  Them  Scratch, 455 

Lafferty,  Dr.  J.  J., 597 

Mowers, 44,  45,  46 

Manures, 64,  68 

Manures,  Application  of, 69,  70,  71 

Making  Manure, 72 

Mineral  Fertilizer, 88 

Marl, 99 

Mulching  and  Cultivating, 112,  113 

^Manuring  of  Mowing  Lands, 173,  175,  176 

^ffexico, 7 1  .   .   .  307 

Montezuma, 307 

Middle  Georgia, 325,  327 

Market  Gardening, 357 

Market  Gardening,  Peter  Henderson  on, 358 

Mule  Raising, 415 

Milker,  Vacuum, 418,  419 

Milking,  Science  of, 418 

Milking,  Careful, 419 

Milk,  Management  of, 419 

Milk,  Ration  for, 421 

Mutton,  In  Praise  of, 433 

Mitchell  County,  Ga., 376 

Markets, 534 

More  Light  for  Barns, 584 

Modern  Man  of  Uz, 597 

North  Carolina  Experiment  Station,   .....  315 

Noisette,  Messrs.,  of  S.  C, 359,  361 

Northern  People, 555 

Northern  Settlers, 560 

Newman,  Prof.  J.  S., 563 

North  Carolina, 561 

No  One  Content, 588 

Oats 202 

Oats,  Cultivation  of, 204 

Oats,  Harvesting, 205 

Oats,  Diseases  of, 206 

Outlets  to  Drains,  .  .    .' .123,  124 

Onions, 363,  371 

Onion  Sets, 364 

Onions,  Forms  of, 371 


606 


INDEX. 


Onions,  Nutritive  Value  of, Page  372 

Onions,  Grown  from  Seed 372 

Oil  Cake  Feeding, 524 

Pendleton's  Farmers'  Society, 17 

Patrons. of  Husbandry, 23 

Planters, 37 

Physical  Properties  of  Soil 61 

Plant  Flood, 66 

Propositions  on  Plant  Food, 67,     69 

Poultry  Manure, 85 

Poultry, 446 

Poultry  for  the  Family, 449 

Poultry,  Fattening, 451 

Poultry,  House  Conveniences, 452 

Poultry,  House  and  Lot  for, 452 

Poultry  Houses,  How  to  Clean 457 

Poultry,  White  Leghorn, 447 

Poultry,  The  Game, 447 

Poultry,  Light  Brahma, 448 

Plaster, 95,  96,     98 

Preparation  of  Soil 108,    109 

Porosity  of  the  Soil 108,    109 

Plank  Drains, 134 

Potatoes, 208 

Potatoes,  Variety  of, 208 

Potatoes,  Potash  for, 210 

Potatoes,  Selecting  and  Cutting, 212 

Potatoes,  Size  of  for  Planting, 212 

Potatoes,  Cultivation  of, 213 

Potato  Bugs, 214 

Potatoes,  Sweet 217 

Potatoes,  Sweet,  Varieties  of, 217 

Potatoes,  Sweet,  J.  G.  Tinsley  on,  .......    218 

Potatoes,  Sweet,  Harvesting, 221 

Potatoes,  Sweet,  Storing, 221 

Potatoes,  Irish, 367 

Piedmont  Section  of  Va.  and  N.  C, 345 

Paris  Green  for  Potato  Bugs-, 216 

Pork  Raising  in  the  South, 443 

Pea  Fallow, 76,    77 

Polled  Angus  Cow, 409 

Pomology,        567 

Puryear,  Prof.  B.,  LL.D., 389 

Production,  Lessening  the  Cost  of, 540 

Prosperity  Approaching, 550 

Paddling  in  the  Branch 593 

"'Possum "  Hunt 596 

Peanut,  The, 227 

Peanut,  Varieties  of  the 227 

Peanut,  Location  of  the, 227 

Peanut,  Soil  for  the, 228 

Peanut,  Harvesting  the, 230 

Peanut,  Marketing  the, 232 

Pear,  The, 336 

Pear,  Soil  for  the, 338 

Pear,  Situation  for  the, 338 


Pear,  Manures  for  the, Page  338 

Pear,  Management  of  the, 338 

Pears,  Select  List  of, 338 

Peach,  The 339 

Peach,  Propagation  of  the, 339 

Peach,  Varieties  of  the 339 

Peach  Tree  Borer 343 

Quick  Lime, 92,  93 

Quince,  The, 339 

Quince,  Varieties  of  the, 341 

Quince,  Soil  for  the, 341 

Quince,  Culture  of  the, 341 

Quince,  Manure  for  the, 341 

Rotary  Harrow, 36 

Reapers, 43 

Reapers  and  Threshers, 43,  49 

Rolling  the  Soil, 117 

Rolling  of  Mowing  Lands, 172 

Roots, 207 

Ragland,  Maj.  R.  G., 244 

Radish,  The, 364 

Remedy  for  Insects, 343 

Rives,  Hon.  Wm.  C. 555 

Roman  Agriculturist 555 

Rats,  How  to  Destroy 585 

Sophomore  Class, 568,  570,  571 

Sad  Iron, 570 

Smoothing  Iron, 570 

Senior  Year, 571 

Strawberries, 385 

Strawberries,  Another  View  of, 387 

Surplus  Lands, 549 

Southern  Farming, 559 

South  Atlantic  States 559 

South  Carolina, 563 

Southern  Appalachian  Chain, 561 

School  of  Agriculture, 564 

Stumped  Toes, 505 

South  Carolina  Agricultural  Society, 17 

Secretary  of  Agriculture, 21,  £6 

Steam  Plow, > 33 

Spring  Tooth  Harrow, 36 

Seeders, 40 

Sickle, 46 

Steam  Harvester, 51 

Soil,  Composition  of, 53,  55,  57 

Sandy  Lands, 62 

Sulphuric  Acid, 96,  OP,  99 

Salt ,102 

Sub-Soiling,  etc.. 114,  li»,,  .116 

Shading  the  Soil, Hf    .  *> 

Steam  Power,  • , 

Stone  Drains, ,-«*2 

Sowing  Grass  Seeds, 165,  lj  9 

Storage  of  Hay,  - I"8 

Silos  and  Silage 23i 


INDEX. 


607 


Silos,  Developement  of,  in  America,  .  .   .  Paok  234 

Silage,  Value  of, 237 

Silo,  The  Old  and  New, 237 

Silo,  Location  of  the,   .   .          238 

Silage,  Kind  of, 239 

Silo,  Cutting  and  Filling  the, 242 

Silage,  Keeping  and  Feeding,  .........  243 

Sport 315 

Saddle  Graft 337 

Sandy  Soil, 354 

Spinach, 364 

Saving  Farm  and  Garden  Seed, 374 

Salt  Feeder, 397,  398 

Short  Horn  Bull, 405 

Short  Horn  Cattle, 405,  407 

Sheep, 410 

Sheep,  Southdown 411 

Sheep,  Cotswold, 411 

Sheep,  Merino 411 

Swine, 413 

Swine,  Berkshire, 412 

Swine,  Chester  White, 413 

Swine,  Poland  China, 414 

Sheep  Raising,  How  to  Make  It  Profitable,  .   .  434 

Sheep  Husbandry 429,  435 

Spear  Grass 156 

South  Carolina  Phosphate, 329,  330 

Stable,  The 398 

Tomato,  Valuable  Properties  of  the, 368 

Tomato,  Cultivation  of  the 369 

Threshers, 47 

Tillage  Views  on, 114 

Tile  Draining, 123 

The  Terraee-System, 135 

Timothy, 154,  155 

Turnips, 222 

Turnips,  Cultivation  of, 223 

Turnips,  Harvesting, 224 

Turnips,  Storing, 225 

Tobacco, 245 

Tobacco,  as  a  Money  Crop, 245 

Tobacco,  How  to  Grow  and  Cure, 245 

Tobacco  Flues  and  Flue  Curing, 246 

Tobacco,  Selection  of  Seed, 248 

Tobacco,  Varieties  of  Seed, 249 

Tobacco,  Hybridizing 250 

Tobacco,  Preparation  of  Plant  Beds, 253 

Tobacco  .riant  Beds,  Mulching  and  Covering,  .  255 

Tobaccc  Plant  Beds,  Canvas  Covering  for, .  .   .  255 

Tobacc      lant  Beds,  Standing 256 

Toba<-  n  Plant  Beds,  Unburned, 256 

Tol          Plant  Beds,  Time  of  Seeding, 256 

To.          Plant  Beds,  Flea  Bug  on 257 

Tobac  .o,  Future  Prospects  of, 257 

Tot.  ceo,  Bright  Yellow, 258 

Tobacco,  Selection  of  Soil  for 259 


Tobacco,  Preparation  of  Soil  for Paoe  259 

Tobacoo,  Manuring  the  Soil  for, 259 

Tobacco,  Fertilizers  for 261 

Tobacco,  Chlorides  Objectionablo  for, 261 

Tobacco,  Modes  of  Applying  Fertilizer  to,  .  .   .  262 

Tobacco,  Planting, 263 

Tobacco,  Cultivating, 264 

Tobacco,  Pruning  and  Topping, 265 

Tobacco,  Ripening, 267 

Tobacco,  Cut- Worms  on, 268 

Tobacco,  Bud- Worms  on, 268 

Tobacco,  Cutting, 269 

Tobacco,  Housing, ,    .  268 

Tobacco,  Sun-Cured, 270 

Tobacco,  Curing  Sweet  Fillers, 270 

Tobacco,  To  Cure  Mahogany  Colored,      ....  270 

Tobacco,  To  Cure  Shipping, 270 

Tobacco,  To  Cure  Bright  Yellow, 271 

Tobacco,  New  Method  of  Curing, 273 

Tobacco,  Science  of  Curing  Yellow, 274 

Tobacco,  Ripening  of, 275 

Tobacco,  Changes  Induced  in,  by  Flue  Curing,  275 

Tobacco,  Stripping  and  Assorting 276 

Tobacco,  Don't  Spoil  After  it  is  Cured,   ....  276 

Tobacco,  Ordering, 277 

Tobacco,  Packing 277 

Tobacco,  Snow's  Method  of  Curing, 278 

Tobacco,  Burley,  History  of, 285 

Tobacco,  Burley,  How  to  Cultivate,  ....  290,  293 

Tobacco,  Burley,  Plant  Beds, 290 

Tobacco,  Burley,  Soil  for, 290 

Tobacco,  Burley,  Plowing  and  Cultivating,  291,  293 

Tobacco,  Burley,  Topping, 291 

Tobacco,  Burley,  Suckering 291,  293 

Tobacco,  Burley,  Cutting, 291,  293 

Tobacco,  Burley,  Hanging 291,  294 

Tobacco,  Burley,  Stripping, 291,  294 

Tobacco,  Burley,  Bulking 291,  294 

Tobacco,  Burley,  Packing, 292 

Tobacco,  Burley,  Prizing 292,  294 

Tobacco,  Cigar, 295 

Tobacco,  Cigar,  Cutting  and  Curing 296 

Tobacco,  Cigar,  Packing  and  Sweating,  ....  296 

Tobacco,  A  Change  in  Type  of, 297 

Tobacco,  Sweet  Sun-Cured  Type  of, 297 

Tobacco,  Bright  Yellow  Type  of, 297 

Tobacco,  The  White  Burley  Type  of, 297 

Tobacco,  The  Cigar  Type  of, 298 

Tobacco,  To  Planters  of, 303 

Tobacco,  To  Seedmen  and  Dealers  in, 303 

Tobacco,  Varieties  of  Recommended, 303 

Turkey,  The  American 459 

Turkey,  Care  of  the, 459 

Turkey,  Young,  The 460 

Tomato  Planting, 382 

Timber,  Time  to  Cut 526 


608 


INDEX. 


Timber,  for  Baskets, Page  526 

Tidiness  on  the  Farm, 535 

Tennessee, 561 

Vermin  in  Poultry  Houses, 452 

Villa  Grass, 322 

Vinticulture, .  344 

Virginia, 361 

Wheelmen, 25 

Wood  Ashes, 75 . 

Wire  Grass, '  157 

Wheat, 188 

Wheat,  Varieties  of, 188 

Wheat,  Preparation  of  Soil  for, 190 

Wheat,  Fertilizers  for, 191,  192 

Wheat,  Selections  of  Seed, 193,  194 

Wheat,  Time  of  Sowing, 195 

Wheat,  Quantity  of  Seed, 195 

Wheat,  Sowing, 197 

Wheat,  Depth  of  Covering, 198 


Wheat,  Culture  of, Page  198 

Wheat,  Harvesting, 199 

Wheat,  Threshing, 199 

Wheat,  Diseases  of, 200 

Wheat,  Insects  of, 200 

Whip  Tongue  Graft, 336 

Wine,  Unfermented, 351 

Wilkinson,  J.,  .  .   .       .' 354 

Watermelons  in  Georgia, 376 

Wool  and  Sheep  against  Tobacco, 427 

Willow  Cultivation, 524 

Weeds,  Pernicious, 654 

Weeds  and  Weeding, 554 

War  Between  the  States, 555 

Washing  Machine, 563,  564,  565 

Wringers, 566,  567,  568,  569 

Watermelon  Culture, 378 

Young  Shoot, 339 


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